Revision Notes on Globalisation PDF

Unit 1.1 Globalisation De ning Globalisation: Globalisation - The interconnected world including cultural expansion and becoming multicultural allowing the ow of diverse ethnicities, businesses and economies, the in uence on creating new jobs for workers, the distribution of wealth and money acros...

Unit 1.1 Globalisation De ning Globalisation: Globalisation - The interconnected world including cultural expansion and becoming multicultural allowing the ow of diverse ethnicities, businesses and economies, the in uence on creating new jobs for workers, the distribution of wealth and money across the world through the internet and other forms of communication. Key Terms Interdependence - reliant on working with each other Cross border transactions - distribution of money through countries exchanging of exchange rates International Capital Flow - the movement of capital across the world Diffusion of Technology - the movement of technology in the world allowing for more parts of the world to be able to have access to the internet Characteristics of Globalisation Imperialism - domination of land in the rest of the world Colonialism - take over of other nations to improve the power of one doing it, through war and political diplomacy Neo imperialism - power exerted through trade, most countries now self-governed and handed back to the local populations  Diagram of Globalisation How has Transport effected Globalisation “ Time space compression is communication and transport technologies contributing to an ongoing process leading to individuals and societies experiencing the shrinking world effect.” - Poreen Massey at Open University Evolution of transport/communications technology contributing to Globalisation 1780s 1840s 1890s 1940s 2010s horse and carriage steam trains propeller plane jet engines electric vehicles sailing ships railroads motor car steel ships space ight canals steam boats tractors high speed trains double check telephone containerisation lorries messenger pigeon buses radio letter telegraph radar mobile phones morse code satellites internet AI Impact of container ships 1. carry the most goods, exported to any country without trading bloc 2. considered “ backbone “ of the global economy 3. Driven rise of more container ports in Europe, North America and Asia 4. easily transport foreign produce using intermodal containers 5. new technology has sped up the rate of delivery fl How has ICT in uenced Globalisation? This has come about due to LIC’s use of satellite and small scale solar energy ( renewable ) 2005 - 6% of all africans owned a mobile phone 2019 - 60% of all africans own a phone due to falling prices and growth of local provider companies 2018 - 10% Africa’s population lived in areas with no mobile ser vices Global ICT patterns and trends Early computer net work ARPANET designed important research computers in different locations ( 1960s ). Connectivity has now grown exponentially. GPS in 1970s - new method of communication. Satellites continuously broadcast position and time data to users while tracking deliveries using delivery vehicles, help to grow global production net works. fi 1 million km of bre optic cables carry communications including emails, searches and t weets Key Terms Spacial division of labour - economic activity Micro Finance - loan to help build new, small businesses Remittance - family members working internationally to send money back to family in their home counties Economic globalisation: - Growth of TNCs exchanging raw materials, components, manufactured goods - ICT supports division of labour for rms and a more international economy - Online purchases fl Social globalisation: - International immigration has led to world city societies becoming multi ethnic and pluralistic - Global improvements in education and health - Social interconnectivity has increased due to mobile phones, internet and email Political globalisation: - Growth of trading blocs allow TNCs to merge in neighbouring countries while reducing trade restrictions and tariffs help markets grow - Global concerns such as free trade, credit crunch and natural disasters - World bank, IMF and WTO work to harmonise national economies Cultural globalisation: - Western cultural traits to dominate territory e.g. Americanisation - Old local cultures merge with globalising in uences - Ideas and information has accelerated due to 24h reporting, virtual spaces e.g. Facebook and Twitter  fi Characteristics of FDI ( Foreign Direct Investment ) De nition - A nancial injection made by a TNC into a nations company, either to build new facilities ( factories and shops ) or to acquire, or merge with, an existing rm already based there. Offshoring - TNC’s build/own new production facilities in low wage economies Foreign mergers - Two lms in different countries join forces to create a single entity Foreign acquisitions - TNC launches a takeover of a company in another country Transfer pricing - Channeling pro ts through a subsidiary company in a low tax country e.g. Ireland The contribution of international organisations to globalisation Evidence to back theory: Global FDI rebounded in 2021 following COVID, fell by 12% in 2022 to $1.3 trillion Attributed to war in Ukraine, high food/energy prices and soaring public debt Developed economies saw a fall of 37% to $378billion in 2022 Flows rose by 4% Green Investment grew in 2022, by 8% this was slower than the 50% growth in renewable energy seen in 2021 UK and China National Governance and Economic development fi Free-market liberalisation: UK - Trickle down took place from the richest to the poorest members of society. Restrictions therefore lifted on the operations of companies and banks. fi Deregulation of City of London ( 1986 ) removed “ red tape “ London = leading global hub Privatisation: UK - government allow foreign investors to gain a stake into national ser vices and infrastructure. Ser vices sold to private investors to reduce government spending and raise nance. Encouraging business start ups: fi fi UK- Low business taxes and changes in law are allowing for local and foreign owned businesses to make more pro t. E.g. Sunday trading 1994 attractive for foreign retailers China - Prior to 1978 it was a poor and politically isolated country “ switched off “. People lived in poverty in rural areas until Xiaoping began the radical “ Open Door “ allowing China to embrace globalisation. Farmers allowed to make small pro t for the rst time and strict controls on birth numbers on children to curb population growth. China rural to urban shift also took place the biggest migration in human history to the East Coast for TRADE. Figure 12.20 Development areas in China Urbanisation fuelled growth of low wage factories. Large TNCs were quick to establish branch plants or trade relationships with Chinese owned factories. By 1990s 50% of China’s GDP were generated in Special Economic Zones ( SEZ ) 2015 saw many workers on average earning $40 per day or making quality goods such as Iphones. SEZ are very important for tax restrictions on TNCs to operate, large cheap workforce. At least 400 million people have said they have escaped poverty since reforms began this has typically led to the support of “ hyper global “, that global scale free trade can cure poverty.  Geographical impacts on globalisation Costs and bene ts for emerging Asia Poverty reduction and waged work Environment and resource pressure Environmental challenges for communities in developing countries  Impacts of global shift on areas of HICs Global shift in manufacturing to East Asia started in 1970s, got going in the 1980s led to deindustrialisation of HIC areas E.g. 1972 200k steel workers 2014 15k steel workers Uneven patterns of globalisation fi Switched off Places - small number of countries where physical, political, economical and environmental reasons means they lack any strong ows of trade and investment. North Korea: Chosen to deliberately remain isolated from the rest of the world - Ordinary citizens have no access to internet or social media - No undersea data cables connecting North Korea with anywhere else Sahel Region: Poverty affects many areas of this region including Chad, Mali and Burkina Faso. - Mismanagement of natural resources due to colonial rulers - Lack of coastline leads to struggle to gain FDI - Arid conditions and deserti cation increase cost of infrastructure such as railways and ITC net works - Subsistence farmers wages are low they have negligible spending power = global brands don’t identify them as viable markets leaving them switched off Rural Urban Migration and Mega City growth Mega City growth: - Mega city = population of 10 million or more residents grow through migration and natural increase Urban Pull factors: fl 1. Employment of FDI by TNCs 2. Increase in formal sectors of work 3. Better quality infrastructure Rural Push factors: 1. Poverty aviated by population growth 2. Land reformation forcing people out of their homes 3. Con ict and migration from resource scarcity Shrinking World Technology: 1. Satellites, television and radio “switch on” people in remote and impoverished areas 2. Increase in inexpensive mobile devices for Africa and Asia 3. Removal of integrating obstacles to migration Increase in informal shanty towns/ oodplains/cemeteries/dangerous hill slopes = Centripetal migration To meet new housing needs high rise development of brown eld sites is the only way to meet suburban growth Mumbai Karachi Urban employment due to global Large variety of work including brands e.g. Hilton and Starbucks industrial sectors e.g. shipping, banking, retailing and Large numbers of local people manufacturing selling goods Increase in internal migration and Billionaire spending helps drive international migration housing prices in af uent areas High skilled graduates from Uni 5000 people employed in Dharavi become a hub for media and plastic recycling industry soft ware companies Environmental Sustainability: Water pollution from untreated sewage, air pollution from industry and exhausts = dependant and economic and physical context Social Sustainability: Provision of adequate urban housing, health care and education major challenge for developing countries Mass migration means city populations increase Increase in youth unemployment leads to growth of extremist political movements International migration into global hubs: fl global hub - highly global connected city Global hubs are found in countries at varying levels of development 1. Elite international migrants = highly skilled and socially in uential individuals and live as global citizens with few obstacles 2. Low waged international migrants = drawn towards global hubs for work e.g. low pay in kitchens, construction sites or domestic cleaners fi 3. Internal ( rural - urban ) migration = main driver of city growth in developing emerging economies, plays a lesser role in Europe and North America Costs and bene ts of migration: Range of information must be analysed - Impacts of both sources ( sending and receiving ) - Further subdivided into economic, social, political and environmental effects  Unit 5.1 Water Cycle and Water Insecurity What is the global hydrological cycle? De nition of Hydrological Cycle Hydrological Cycle: a closed system because nothing enters or leaves the atmosphere ( Earth ) Forces that act on the hydrological system: fl Gravity fl fl fl fi Light fl Heat Characteristic of the hydrological cycle Inputs = precipitation, energy from sun Outputs = evaporation, transpiration, channel ow Flows ( Fluxes ) = river, surface run-off, groundwater ow. channel ow, through ow, in ltration, percolation, stem ow Types of Water Blue Water - water stored in rivers, streams and lakes, the visible part of the hydrological cycle Green Water - water stored in the soil and vegetation, the invisible part of the hydrological cycle Blue Water Green Water Lakes Vegetation Groundwater Agriculture Aquifers Soil What is a Soil Moisture Budget? De nition - availability of water/moisture in the soil fi 1. Precipitation is high, evapotranspiration is low > soil is in surplus 2. Precipitation is low, evapotranspiration is high > soil is in utilisation 3. Precipitation is low, evapotranspiration is high > soil is in de cit 4. Precipitation is high and evapotranspiration is low > soil is recharging  Differences bet ween ashy hydrograph and a at hydrograph Flashy Flat steep sided basin shape lower, gentle basin shape lots of tributaries not many tributaries small basin size large basin size hilly slopes gentle slopes impermeable rock type permeable rock type less vegetation cover more vegetation cover Formula for Water Budget: P = Precipitation = Q ( Discharge ) + E ( Evaporation) +/- S ( Change in Storage ) fi In wet seasons, precipitation is greater than evapotranspiration which creates a water surplus. Ground stores ll fi with water which results in increased surface runoff, higher discharge and higher river levels. This means there is a positive water balance. In drier seasons evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, as plants absorb water, ground stores are depleted. This produces a water de cit at the end of a dry season generating a negative water balance Labelled Storm Hydrograph Types of Rainfall 1. Convectional Rainfall Energy from the Sun heats the ground Air becomes warmer, expands and rises As air cools ( denser air ) its ability to hold water vapour decreases Air continuing to rise will lead to rainfall 2. Orographic Rainfall Air forced to rise over a mountain ( prevailing wind ) Air cools as it rises Condensation occurs, forming rain Leeward Slope experiences less rain ( rain shadow effect ) 3. Cyclonic Rainfall Warm air forced to rise over cold air Expansion and cooling of air occurs Condensation leads to cloud and rain formation How does a Drainage Basin work? 1. Precipitation is high and duration is low then in ltration is high as the ground is unsaturated. fi fi 2. In ltration nishes low as the ground is saturated and water cannot enter as the water table has risen. 3. Low surface run off due to in ltration of water escalating due to heavy rain, saturated ground leasing to overland ow, water has nowhere to go. 1. Precipitation is high and raindrop size is small; high volume of water and low gravitational potential pulling the water through soil. 2. Precipitation is low and raindrop size is small, in ltration remains low due to less water to in ltrate. 3. Precipitation is high and raindrop size is big, in ltration increase as drops become heavier and have a greater gravitational potential. Meteorological drought Features: fi Rainfall de cit Low precipitation High temperatures Strong winds Increased solar radiation Reduced snow cover Hydrological drought Features: fl fi fi Stream ow de cit Reduced in ltration Low soil moisture Little percolation and groundwater recharge Agricultural drought Features: fi Soil moisture de cit Low evapotranspiration Plant water stress Reduced biomass Fall in groundwater levels Famine drought Features: fi Food de cit fi Loss of natural vegetation Increased risk of wild res fi Wind blown soil erosion Deserti cation  Teleconnections - In atmospheric science, refers to climate anomalies which relate to each other at large distances Measurement of Drought: PDSI - Palmer Drought Severity Index Applies to long term drought, uses current data as well as that of the preceding months, as drought is dependant on previous conditions. Focuses on monitoring the duration and intensity of large scale, long term, drought including atmospheric circulation. CMI- Crop Moisture Index Measure of short term drought on a weekly scale, useful for farmers to monitor water availability during the growing season. PHDI- Palmer Hydrological Drought Index Hydrological system responds slowly to drought, both in reacting to drought and recovering from it, different models need to be developed for rivers, lakes etc… El Niño and La Niña effect ( ENSO ) Blocking Anticyclones - an area where high pressure builds up becoming stable causing extended periods of time with little rainfall = short term change for drought - Warm water moves from East to West because the trade winds move from East to West. - Steady rain in Australia, warm air rises and cools creates low pressure bringing clouds and precipitation. Warm areas of high pressure around South America, air cannot rise stays on the ground. - Reverse direction of trade winds moving West to East or weak trade winds cause warm water to move West to East. - Flooding in South America, due to warm moist air moving West to East forming precipitation. Drought in Australia due to no moist air to form clouds leads to rain. - Water moves from East to West but exacerbated ( to worsen ) because trade winds move East to West. - Higher rainfall rate in Australia Drought in South America - Trade winds bring higher levels of warm moist air to Australia - South America not enough warm moist air so prolonged period of no rain Ecological impacts of drought: fi Wetland - area of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or arti cial, permanent or fl temporary, with water that is static or owing, fresh, brackish or salt. Functions of wetlands in the global biosphere fl - act as temporary water stores within the hydrological cycle, mitigating river oods downstream protecting land from erosion fi - act like giant water lters trapping and recycling nutrients, as well as pollutants and therefore maintain water quality fi - high biological productivity and support diverse food web providing nursery areas for sh and migrating birds - contribute value to human society Drainage and destruction Physical cause Limited precipitation leasing to less interception as vegetation fi will deteriorate and less in ltration and percolation to the groundwater stores causing water table to fall. Transpiration rates as a result will decrease making wetlands less functional. Human cause fl Dams can reduce ow on the wetlands and the ecological quality of the area is lower making it fl a barren wasteland for fauna and ora. Rapid urbanisation and agriculture also cause destruction of wetlands ( 2.5 million square kilometres ).  Types of ooding caused by physical factors: fl Causes Type How does it trigger ooding? Diagram Lots of rain from tropical storms in a short period of Intense or prolonged time cumulative effect at high rainfall over period of Meteorological time, rainfall concentrated in a small area enhancing rainfall ooding large proportion of rainfall enters rivers via runoff Warm less dense air rises over cold ocean air which expands causing cloud formation via condensation which leads to less precipitation Seasonal rainfall Meteorological Concentrated within key seasons, very got and humid condition less in ltration, precipitation in different parts of the drainage basin Large amounts of snow melt over short period ground still frozen ( impermeable surface ) causing run off for Snowmelt Meteorological rivers Ground will become saturated as snow melts and in ltration will reduce to near 0 Part - Tidal ooding Meteorological An area of sea/ocean that is pushed towards land due to Part - low pressure. Coastal storm surge Meteorological High winds and low pressure push water over sea defences and ood coastal areas Case study North Sea Storm Surge 2013 1mb = 1cm SL rise Non - Earthquake Meterological Landslides Non - jökulhlaup occurs e.g. Himalayas where glacial outbursts cause ice dams to melt Meteorlogical causing run off Human cause of ooding:  How may climate change in uence water cycle? 1 degree increase = precipitation 7% increase Impacts of climate change Increased frequency of intense precipitation events Earlier peaks in Reduced availability of fresh water n rease se erit o ro t warmer temperat res in rease r in o Affect atmospheric water vapour concentrations, clouds, precipitation patterns and runoff and stream low patterns  Earlier arrival of spring like conditions Adaptation - adapting to impacts ( changing requirements ) Mitigation - preventing severe impacts Adaptation Make ground permeable/soil Reuse water treatment More green spaces Afforestation = provide shade for vegetation growth Wooden embankments