European colonization lecture notes (1).pdf

EUROPEAN COLONIZATION HISTORY Lecture 1: DEFINITIONS Metropol → controlling center of empires (e.g. Spain, portugal, France, etc.) Means of Expansion: No colonization - Exodus: A large group of people, that moves from oen place to another and settles...

EUROPEAN COLONIZATION HISTORY Lecture 1: DEFINITIONS Metropol → controlling center of empires (e.g. Spain, portugal, France, etc.) Means of Expansion: No colonization - Exodus: A large group of people, that moves from oen place to another and settles there, mainly because of persecution, ecological reasons, etc. → Not considered colonization because no controlling center remains behind (not controlled by a a metropol) - Emigration: It is more individual. People move to other places, but not colonize it, rather integrate into existent societies, throughout generations. ← however they may preserve identities from their former countries (e.g. Chinatowns in cities) Border colonization → type of colonizationg, which means pushing the border of a country into new regions, whciha re adjacent to the country. (simply moving the borders further). [European colonial empires can not be considered as border colonization, since European colonies usually were in different continents] Colonization (European colonization) - Naval networks - Overseas settlement - Colonies could be political and/or economic reasons (power, gains, ownership) Colony: (Jurgen Osterhammel definition) [4 key elements bold] - A colony is a new political organization created by invasion (conquest [war] and/or settlement colonization) - Its alien rulers are in sustained dependence on a geographically remote ‘mother country’ (metropol) or imperial center, which claims exclusive rights of ‘possession’ of the colony. Claims political power and it channels this through economic dependance (exploitation). Colonialism:(Jurgen Osterhammel definition) - Colonialism is a relationship of domination between indigenous (or forcibly imported) majority and a minority of foreign invaders. (minority invaders dominate majority natives) - The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the colonized people are made and implemented by the colonial rulers in pursuit of interests that are often defined in a distant metropolis. (decisions made by colonzier countries of origin, without the interest of the native) - Rejecting cultural compromises with the colonized population, the colonizers are convinced of their own superiority and of their ordained mandate to rule” (colonizer superiority) - Colonization Goes hand in hand with colony / colonialism, but: - There are sometimes colonies without colonization (e.g. North Africa and North America← part of French colonies, but France didn’t really colonise the region) 1  E.g. only military conquest Colonization without colonies - E.g. border colonisation Other forms - Internal colonialization (colonies colonizing their own territories → Brazil was initially mainly the coast line and then Brazil was gradually colonized) E.g. Brazil and the hinterland - Subcolonial relations Between one colony and another colony of the empire → e.g. Australia (ecolonies become colonziers themselves) - Different types of colonies: Administration and legal statuses (political types) - Viceroyalties (Britihs India), audiencias (Spanish America), protectorates, Crown colonies, free states, overseas provinces (e.g. current French Guiana, Algeria used to be), League of Nation mandates → UN trusteeship territories Economy and population (economic types) - Pure settlement colonies, plantation colonies, exploitation colonies, trading settlements, maritime enclaves - Different types of empires Formal empires (“real empires”) - Several ‘peripheries’ are subordinated to the center E.g. Portugal, Spain, Dutch Republic, France, Britain Semi-empires - Colonial powers without empires (not as large and as extended) E.g. Spain post 1820, Belgium (had only one colony → Congo), Netherlands Informal empires - Pursue interests beyond acquisition of territory. Regions remained independent countries, but heavily influenced by empires. (e.g. contemporary US in Latin America) E.g. China, 19th-century Britain in Latin America, etc. - Imperialism Comprises all forces and activities contributing to the construction and maintenance of empires Imperialism is more comprehensive than colonialism Colonialism is a special manifestation of imperialism. E.g. other examples is border expansion, which is not specifically colonialism, but is imperialism. No absolute difference between imperialism and colonialism - Colonialism refers to a colony, imperialism refers to an empire (imperialism is larger than colonialism, but still can be used interchangeably) Imperialism vs. colonization - Relationship between metropolis and conquered areas ← non-european people were neglected (Orient) - the power dynamic was crucial In colonial empires the metropol rules the colonies (settlers ruled the colonized), while in other (non-eruopean) empires, such as the 2  Mongol Empire, people from the colonies would also be involved in the rule of the metropol. - E.g. in the Roman Empire people that were not from the Metropol became rulers - E.g. The Mongol Empire → The Tatar’s assimilated in the newly conquered regions by converting from Tengrism and Buddhism to Islam; another example from the Mogole empire being the ruler Kublai Khan (1215-1294) became first emperor of China and assimilated to its culture and system as well. Border control (border colonization → differ from the European colonization model) E.g. Tatar empire, which just expanded the borders Plethora of empires in world history - Colonization vs European colonziation E.g. Viking colonziation 8-11th centuries, however they further assimilated to the colonies and there was no metropolis (hence, considered non-European colonisation) → therefore, the guiding factor that dictatees if it is non-european colonization is if there is no subordination to metropol and lack of assimilation Ancient Past and Ancient Empires are not considered as European colonization, since lack of information dated Scale of European colonization is also its defining factors (e.g. british empire being the largest colonial empire) - Voyages All voyages within one cultural sphere No permanent transformation e.g. with Chinese travelers, who did not settle or colonzie the area Lecture 2: Periodization → when did European colonization start David Landes - “For the last thousand years, Europe (the West) has been the prime mover of development and modernity” → meaning that colonization according to hims tarted in the 1000ths Immanuel Wallerstein - 16th century: rise of one single capitalist world economy ← blamed for over-generalization, that history is based on one system (capitalism); Also it wasn’t just Europe colonzing, for example Asia North-western Europe: core ← brought all the incentives and was the prime mover Rest of Europe: semi-periphery ← provided the food for the economy Rest of the world: periphery Kenneth Pomeranz → examine shen Eurlpe and China started to diverge - There were different core areas in the 18th c. Old World NW Europe and Chinese and Japansese cores - Many parallels between the core areas Life expectancy, consumption, markets,... 3  Asian GNP vs. European GNP ← similar development of the two continents 1750: 130% - 1800: 100% (this is when the divergence began → this is when the european colonization period started to diverge) - 1870: 50% - Divergence ine arly 18th century European shortage of energy - Timber -> coal -> steam -> Industrial Revolution ← but according to Poimeranz China had no need for such development, since it could grow more trees for cola, as a result Europe got ahead of China in the 19th century East Asian hinterlands boomed - Prevented need for innovation John Darwin - “Before 1800 what really stood out was not the sharp economic contrast between Europe and Asia, but, on the contrary, a Eurasian world of ‘surprising resemblances’.” ← David Abernethy - Five phases (another suggestion of understanding the periodization fo European colonziation) ← criticized for factual mistakes, such as India being colonized in the late 18th and early 29th century by the British, which is supposed to be decolonization period Expansion (1415-1773) → 1415 year when Portugal conquered Ceuta (In Africa), first time that European state conquered a state outside mainland Europe, which kickstarted Euroepan expansionism. 1773 ended it w the regulating act of BNA - last phase of expansion. First decolonization (1775-1824) → 1775 first defeat in the Eglish in American-British war, 1824 last battle in Pery →< lots of former colonies became independent Second colonization (1824-1912) → Anglo-Berman war - Italian conquest of Libya Consolidation (1914-1939) → ww1-ww2 start Second decolonization (1940-1980) → decolonization of Africa and Asia Antony G. Hopkins - Four stages (another suggestion of understanding the periodization fo European colonziation) ← criticized for being too board and too general Archaic globalised networks Proto-globalisation (1600-1800) High imperialism Postcolonial era Hence, there are multiple questions to when does colonziation begin: - Early starters: Landes and Wallerstein - Critics: Pomeranz and Darwin - Compromises: Abernethy and Hopkins CAUSES Geography as a cause: - [Location] Peninsula surrounded by water → makes sense because maritime expertise was necessary to colonize. 4  Particularities: Portugal (makes sense why Portugal was first to colonise, since closest access to the Atlantic, that’s why they dominated 15th century discovery looking for an alternative road through asia, not through the Middle East.) – Spain (late 15th - 16th century was leading, it was located between the atlantic and the mediterranean, so it could make us of the Meditteranian expertise) –Dutch Republic and Netherland (dominated 17th century; familiar with water expertise) – England - Protection from steppe imperialism → the invaders did not reach the most western part usually of the continent, which were leading in imperialism (e.g. Portugal, Spain,etc.) Vs. Eastern Europe (Tatars, Ottomans and Russians) Vs. India (Afghans, Persians & Turkic people) Vs. China (Tatars & Manchu) - Narrowness of the Atlantic Ocean Vs. China and the Pacific Ocean (double the time to fly for the Chinese to Maerica than for the Europeans) → Pacific ocean is much larger than Atlantic - Need to circumvent Africa for trade with India New World (America) ‘discovered’ by Europeans because of the need to reach India Jared Diamond - Eurasia (mainly western europe): long east-west distance (eurasia stretches from west to east, while other continents liek Africa and america stretch from north to south → leats to different climates [Africa and saharadesert, more tropical overall,etc.) → this lont east-west difference leads to more homogeneity and benefits. More change between products and varieties of products. Vs. different climates in Africa Vs. different latitudes in America - benefits More exchange and wheat varieties More domesticated animal species More food supply -> denser populations -> higher division of labour, which led to more capacity to colonize Technology as a cause - Early inventions in Europe Eyeglasses [e.g. doubled the working life of craftsmen] , mechanical clock [discipline; triggers a more rigorous mentality], printing [triggered curiosity for more things, allowed for propaganda,..]... - Communication and transportation [But chinese ships were better than European] Caravels (Portuguese invention, which was smaller and better manoeuvring) , galleons (Spanish), horses (asia) / Steamships - Science and medicine Vitamin C (scurvy) / Quinine, which only grew in South America (malaria) ← up until the 19th century inland Africa was the ‘wbhite man’s grave”, since these coloniers did not have immunity to local diseases, however w scientific inventions theyw ere able to penetrate inland Africa. [shows how colonization is interrelated - finding in south america allowed conquering of inland Africa] - Military superiority 5  Gunpowder / Maxim guns (first automatic gun) → led to extreme European victories, which the natives, like Africans, were unable to defend against (with weapons like spears and arrows) Tonio Andrade - Long-standing Chinese superiority: Song dynasty ( late 10th to late 13th century) developed gunpowder weapons Ming empire (late 15th -mid 17th)first gunpowder empire Europe: ‘classic’ gun in the 14th century [late comers in the sense of Chinese weapon ivnentiomn] China prevailed in all early conflicts - Great Military Divergence: 1760-1840 ← when Europe started to lead, since China lacked incentives (they did not need military innovation during peace time) Europe increasingly innovated - Ships, Renaissance fortress, Industrial Revolution China lost position - Peace under Ming and High Qing - Dysfunctional state under late Qing, when Europe was already much more advanced Economy as a cause - Capitalism Existence of Property rights → you could build and own your own land → leads to greed/ motivation to own more, therefore stimulates ppl to accumulate wreath through colonziation Competition and profit motive Capital accumulation - Industrial Revolution (first in britain, then in Europe) → allowed Europeans to travel further and defeat more people Led to the need of raw materials and resources → e.g. cotton for the textile factories in Britain, which they could find in india or South-Asia Need of markets and investments, since they had products which they needed to sell [e.g. railways] Led to Social transformation (demographic growth) and population pressure → too many people in europe, need to go else where - Great diversity E.g. not all business milieus enthusiastic [example that not all businesses supported colonization] E.g. not all colonization economicly motivated (e.g. religion as another facotr) John A. Hobson - “Imperialism is the endeavour of the great controllers of industry to broaden the channel for the flow of their surplus wealth by seeking foreign markets and foreign investments to take off the goods and capital they cannot sell or use at home.” Lenin: 6  - “Imperialism is capitalism in that stage of development in which the domination of monopolies and finance capital has taken shape; in which the export of capital has acquired pronounced importance; in which the division of the world by the international trusts has begun, and in which the partition of all the territory of the earth by the greatest capitalist countries has been completed.” Gentlemanly capitalism (A.G. Hopkins & P.J. Cain) - British imperialism driven by the business interests of the City of London ← economy as a major cause of imperialism Politics as a cause - Competition between metropols 16th c.: Portugal vs. Spain (portual defeated) 17th c.: the Dutch Republic vs. Spain, then England (Spain lost position [not entirely], the Duth won, but the new rival was emergin - the British → Anglo-Dutch war, which England win) 18th c.: Britain vs. France (they were clashing not only in Europe, but also in Ameica, Asia and Afria - Second 100 Years war) 19th c.: new nations (Germany, Italy, Belgium) ← crumble of Africa led to other Metropoles entering the field - Power Prestige and nationalism went hand in hand with imperialism Geopolitics [in order to become strong states, colonie seere of help] and pre-emptive strikes [conquered new territpories to prevent others to do so] Lightning rod for domestic problems [colonziation as a means of deriviaing attention from domestic issues] Role of individuals Lecture 3: CULTURE as a cause: - Cultural components of colonization Mentality: feelings of superiority - Science: cult of progress - Race: social Darwinism and united white service Ideology: civilizing mission - Moral: abolitionism (abolish slave trade and then slavery) and humanitarianism - Religion: missionary revival - Max Weber Active and rationalizing mentality - Such “European” mentality found by Weber led to -> Bureaucracy, legal state, science, capitalism, property, freedom, discipline, individual initiative. European protestantism - Vs. Confucianism (China): inactive → he believed that the Chinese failed to capitlaise on their inventions and turn them to a superiority (e.g. they invented gun powder) 7  - Vs. Islam: irrational → e.g. their religios differences; the Koran was njot analyzed in the same way that the Bible was analysed in Christianity - Vs. Hinduism: inactive & irrational Main work → Die protestantische Ethik und der ‚Geist‘ des Kapitalismus (1904-05) → he found an active an active and rationalizing mentality in europeans that other did mot inherit - Rudyard Kipling His key works (novels and poems): ° Bombay 1865, + 1936 The Man who would be King (1888) The Jungle Book (1894) Kim (1901) 1907 Nobel Prize in Literature - His novels are about British colonization His work was mainly about the duty of the white man to civilize colonies IRRATIONALITY AS A CAUSE: - Joseph Schumpeter Colonialism is irrational in economic terms - Drain of resources from development - Military adventures without meaningul economic return Social and psychological explanation for the irrational colonialism - IMEPRIALISM IS ATAVISTIC (reverting to or suggesting the characteristics of a remote ancestor or primitive type) - Objectless expansion: behaviour learned from other nations and institutionalized by a ‘warrior’ class. - Atavistic and anachronistic - Vs. modernity: cosmopolitan and peaceful The Sociology of Imperialism (1919) → he wrote during the decline of the West (end of WW1) → he blames imperialism/colonization for the decline of the West, he believed it was irrational - Bernar Porter (ABSENT MINDED IMPERIALISM) Empire had a far lower profile in Britain than it did abroad Britain was never a genuine imperial society British empire happened naturally, it was not the intention of the British, it was a natural cause of events. → can be compared to the contemporary US ruling the political field Bernard Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society, and Culture in Britain (2005) - Jon E. Wilson (Chatoic Imperialism) Beneath the veneer of pomp and splendour, British rule in India was - Anxious, fragile and fostered chaos - Oscillated between paranoid paralysis and occasional moments of extreme violence Jon E. Wilson, India Conquered: Britain’s Raj and the Chaos of Empire (2016) 8 Combined causes: - Niall Ferguson Niall Ferguson: Civilization. The West and the Rest (2011) 6 fields in which Europe made the world better - Competition - Science - Property - Medicine - Consumption - Work - David Abernethy Three sectors in the metropole - Public (State), Private, Religious These sectors expanded independently Will to expand - Came from: Power , profit, proselytization Capacity to expand - Led by: Monarchs, companies, missionary bodies Expanded independently - More financial means and people involved - Flexibility: religion in America, trade in Asia - But Cross-sectoral alliances occurred (e.g. Spanish combined forces [public and religious sectors) in Latin America) Abernethy contrasts Europeean imperialism causes to other spheres that failed to dominate: China and Muslim World China - Public sector Pre-eminent wealth and power Revenues from intensive agriculture - Private sector Quantitative instead of qualitative growth No need for radical shift in production technique - Religious sector Confucianism supported a social order considered unique Reason to stay home, not to reach out (no conversion) - Much capacity and collaboration, but no will for imperialism Merchants and settlers abroad lacked imperial support - Arabs Public sector - Weak control by suprastates (caliphates) - Cities: too many for competition, too small for expansion Private sector - No hierarchy of companies - Arab merchants set out on their own Religious sector - No ecclesiastical hierarchy 9  - Cosmopolitan and highly adaptable to alien cultures Much will, but no capacity - Decentralized sectors - John Darwin English Historical Review, 1997, p. 627. Agressively interventionist ideology: - Free trade, utalitarianism, Christianity, abolitionism New appetites in culture and consumption Coalition of economic forces: - Credits, cheap exports, migrants Maritime superiority Military superiority Reaction to all these theories: - James M. Blaut All of this, I argue, is wrong: it is false history and bad geography. Europe’s environment is not better than the environments of other places – not more fruitful, more comfortable, more suitable for communication and trade, and the rest. Europe’s culture did not, historically, have superior traits that would lead to more rapid progress than that achieved by other societies: individual traits like inventiveness, innovativeness, ethical behaviour, etc; collective traits like the family, the market, the city. The rise of Europe cannot be explained in the Eurocentric way.” Causes beyond Europe: - Networks beyond Europe are Older and Vast - Economies in Asia were stronger than the ones in Europe (and China is regaining its dominance, Europe was central only for 200 years) Pomeranz & Darwin both - Others’ impact on Europe India as a magnet → European colonizationw as caused by Indian wealth. Their vastnes inspired colonization. Ottoman expansion caused search for new routes The New World (Columbus) enabled further expansion Others’ technology and agency - (Summing up) Causes for colonization: Geography Technology Economy Politics Culture Irrationality Combination Causes beyond Europe 10 —- Consequences: - Diversity - Politics - Economy - Sopciety - Culture Diversity Colonizer - Different forms and ideologies - Evolution: from pillage to development colonialism Colonized - Political: stateless, chefferies, early states, complex states - Economic: hunter-gathering, early agricultural economies, monetized economies with agrarian surplus and specialized crafts, proto-industrialization Different situations -> different consequences Politics National identity - State nations created through imperialism → minorities pushed into a nationa (and nationality) through imperialism [e.g. Africa, Indonesia] Borders - Majority of the borders created during the end of 17th - end of 18th century (colonization period) Geography (naming of the countries) - E.g. Eastern Islands are called like that because theyw ere found on eastern Day → Eurocentricism in colonization - E.g. Rio de Janeiro names because it was found during the month of January - E.g. Venezual named after Venice Geography (summary) - Place names - Borders - National identities Systems - Homogenization of governance, reduction of forms Failed states after colonial rule left, becaus European model implemented in non-Europe → there were limited democracies, when colonizers left because of the destabilizing nature of imperialism - Violence Conflicts - International relations E.g. P5 in UN Economy: 11  - Production Plantation and mines Infrastructure (roads, railways) Major export products introduces in the colonial era (e..g Coffee 90% of Uganda’s exports, because of the plantations that Britihs planted there) ← introducing new world crops in colonzied areas, which did not grow there previously (e..g Sugar in Cuba, Cocoa in Ghana) - Trade: also without colonization, but More products and exchange Different directions - Colonization opens borders (‘trade follows flag’) - Colonization closes borders (‘imperial preference’) Shifting trade balance - Utsa Patnaik → Britain drained India’s Wealth (she calculated that Britian stole 45 trillion dollars from India) - GDP now is lacking behind in Asia and in Africa → this was not the case and occured because of colonization Society - Landownership Different ideas about property and land titling → land ownership is an European concept Introcuction of land ownership led to → Massive expropriation and rise of new elites (white colonists) - Social structures Marginalization and exploitation of rural communities →e.g. Establishment of new cities Proletarization and urbanization - Demography Decline / extermination (changes in demography) → e.g. massacres, smallpox Migration Culture - Tools of empire Communication, science, religion - Triviality and omnipresence Language (English language popularity → due to coloniation; use of the latin script; spanish as a major language) Food - Psychology Feelings of inferiority and superiority Racism - Memory Violence, slavery, exploitation, genocide,... Consequences (summary): - Diversity 12  - Politics - Economy - Society - Culture - Historiohgraphy Lecture 4: HISTORIOGRAPHY - International Academia Till 1950s: uncritical 1950s & 1960s: pre- and anticolonial (fearce criticism focus or focus on pre-colonial history to emphasise that natives that had been colonised, also had history of their own) 1970s: economy, world systems 1980s ff.: postcolonial studies → critical of colonial history and its studies; unlike decolonial studies, they believe that European colonial existence has ended - Key authors: Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak, Homi Bhabha 1990s ff: decolonial studies → critical towards colonial history. They emphasise that the colonial era and coloniality has not ended. (they want to end this coloniality) - Aníbal Quijano, María Lugones, Walter Mignolo - Postcolonial vs decolonial: Postcolonial focus on the anglosphere (US, UK, India), while decolonial studies developed in South America Edward Said (1935-2003) [Palestinian origin, professor in US] (postcolonial) ← check ECS notes about this - Orientalism Definition of Orientalism: - An aesthetic movement - An (outdated) academic discipline - Discourse of knowledge Orient as inferior “other” - Served to define Europe as superior, through comparison Stereotypical essentialization Not innocent, but highly motivated - In part (but not only) to justify colonialism Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (1942-) (postcolonialism) - Subalternity → most margenilzied groups in society Subaltern: other to the other → she sais that this binary method is wrong and the groups that are ignored by the binary method is the ‘subaltern” - Subaltern: other to the other Oppressor – oppressed Colonizer – colonized Self – other 13  Example of sati / suttee (widow-burning) → Hindu custom in which widows follow their dead husbands to death ← recorded by the British as an example of barbarism and misogynistic. Methods of understanding this custom: - British: widespread misogynistic tradition - Indian elite: free will of truly Indian women - Women are spoken for and do not speak themselves ← The Subaltern Homi K. Bhabha (1949-) (postcolonial) - Hybridity -:> identities were hybrid, people shared identity o colonziers and colonzied New transcultural forms via the contact zone produced by colonization Against the idea of purity and originality, helps to overcome exotism - Mimicry → colonzied imitating coolonizers, either for social promotion or to mock the colonizers Imitation (forced and voluntary) - Sometimes close to mockery Concept to complexify “simple” relationship colonized-colonizer - Displays lack of colonial control - Complicity and resistance within the colonized Aníbal Quijano (1930-2018)(decolonial) - Colonialidad / Coloniality E.g. Colonialidad del conocimiento / Coloniality of knowledge → Colonial societies have systematically banished indigenous forms of knowledge from their archives and rejected the media in which this knowledge was transported → knowledge ebcame colonial and remained aas such afterwards. - Colonial Matrix of Power Economic: land, labor, finance Political: state, military Civic: Christian family values Epistemic: control of knowledge and subjectivity, including Christian and modern rational thought and the devaluation of non-Western cosmologies and epistemologies - Coloniality & Modernity Coloniality is not opposed to modernity Coloniality does not precede modernity Walter Mignolo (1941-) (decolonial) - Colonialism Specific historical periods and places of imperial domination (something that existed in the past) - Coloniality The logical structure of colonial domination → existence of colonial thinking and power structures and aspects in knowledge is still present today E.g. Latin American colonialism ended in the 19th century, but coloniality remains until today. - Decoloniality Aims to counter coloniality and deconstruct it. Bring change within society. 14  - Colonialism vs coloniality Colonialism has ended, while coloniality is still there María Lugones (1944 - 2020) (decolonial) - Coloniality of gender Need to include gender analysis in Modernity/Coloniality - Intersectionality Combination of overlapping oppressions (race, gender, etc.) Specific case: Belgian case - Colonial era: propaganda - 1960s-1990s: silence, lack of postcoloniality or decoloniality ← they were surprised by the Congolese idnependance movements (‘trauma’) - Since 2000s: greater interest - 2010: much nostalgia → biased view on Congo’s colonial history, with nostalgia of the colonial past - Since 2015: Decolonization (colonial hisotirans and academia translate into dutch, so their perspective is given) - Positionality → still silent white narrative exists We do not know how many people died in the colonization of Congo → David Vab Reybrouck “Congo”, was a celebrated book that wrote about the colonization fo Congo, through the belgian perspective, which was awarded and popular. → however there isa vast white narrative, since the book denied racial segregation in Congo when it was colonized; talked about the suffering of the colonizer (and barely the colonzied); neglected the amount killed during the colonization; called colonization an aftermath of idealism, rather it being out of profit and power; declined belgian involvement in the assasination of Lumumba. NEW SECTION: THE MAJOR METROPOLES 1. Portugal (first to colonize) 2. Spain 3. The Netherlands 4. England (1707: Britain) 5. France - (Belgium, Italy and U.S.: only from the 19th century) PORTUGAL [learn all dates] - Precedent setter (pre-1750) 1415: Ceuta (essential date, first european colonization) 1419: Madeira 1427-31: Azores 1434: Cape Bojador 1460: Cape Verde 1462: Serra Lyoa (Canary Islands: Castilian) 15  1470: Sao Tomé & Principe (from 1470 islands of the Africa reached by the Portuguese) 1472: Bioko 1473: Annobon 1483: Congo River (Diogo Cão) (reached the Congo river and the COngo kingdom - important date) 1487: Cape of Good Hope (Bartolomeu Dias) (reached the southern tip of Africa - important date) Henry the Navigator - Protuguese prince, who was obsessed by the naval travel and who support thje Portguese explorations Resons: - Location - Tradition of Fighting Muslims Emerging Ottomans blocked old trade routes with East Asia, hence the Porttuguese wanted to defeat the Ottoman through this trade, hence searched for other trade routes Portuguese nation < Reconquista (recapture) on Muslims - Aspirations Hope to find gold Prester John and a grand alliance of Christians against Muslims (legend), but feres to real phenomena of Churches in Egypt,etc. The East - India Vasco da Gama: Calicut (1498) Afonso de Albuquerque: Goa (1510) - Estado da India Dominance of the oceans - Armed ships Enclaves (fortified settlements) - No conquest of land due to demographic incapacity, hence inland was barely conquered (besides Brazil) Trade with Europe → Portuguese gained wealth, but did not achieve monopoly, Dutch later did so - 40% of pepper trade Taxation of trade on the Indian Ocean → another source of revenue for the Portuguese The West (Partuguese reached sooner West than East) - 1492: Spanish reach America Portugal had rejected Columbus in 1484, which he alter went to the Spanish and succeeded - 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas → pope decided to solve rivalry between portugal and Spain, by dividing the world into 2 spheres of influence 16  - 1500: Pedro Álvares Cabral reaches Brazil Not only trade, but also plantations Gradually more to the inland for slaves and gems Immigration of Europeans and African slaves to work plantations of Brazil, that the Portuguese ahd established Treaty of Madrid (1750): correction on Tordesillas Disintegration (collapse) - 1578: defeated by Morocco at El Ksar-el-Kebir Death of King Sebastian ← dynastic crisis 1580-1640: Portugal occupied by Spain ← due to the dynastic crisis, the Spanish king took the Portuguese throne - 1588-1654: Portuguese weakened by Spain’s wars Dutch and English victories in Asia → the Netherlands would attack the Spanisha t their weakest part - the Portuguese colonies. Dutch and English profited from Portugal being occupied by Spain and Spain having other priorities, than ensure Portuguese colony security (in Asia and Africa). - Portugal loses inter alia Malacca and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) - Portugal keeps Macau, Portuguese India and East Timor Portuguese victories in Brazil and Africa - 19th c.: loss of Brazil & expansion in Africa (Angola, Mozambik) - 1974: decolonization after Carnation Revolution ← portugal first to colonize and last to decolonize SPAIN - Between Mediterranean and Atlantic Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci (utilized different nationality explorers and their knowledge) - Pioneer in several fields 17  Conquest of vast territories Economic exploitation Demographic impact - Difference between Portugal and Spanish colonization is that SPanish colonzied huge territoires, and Portugals vast territory was only Brazil Conquest of vast territories: (16th century is the century of Spanish colonziation) - 1492: Hispaniola (Columbus) → island contemporary that is divided between haiti and Domenique republic. ← Established first center capital in Spanish Colonial empire in Santo Domingo, but was not for long. - 1512: continent (Panama) (Reached the American Continent) 1519-21: Mayas & Aztecs (Defeated by Cortés) -> New Spain 1524-32: Incas (defeated by Pizarro) -> New Grenada & Peru 1536: Buenos Aires; 1541: Santiago - Philippines (1521: Magellan; 1565: ° Manila) - North America 1565: Florida 1595-: New Mexico (and Arizona) 1602 (actually: 18th c.): California 1763: Louisiana - Magellan and Elcano (Magellan successor, since he died on the ovyage) went around the world (Circumnavigation) for the first time 1519-1522 Economic Exploitation - New forms of Enrichement (not only trade and texas, as did the Portuguese) Silver mines in Mexico and Peru Plantations & haciendas (coffee, cotton, sugar) - But← became the wealthiest metropol in europe (16th century) for some time (lost its position in 17th century), but spent that capital for warfare to defend catholicism and within europe (which was very costly) Inflation and bankruptcy Many wars - Victories: Charles V, Lepanto (1571) - Defeats (end of 16th century onwards): Armada (1588) & Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) - 1713: loss of possessions in Italy and Low Countries Sapin brought invosation (silver mines and plantations) and initially was richest (16th century), but due to wars, inflation nd bankruptcy lost its position byu the end of the 16th century. Demographic impact - The Columbian exchange Fauna and Flora Diseases, i.a. smallpox and influenza 18  - Hispaniola: 3-4M 1500 -> 15,000 1518 -> 0 by 1570 - America: 1600 1/10 of 1500 - New immigration waves, due to the fact that diseases had wiped out vast populations of natives White settlers - 240,000 Spaniards in 16th and 500,000 in 17th c. Deportation of 11M African slaves Ethnic mixes: mestizos, mulattos and zambos Numbers of salves transported by Each European empire Number of slaves delivered to each destination: Disintegration of the Spanish empire: - 17th c.: loss of many Caribbean islands [Spanish empire began disintegrating in the 17th century) Jamaica, St. Domingue (Haiti), Guyana, etc. 19  - 18th c.: still victorious The Jenkins’ Ear War (1739-42) [Spanish defeated Britian in South America, hence allowed them to further exist] - 1810-1825: decolonization Loss of Latin American continent - 1898: Spanish-American War Loss of Puerto Rico, Cuba and Philippines - 20th c.: minor colonies Equatorial Guinea, Spanish Sahara, parts of Morocco NETHERLANDS: - Background Naval expertise Eighty Years’ War with Spain (and Portugal) - The officially chartered company The first modern joint-stock company (shares) Trading firm with military and political power Two companies → (165h century was for Portugal colonization, 16th century was spain colonization, 17th colonziation was the Dutch [due to the companies]) - 1602: ° Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (small companies united inot a united East- indian company - a large enterprise] - 1621: Westindische Compagnie [another large enterprise for similar project was created, just for West India] - Trade monopoly → destroyed certain crops on certain islands, so that only they ahd access to such crops and would have a monopoly over that Initially spices, later also coffee, tea, and textile Search for new routes: - The Northeastern passage → aimed to reach India like that (which it is impossible) [England: Muscovy Company (1555) - Reached Novaya Zemlya, via White Sea to Russia] Dutch Republic: Willem Barentsz (1594-97) - Reached Spitsbergen, wintering on ‘Nova Zembla’ and was stranded there [Russia] - The Northwestern passage Henry Hudson (1609-11) - 1609: for the Dutch VOC (‘Hudson River’) (*) - 1610: for England (‘Hudson Bay’) - The Southeastern passage Jan Huygen van Linschoten: Itinerario (1596) ← published the book of the explorations of the companies’ sails to the East *The New Netherlands (current New Yrok, which was done under the Dutch flag) [found by Henry Hudson] - 1609 explored (Hudson) - 1615 first fortification 20  - 1623 province - 1626 purchase of Manhattan Peter Minuit & New Amsterdam - 1664: conquered by England New York The VOC (The United East India Company) ← Dutch were more traders, rather than conquerors (e.g. in a century, they did not conquer the whole Indonesia, rather conquered crucial trade locations; only in the 19th century did they conquer more locations in Indonesia) - Conquest 1605: Spice Islands (Moluccas) [important] - Cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, pepper (this was the base of Dutch monopoly for decades; they destroyed other plantations to gain such monopoly) 1619:Batavia (Java); 1641: Malacca;’ 1658: Ceylon; India [all 17th century] - Trade posts Taiwan (1624; 1662 driven away by Coxinga) Japan (Deshima, 1641-1853 the only Europeans) ← these were the only Europeans allowed to trade w Japan, an d only once a year ← Shows the superior DUtch trade position - Resuppuly points Cape Colony (Jan Van Riebeeck, 1652) - Exploration New Holland (contemporary Australia) and New Zaeland WIC (United West India Company) - Piracy Piet Hein and the Silver Fleet (1628) - War With Spain - Dutch Antilles: 1620-48 With Portugal (which was part of Spain at the time) - Temporary (e.g. Recife / Mauritszstad: 1630-1654) → Dutch did not permanently stay in brazil, Portuguese were able to kick them out With England - 1664 loss of New Netherlands - 1667 conquest of Suriname on England (British Guyana) ENGLAND (1707-: BRITAIN) Cf. other European metropoles - Maritime tradition - Competition (17th: Dutch, 18th: France, 19th: Russia) Vs. other European metropoles - The Irish experience (1536ff.) English particularities Cf. other European metropoles - Maritime tradition - Competition (17th: Dutch, 18th: France, 19th: Russia) 21  Vs. other European metropoles - The Irish experience (1536ff.) - Many settlers (families instead of men) - Technological innovations - Mass-produced articles rather than luxury goods - Profusion rather than scarcity and monopoly The First decade - First: attempts to make own discoveries John Cabot: 1497 Newfoundland - Then: piracy & raids Francis Drake (in peacetime) Henry Morgan in the 1660s - Gradually also war Francis Drake: 1588 Armada Conquest of Spanish or foundation of new colonies England In The Carribean - Gradual conquest of Spanish colonies Many attempts, i.a. Barbados and Guyana permanent 1655: Jamaica (Morgan becomes governor) 1666: Bahamas - Profit from sugar plantations 1773: Jamaica is five times more profitable than BNA [British north America] → that is why British were ready to give up BNA, rather than Jamaica Caribbean planters were willing to pay roughly eight or nine times what a slave costs on the West African coast England in North America (in italics are the reasons for these colonies) [West] - 1607-24: Jamestown (Virginia Company) - economy [first English town] Tobacco, but exhausted soil and prices collapsed Terra nullius and Native Americans - 1620: Plymouth (Pilgrim Fathers) - religion Families & procreation (vs. mixed races in Spain) - 1664: New York - conquest - 1681: Pennsylvania (William Penn & Quakers) - philosophy Tolerance: Philadelphia (‘brotherly love’) Mass migration (British Isles, Germany, …) By the 18th century: 13 colonies 22 British colonies in North America England in Asia [East] - 1600: English East India Company Only 1/10 of means of VOC - First attempts Success in India (1612: Surat on Portuguese) Failure in East Indies (1622: ‘massacre of Amboyna’) - Gradual growth (17th century) 1639: Fort St. George (Madras/Chennai) 1661: Bom Bahia (Bombay/Mumbai) 1690: Fort William (Calcutta/Kolkata) Anglo-Dutch Wars: - Oliver Cromwell (1653-1658 Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland) Expansion of naval fleet - Doubled between 1649 and 1660 Navigation Acts (1651, 1660) - Restricted foreign shipping for trade England and its colonies - 1652-54 * 1664-67 * 1672-74 - 1688: Glorious Revolution ← English were unable to defeat the Dutch William III of Orange marries Mary of England Collaboration - Bank of England & Stock Exchange Dutch keep supremacy until 1720 FRANCE 23 French Particularities (only played role in the 19th c. onwards) - World leader, e.g. in 1700: Territory: France 2x larger than Britain Population: France 3x larger than Britain - Little colonial interest, rathter were focused on the European continent and its conquering Colonies: often big and thinly populated areas - Little development - Little immigration - More about politics than about trade Compagnie des Indes (had their own Indian company as well, proof that still wanted to catch up with other European empires): nobles rather than merchants 1740: French export from India only half of British one The New World - Canda 1534-42: Jacques Cartier explores St. Lawrence 1605: Acadia (south-east of Canada) 1608: Samuel de Champelain founds Québec - French Guyana (1624ff.) - Caribbean (1635ff.) Guadeloupe & Martinique St. Domingue [Haïti] (officially in 1697) [part of Hispaniola] - Louisiana 1682: Cavalier de La Salle sails the mississippi, find Luisiana (city of New orleans) The Old World 1624ff.: Senegal 1664: ° Compagnie française des Indes orientales - Islands in Indian Ocean Réunion, Mauritius, Seychelles - 1673ff.: colonies in India Pondicherry, Chandernagar OTHER METROPOLES Ostend Company (1717-31) [Austria] - 55 ships to China and India - Banquibazar (1726-29/44) Danish East India Company (°1616) Swedish East India Company (1731-1813) Prussia Courland Lecture 5: The Seventy Years’ War (1744-1814) The seventy years war usually is not reffered to like that, rather first into what is called “the Second Hundred Year’s War” 24  - The first decades of the Second Hundred Years’ War [not that relrvasnt to this course, rather it is the second decade] → these wars were also largely fought in colonies, specifically north america - First part (of the Second Hundred Year’s War) Nine Years’ War (1688-97) - Weakened the Netherlands → opened the doors for Britian supremacy in the 18th century Spanish Succession War (1700-1713) - Britain gained Gibraltar & Minorca from Spain [Islands in mediterranean] - Britain gained Acadia from France (USA and Canada present day) → shows that these wars were leading the way to british dominating in the 18th century Austrian Succession War (1740-1748) - France occupied Madras from British, but returns it to Britain after the war [India contemporary] - The Seventy Year’s War (second part of the Hundred Year’s war) Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) The American Independence War (1775-83) The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) Overview of the upcoming chapter: - 1. The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) a) Europe b) India c) America - 2. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) a) British expansion b) The decolonization of Latin America - 3. The white settler colonies a) Canada b) Australia and New Zealand c) White settler colonies in the 19th and 20th century THE SEVEN YEAR’S WAR (1756-1763) A) Europe - The great change of partners / alliances in the Seven years War → key war in European history [fought on different contientnss] 25  Century-old enemies France and Austria (alliance) (and Russia) versus Britain (largest navy) and Prussia (largest land force) - Outcome 900,000 to 1,400,000 deaths: first ‘World War’ Change in the ballance of power → Britain becomes dominant - France 1756: French siege and conquest of Minorca 1759: plans to invade the British Isles ← Defeated in the Battle of Quiberon Bay (1759) - Prussia (Frederick the Great) Financial support from Britain Invasion of Saxony and Bohemia 1757: defeated (Kolin) and retreat 1760: Russian occupation of Berlin and Kolberg 1762: new Russian tsar changes camp B) India - Calcutta British fortify Calcutta against French ← alarmed after the seven year’s war in Europe - After the experience with Madras in 1746-48 Bengal nawab (ruler of Bengal) conquers Calcutta from the British Robert Clive [known as Clive of India] reconquers Calcutta (Jan 1757) → shopwing miliary strength of Brits - Bengal Clive supports new and dependent nawab (new nawab that supports british settlement) → Clive shifting the domestic politics Together CLive and the new candidate → Defeats the old nawab at the battle fo Plassey (June 1757) → seen as the kickstart o the British conquer of India Old nawab creates a coalition against Clive, but are defeated at Buxar by Clive, 1764 → British conquest of Bengal (oen of the richest parts od India) → key change after the Seven Years War is that Britian conquered majority of India (Britian conquering inland of India) Other Powers in India: - French Forced by british → 1764 Chandarnagar and Pondichéry demilitarized → in order to avoid what happened in 1740 9conquering Madras) - Moghuls Dynasty ← Ruled India at the time → succeeded at almost uniting India as a continent; were the strong dynasty of the India from the second part of the 16th century to the 17th → Even when the Euroopeans were settling in India, they saw the Moghuls as trade patterns (even though the Moghuls saw them as lower class) Decline after Aurangzeb (+ 1707) [last great Moghuls, but not the last Moghul ruler, they died in the 19th century] → he identified more w/ ISlam, which meant contestation within INdia, which came at the cost of the whole Mughal empire 26  Delhi sacked by Persians in 1739 (Nader Shah) Delhi sacked by Afghans in 1748-61 (Ahmad Shah Durrani) - Maratha Empire (Hindu Empire in Centreal India) → all of this is happening during the same period as the Seven Years War (meaning while British were gaining Bangal) → so India had less capacity to stop the Brits (e.g. because the Maratha Empire’s power declined) Defeated by Afghans (Battle of Panipat 1761) Afghans vs Maratha Empire → Afghans won (for now the Maratha Empire was defeated) → Afghans return to Kabul after 1761 C. America The Seven Year’s War in America - 1754-1763: French and Indian War (parallel at the time frame to the European Seven Year’s war and Britian conquering India) In particular: the control of the Ohio Country was what they fought for (it was what divided Louisiana (france) and British colonies in America - Different approach France: let the colonies fight for themselves → relates to their overall approach of continental focus (wanted more territory, but didn’t what to develop them) - → French colonies lacked naval support Britain: avoid military commitment on the Continent (they knew that French were stronger in europe, so they thought taking them in north America they would win, since that is the weak point of France) - → British colonies had numerical superiority - British victories 1758: Louisbourg 1759: Québec 1760: Montréal The Seven year’s War: outcome - France loses Nouvelle France (Choice between Carribean and New France) Everything East of Mississipi river went to Britain West of Mississippi river went to Spain - Compensation of the loss of Florida to Britain - Future developments Florida again Spanish in 1783 Louisiana and Florida in 1800 back to France ← Regained Lousiaina and gained Florida 1803: Napoleon sells Louisiana to the United States (which by then ahd become independent) Discussion about Florida; Spain cedes in 1819/21 (gaining to United States) From BNA (British North America Act) to USA - Resentment in BNA London (who won the Seven years war) wants compensation after Seven Years’ War - Protection against France & Native Americans for USA - BNA pays fewer taxes than Carribean colonies 27  BNA reply: ‘No taxation without representation’ - Protest Tea Act (1773) withdrawn after Boston Tea Party (british North Maerica showing opposition) 1774: First Continental Congress (Philadelphia) Summer of 1775: battle of Bunker Hill - The Independence War (1776-1783) Declaration of independence on July 4, 1776 2. THE NAPOLEONIC WAR a) British Expansion → won the 7 years war and wanted to fruther expand Britain and Napoleon: - Egypt: a shortcut to India ← strategically and economically important French victory against Mamluks (Pyramids, 21 July 1798) [Napoleon scored a victory against the local rulers of Egypt] British victory against French (Nile, 1-3 August 1798) [this happened weaks alter after the French victory] ← SHows Egypt’s importance [First time Britian defeated Napoleon] (Syrian expedition of the French after their defeat by the British failed) - Oceans Trafalgar (21 October 1805) → confirms the british dominance over the seas - Metropoles occupied by France (Napoleon) in Europe - → British conquest of new colonies, due to the fact that Spanish, Netherlands were weakened by Napoleon wars in Europe itself. Spain, e.g. Trinidad (1797-1802) Netherlands, e.g. Cape Colony and Ceylon (permanent) British Expansion in India: - Reasons Protection of trade and influence French threat, more imagined than real → thought that France miht ally w Indian rulers (this position came from the French threat that the British fought int eh 7 years war, Secon hunder Year’s war, etc.) - Conquest 1792 & 1799: Mysore (Tipu Sultan which went to France) 1801: Oudh → state which threatened Brits in battle of Bexter 1803: Delhi ← were Moghuls ruled 1802ff. & 1818 Marathas Empires & Rajputs [Rajputs → small states led by princes, soldiers, etc.] 1816: Treaty with Nepal Gurkhas - Reasons fro the British success Indian discord (rulers, castes, religions, ethnicities, etc.) ← Indian contestation within British technological and military superiority B. The Decolonization of Latin America 28 Overview: - Frist Independence: French colony Saint Domingue (Haiti) ~ Slaves’ insurrection - Then: Spanish colonies declared independence (inspired by nationalism, which was brought by Napoleon [ideas of french revolution]) ~ related to Napoleonic Wars in Europe - Finally: Portuguese colony Brazil - Remained colonies:Guyana and Carribean ~ deterrence effect from Haiti → this first wave of independence therefore were only Spanish and French [British north Maerica happened even before this]→ the following colonies wer shocked what happened to haiti, thus they preferred to remain colonies Hispaniola - Haiti 1492-1697 Spanish 1697-1804 French - Saint-Domingue: richest colony in the world → exporting largest production of sugar; also, half of world’s coffee → this was possible because of the regime/repression of the French. The French exhausted soil and labour (slaves) → this explains why Slaves rose into a rebellion → - Insurrection under Toussaint L’Ouverture (1791-1803) [single successful slave insurection in world history] ← inspired by the French revolution - Napoleon’s intervention and Dessalines’ victory (took over L’Ouverture leadership, since he was imprisoned] → Dessaline becomes first ruler of Haiti, established an independent country (1804-06) Empereur Jacques I → the colors of the haitian flag, are the two colors of the French flag, minus the white (hate for the white rulers). - 1804 independent Haiti - Dominican Republic [don’t need for the exam] → became independent and later asked to be a colony again 1492-1795, 1809-21 and 1861-65 Spanish 1795-1805 French 1805-09 and 1821-44 Haitian Hiti’s poverty (1) → example of posto-colonial explanations and how western countries still have a colonial mindset - Stereotypical explanation Nature: mountains and rainfall → nonsense cause Haiti was one of the richest colony of the world in the 18th century Natural disasters (earthquake of 2010) Black emperors as blad rulers ← common in the 19th-20th centuries Voodoo (it originally is a religion, but the West has turned this religion as a mystical bad witchcraft) → impact of 19th century stereotypization, when Europe was 29  frustrated about haiti’s independence (placed its rulers, religion in negative perspective) - French role Deforrestation and erosion under the French Haiti’s debts to France after 1825 → money could not be invested into Haiti’s economy, reather had to pay large debts to French, which they were frightened if not paid, would lead to invasion of France again. Haiti’s poverty (2) - Haiti’s situation Political: international isolation (to prevent Haiti from developing and their independence movements not moving to other colonies arround it) & military priority in hiti, since frightened of invasion and threat of its independance Social: new elite after disappearance of the white Economic: decline of plantation economy - Foreign interference 1915-35 US occupation US support of dictators (who made money for themselves, but did not care about the haitian population) in the Cold War and beyond → rulers: papa Doc and Baby doc Neoliberal measures imposed by the IMF, so that Haiti would get international and US support (simply they were forcibly imposed, since Haiti needed that support to pay the debts to France) → this rved the US in the very first place and then the Western world as well. → weakened Haiti’s economy, since export was much lower and import was very high (tariff tax was forcibly lowered) Spanish colonies (Sotuh america) - First periphery New Granada: Bolívar [now venezuela and Colombia] La Plata: San Martín [Argentina and Cose de…] - Then: center Lima: San Martín and Bolívar New Spain (Mexico) - General Observation Disintegration of independent states Violence Interconnection Continuity New Granada (knowing the century is sufficient, dates are not expected) [Ecuador, Colombia, venezuela] - 1810: Simón Bolívar starts armed struggle 1813: Caracas 1814: Bogota - 1819: Republic of Great Colombia - 1830: disintegration of Great Colombia → 3 new independent states Colombia 30  Venezuela Ecuador Le Plata and Lima - 1810: provisional junta in Buenos Aires 1816: declaration of independent Argentina - 1817: José de San Martín crosses Andes 1818: conquers Chile with Bernardo O’Higgins - 1821: Martin conquers Lima 1822: meeting with Bolívar behind closed doors → martin and Boliva biome presidents of Peru: Peru Presidents inter alia: - Martín (1821-22) - Bolívar (1824-27) 1825 Republic Bolivia - Bolívar first president New Spain - Mexico 1810-1815: pro-Napoleon insurrections (similar to south america) - Defeated by loyals to Spanish throne (elites, plantation owners) → Mexico remained with Spain (spanish colony) 1821: new Spanish constitution - The constitution was too liberal for Conservatives (elite) → Conservative revolution –> independence - Federal Rep. of Cent.-America (1823-1840) Disintegration, due to - Mexican interference - Conflicts between conservatives and liberals Brazil - 1808: Portuguese king João VI settles in Brazil (which matropol leaders rarely did) ← he did so after Napoleon’s annexation of portugal in Continental Europe Remains there after 1815 - 1821: João returns to Lisbon Restoration old balance between Lisbon and Brazil Dom Pedro (son of João) regent in Brazil (satys in brasil) - The king’s son staying in Brussil → Frustration in Brazil Dom Pedro supports nationalists 1822: Brazilian independence under Emperor Pedro - -> Independence under House of Braganza → first decolonization of Protuguese peaceful (the one above), the second violent w plenty of wars Violence: - Between European powers, especially France-Britain E.g. Carribean (1793-96) and Egypt (1798-1801) - Between Europeans and colonials 31  In 9 of the 20 independent countries Colonials often supported by other Europeans - La Fayette in the U.S. ← French supported the US troops against Britian - Conversly Britain supports Haiti and Spanish (former) colonies, in order to weaken France and Spain then ruled by Napoleon - Between colonials Loyalists and revolutionaries in the U.S. Slave insurrection in Haiti - Most quiet country: Brazil Interconnection - Observation and participation in BNA/U.S. Dominican (‘Haitian’) mulattos in French army BNA South American revolutionaries - Direct influence U.S. support to Haitian insurrection in 1790s Haitian asylum to Bolívar (twice) - Reverse consequences of struggles for independence: Canadian nation grows out of anti-revolutionarism Carribean landowners prefer colonial status-quo to repetition of Haiti Continuity - Social continuity Elite: white and affluent minority → no social revolutionary change. But this elite was mostly a minority - Exceptions: U.S. (majority) and Haiti (black) U.S. and Brazil maintain slavery ← lack of social change (slavery was not abolished w decolonization,r ather this would happen in the course fo the 19th century - the first country to abolish this was Great Britain; the former colonies were among the latest to abolish slavery.--> Brazil alst country to abolish slavery) - Political continuity Coolonies turnt to Empires: Haiti, Brazil, Mexico - Reaction against liberal systems in home countries Exception: constitutional confederationin the U.S. , rather than turning into an empire - Other confederations fail (e.g. unlike rep of Great Colombia) - Economic continuity Producer goods 9plantations, etc.) , free trade THE WHITE SETTLER COLONIES A. Canada B. Australia and New Zealand C. White settler colonies in the 19th and20th century Canada: The US and Canda 32  - British since 1764 but large French Population ( due to the large, but undeveloped colony of New Frane, which they gave up after the defeat in teh 7 years war, which was shared to Britian and Spain) - US attempts to conquer north [Canada] (1775-77) Took Montreal and attacked Québec, but eventually failed Not successful in mobilizing Frenchpopulation ← Britain had respected language, religionand property → the French believed they were better under the British, rather US - Continuing hostility Britain [Canda] supported Native Americans Britian was preventing trade between US and France → New US attempt 1812-1815 invasion of Canda, but it failed and Canda remained British (this is in the context of Napoleon’s loss in europe - meaning less support to US) Developments in Canda - Immigration of 40,000 to 60,000 loyalists (British, which were escaping US) → due to this immigration nthe majority of the French popularity, was diluted by the large share of brits → tensions between the French speaking and Enlgihs pseakinf 18th c.: majority of inhabitants of Frenchorigin Mid-19th c.: majority of British origin - Constitutional Act (1791) To accommodate English-speaking settlers Division of the province of Québec (due to the tensions) - Canada West / Upper Canada (Ontario):English law - Canda East / Lower Canda (Quebec): French law Durham Report (1838) - Rebellion of 1837 in the Canadas (resem,blance of BNA rebellion prior) House of Assembly neglected by London governor Cf. United States two generations earlier - Lord Durham writes a report and detects two problems (so that BNA rebellion does not occur to the british): Lack of People’s representation and control (conflict between governor and House of Assembly) - Durnham to resolve this established a legislative Assembly w power and control (remained british, but had its own legislative powers) - 1848: Responsible government in Nova Scotia Ethnic conflict between French andEnglish - 1840: Act of Union (United Province of Canada) [English and Franch parts unites] - Encouraged immigration from Britain to Canada → to dilute the dominance of French speakers (but still respected the French) Responsible Government in Canada - What? Governments are responsible to parliament rather than to the monarch or the imperial government - When and Where 33  1848: Nova Scotia 1849: United Province of Canada 1851: Prince Edward Island 1854: New Brunswick 1855: Newfoundland Dominion of Canada - Constitution Act 1867→ one single dominant created from 4 provinces United Province of Canada (1840-)impracticable Three colonies formed into fourprovinces - Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia Canada: a federal dominion with own institutions - Autonomous polity nominally under Britishsovereignty - Later additions, inter alia: 1871: British Columbia 1873: Prince Edward Island 1898: Yukon 1905: Saskatchewan & Alberta AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND Exploration of the pacific - Continuity w previous centuries Cf. also future centuries: Africa – Poles –Space - Culture Fascination with the far away and thesavage (e.g. Guliver’s travels novel) - Science (enlightenment) Myth of a large southern continent: TerraAustralis 1753: A treatise of the scurvy (vitamin C) - Political Great Britain: vs. Dutch Cape of GoopHope Early voyages in the Pacific - Jacob Roggeveen (1721-22): EasterIsland - Vitus Bering (1728): strait betweenAsia & America - John Byron (1764-65): Falklands - Samuel Wallis (1767-68): Tahiti - Louis de Bougainville (1766): first Frenchman who circumnavigated the globe - George Vancouver (1791-95): chartedNorth America’s northwestern Pacific Coast regions - Matthew Flinders (1801-03):circumnavigated Australia The voyages of James Cook - First voyage (1768-71) Mapped New Zealand Landed at Botany Bay and claims land for Britain Contribution to science: many uniqueplant specimens - Second voyage (1772-75) Crossed Antarctic Circle and nearly encountered mainland Antarctica 34  - Third Voyage (1776-79) Hawaii and coastline California-Alaska Killed by Hawaii locals on return A nation of shoplifters (nickname of Autstralia) → since majority of first settlers were criminals - Britian was in `need for new penal colony after loss of BNA Since BNA: 40,000 convicts by 1777 → colonies used as large open prisons - 1787: first ships w criminals to Sydney 26 January 1788: establishment of newpenal colony Australia’s National Day - Convicts liberated after some years Only 1 in 14 returns home, rest startsnew life 1828: for first time more free people thanconvicts 1868: last convicts’ transportation Australian Society - White colony Procreation (eight months on sea) Steep decline of population of 350,000Aboriginals - Disease, resettlement, cultural disintegration - Tasmania: regulated ethnocide - Economic dev Land acquisitions from Aboriginals Urban development (governor Lachlan Macquarie) Sheep and gold Territorial expansion - Initially (1788): New South Wales - Eventually: six colonies Inter alia: - Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania): 1803 settled,1825 colony 1 - 829: Britain claims western part of Australia - 1859: Queensland - Unification 1901: Commonwealth of Australia 1908-27: construction of Canberra(Capital Territory) - Growing autonomy New Zealand - 1839 New Zealand Company Promotion of settlement and trade - 1840 treaty of Waitanfi w Maori chiefs New Zealand as bi-cultural society, but: - Differences between English and Maoriversions - Ignored by settlers and courts - Maori Wars 1845-47 & 1860-72 Maori population - 1841: 70-90,000 (vs. 2000 Europeans) - 1896: 42,000 (vs. 701,000 Europeans) 35 Pacific - Tahiti 1797 British missionaries 1842 French military ship annexes island - New Caledonia Annexed for France in 1853 Major prison colony (10,500 convicts in1901) Major settlers’ colony (54,000 French in1983) - Geraman New Guinea: Kaiser Wilhelmsland etc. White settler colonies in the 19th and 20th century OVERVIEW: - Migration - Responsible government - Dominions - Interconnectedness - Erosion of the ties with Britain MIGRATION: - 1500-1783 1.4 million European migrants to the NewWorld - 1815-1914 22.6 million people left the British Isles 62% to the US Mainly Irish - 1918- White Australia Policy (1901-1949/73) ← white ppl easily allowed into Australia than others 1922: Canada attracts migrants (Empire Settlement Act) → attracts high skilled British, since they were in need of this. Also, continued, e.g. Eastern Europeans during war; But it also refused other immigrant flows. 1924: immigration quotas in the US Responsible government - 1848-55: Canada ( Crown Rule - Russia: the Crimean War (1854-56)← this stopped Russian expansion in Asia, since they had to focus on internal turmoil France and Britian assisting the Ottomans in fighting the war against the Russians. → The Russians were defeated at home (in Crimea). - → New Russian conquest from the 1860s 1858 and 1860: Far East (Khabarovsk & Vladivostok) 1860s & 1870s: Most of the Central Asia (Russian winning in the “Great Game”) - (1864: Chimkent & Tashkent; 1868: Samarkand; 1873: Khiva, Bukhara; 1876: Kokand; 1881: Turkmenistan) - Russia succeeding in the “Great Game”→ revived British imperialism in the 1870s E.g.Queen Vicotria crowned as the Empress of India (1876) New British Expansion after the Russian expansion (“Great Game” threat), so that Russia would not dominate Asia and threaten India - 1876: British conquest of Balochistan - 1877: East Turkestan to China Mutual distrust London & Saint-Pteresburg - 1878-80: Second Afghan War Second British defeat in Afghanistan - Tibet 1895: Dalai Lama starts pro-Russian policy → alarmed the Brits 1904: British expedition and conquest of Lhasa (capital of Tibet) - After the conquest, Treaty between Tibet and Britain singed on free trade and borders ← But China does not recognize this, as see that they have claim of Tiber 39  1906: China recognized as sovereign of Tibet ← agreed by Russia and Britian, since neither wanted to control it. Both wanted to ensure that neither one would gain control, since then direct conflict, since Tibet bordered British India) - 1911: Tibet independent theocracy after collapse Chinese empire - 1950s: Tibet re-conquest by Mao The end of the “Great Game” (beginning of the 20th century) - Why? The decline of Russia - Defeated in Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 (was unexpected) → Russians lost relevance in the British eyes - Bolshevik revolution The rise of Germany - How? 1907: Alliance between London and SPb (Saint Petersburg), following - Franco-Russian alliance of 1892 - Entente Cordiale between France and Britain of 1904 - -> Triple Entente (Britian, France and Russia) [nucleas of the WW1 allies] → imperial history connected to the world wars Division of Persia in spheres of influence (it was not annexed by wars, it was just imposed, sinced by that point the persians were already so weaked) → North under Russian, Southers under British (access to Persian wealth) - Central Persia part independent ← neutral country (Belgium) controlled the Persian emperor and the Persian customs The Anglo-Burmese (present day Myanmar) Wars → Burmese conquered in three wars) [the details of the conquering are not crucial] - First War (1824-26) Annexation of northern and southern coast Resident in capital Ava - Second War (1852) Annexation of entire coastline (incl. Rangoon/Yangôn) - Third War (1885) Following Franco-Burmese collaboration Annexation of the entire country - (1937: Initially British Indi, but the turned to separate status) - (1948: independence (now: Myanmar)) Southeast Asia The collapse of the VOC (United Dutch Chartered East India Company) - Gradual decline of the VOC throughout the 18th century VOC in growing debt Vergaan Onder Corruptie: Perish by corruption - 1780-84: Fourth Anglo-Dutch war → in the 1th century th Dutch had wone all the wars, but in the 18th century, Britain won Following Dutch support of American rebels Dutch defeat, but limited losses to Britain 40  End of the Dutch monopoly in South East Asia - 1794-1806: Batavian Republic ← France established this republic in the place of Netherlands Complicates link between Amsterdam and Java due nto the French involvement → 1796/9: bankrupcy VOC 1800: Dutch government takes over VOC proprerty The British in South East Asia - (1806-14: Dutch Kingdom under Louis Napoleon) - 1811-15: Dutch East Indies occupied by Britain 1814 (this was the convention) & 1824 (this was the treaty): Convention and Treaty of London → united Kingdoms of the Netherlands - Java & Sumatra to the Dutch (strong buffer) - Other colonies to the British (e.g. India and North Borneo) - Following the defeat of Napoleon the Brits decided which colonies could become Dutch again and which ones they take over themselves → The Dutch no longer have colonies in India. - Brits take control of the Malaysian Peninsula → controls the strait through which all trade between East Asia and Europe goes First: Brits founded seperate settlements - 1786: Penang; 1819: Singapore (Founded by Thomas Raffles); 1824: Malacca 1826: All the mentione settlements above were united into the Straits Settlements - 1867: the settlements became the crown colony Penetrated the inland of Malaysia→ 1895: Federated and Unfederated Malay States [but the straits settlements remained independant] Dutch Expansion in the Dutch East Indies (e..g. Java, Batavia (present day Jakarta)) → due to the Netherlands being so busy in the Dutch East Indies, they did ot partake in the scarmmble for Africa - Much resistance Against taxes, immigration of coolies (immigration of cheap labout from China), interference,... Islam as a factor of opposition and mobilization - Gradual expansion Different wars, e.g. Java (1825-30) & Aceh (1873-1908) → the Dutch however, after many struggles, conquered Bali conquered in 1846-49, controled in 1906 Bird’s Head Peninsula (West Papua) controled in 1920 - Further development E.g. Bandung: the global capital of Art Deco French Indochina [regio between India and China: Vietnam, Cambodia, etc.) French Interest - Religion: many French missionaries - Politics: competition with Britain (mid-19th century) French exclusion from India (even though they still had settlements there, they were demilitarized) Continuous British expansion (India, Straits, Burma), hence Frnace decided they also needed colonies to increase their revenues 41  Napoleon III ← he had imperial ambitions - Trade: ‘Faire de Saïgon un nouveau Singapour’ (turn Saigon into a second Singapore) Gradual industrialization in France - Need of new markets and new resources Vitnam (through its rivers, like the Mekong, Tonkin rivers) as a steppingstone to the newly opening Chinese market Conquest of Indochina [all I need to know that nit happens from 1860 and 1870s, but the details do not need to be memorised. Thebyears are not crucial, but the importance of the rivers need to be known] - 1860s: Cochinchina 1859-61: conquest and siege of Saigon 1862 (from Annam), 1863 (Cambodia), 1867 1866-68: Mekong river appears unuseful for trade, hence they got interested in Tonking (North of Vietnam) - 1870s & 1880s: Tonkin 1873: Garnier takes Hanoi but dies - 1890s & 1900s: further expansion inland and pacification Laos (1893) and parts of Siam Siam - Single non colonized country in South East Asia Buffer between British India and French Indochian (here the same thing happened as in Tibet) Competent kings of Siam Example of neighbouring countries Use of Western knowledge for modernization (Belgium helped the Siam king in modernising the country) - But not isolated to european colonization Concedes territory → both Britiana and French carved territories from Siam Indirect colonisation by means of trade (economy was in European hands) - Turn of century: 95% of export in foreign hands - Extraterritoriality & unequal treaties - 1939: Siam -> Thailand (‘land of the free’) China Ming (1368-1644) - Restoration of prestige Power over Korea, Mongolia, Siam, Vietnam, etc. Tribute from Japan, Java, Ceylon, East Africa, etc. - Contacts with European Traders (from 1514) - 1557: Portuguese (Macau) - 1622: Dutch Received Christian Missionaries - Matteo Ricci (1583-1610) - Ferdinand Verbiest (1659-1688) 42 Mind Dynasty was succeeded with the Qing Dynasty [last dynasty of China] (1644-1911) - Powerful in the 18th century 1759-1842 trade only via guild in Canton ← gained control w trade w Europe and reduced trade to one particular stop w Europe (Canton) [only on particular days, in particular spot (Caonton) could the Europeans trade w Chinese] → Canton is the region where you find Macau and Hong-Kong (British Colony from the 1840s) Trade was strong → exported more than imported: Export of tea, silk and china; import of silver ← they did not need a lot of imports besides silver, thus had a positive trade balance Tributary system and positive trade balance ← traders w China were forced to provide tributes to the CHinese emepror if they wanted to trade, showing that they were strong - Decline in the 19thn century White Lotus rebellion 1796-1804 ← hit the prestige of th Qing dynasty. While it was eventually crushed by the dynasty, it scattered the myth of the invincibility of the Qing dynasty → weaekning the Chinese strength in the eyes of Europe Growing economic and technological backwardness compared w Europe Opium trade ← Europeans tride to solve the negative trade balance (which Europe experienced) - Britain sells Indian opium to China in order to pay trade - Chinese trade balance turns negative - Social consequences of opium use The First Opium War (1839-42) - Course March 1839: Chinese destroy a ship with opium in Canton → British reaction: British conquer Canton, Shanghai en Nanjing. (this British imperialism is taking palace at several places → since same time the first Afghan war (where they were not succesful), however they were successful in the First opium War). - Brits impsoed the treaty after defeating the CHinese → Treaty of Nanjing (1842) No end to opium trade → further disrupting the CHinese society Brits claimed the Hong Kong as a British colony Brits demanded concession Five ports in mainland China: → this meant that the Chinese were no longer in control of the trade that they controlled w Europe, rather now the Brits controlled the trade w/ China: - Fixed and published rates and tariffs - Extraterritoriality → some parts of cities were controlled by Europeans. Chinese authorities no longer had power in those areas. - These type of treaties would further expand not only in China, but also in Siam (Vietnmam) → they were called - ‘Unequal treaties’ with France and US A whole system of treaty ports emerged The Second Opium War (1856-60) - Resistance in Guangdong against opening port 1856: incident with Arrow (British ship, Chinese arrested chinese memebers of the crew, which were involved in the opium trade) → in response to what the European 43  saw as Chinese acting ‘illegally’, hence used this as an excuse for a second opium warv → British and French conquer Canton en Tianjin - The second war led to a new treaty → 1858: Treaty of Tianjin [spelled in 19yth century → Tientsin] No restriction for Christian missionaries Right to residence in Beijing for Western diplomats ← prior to that it was the Chinese emperor who controlled the European diplomatic presence, however this changed and foreign nations were allowed to build embassies. - The treaty being such a cultural shift, it led to a new protest → therefore, the new diploamts were - 1859: representatives chased away - 1860: French-British penal expedition in Beijing → aimed at punishing the Chinese for having chased away the European diplomats Emperor deposed the emperor and summer palace was destroyed (a crucial Chinese emperor complex of places, which was one fo the most important) Russians profit in Far East ← russians also expanded their territory in the far east (refers to the “Great Mutiny” - Russians after the second opium war were profitting off of the CHinese weakness) After the Second Opium were, decades of stagnation and collaboration followed (since the CHinese authorities knew that they had to accept their defeat, however they utilized the European military power to crush rebellions → Collaboration in the 1860s - Suppression Taiping rebellion [Chinese used European military power to crush this rebellion, which was against the Chinese emperor] 1851: egalitarian, monotheistic and anti-Manchu