CHAPTER 2: The Education, Training and Development Environment in South Africa PDF

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CHAPTER 2 THE EDUCATION, TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this chapter you should be able to describe various factors that may affect training and development in organisations describe the Human Resource Development Strategy and National Skills Development Strategy for South Africa discuss the main elements of the National Qualifications Framework Act, Skills Development Act and the Skills Development Levies Act define the aim and scope of the National Qualifications Framework. 2.1 Overview The desire to remain in step with economic, social and technological change and still remain competitive in the marketplace has turned the requirement for training and retraining into an exceptionally important issue for both employers and employees. Training and development practitioners should therefore take cognisance of all the external factors that can impact on training and development in an organisation. As this chapter will highlight, a large percentage of South Africa’s population is unskilled. The numbers are simply too great for the formal education system to bear. Organisations therefore have a responsibility to contribute towards the effective education, training and development of their employees, thereby helping to counter national illiteracy. A major challenge faced by any organisation is to train and develop its employees in a way that equips them with the necessary Copyright 2015. Oxford University Press Southern Africa. knowledge, skills and attitudes to do their work successfully. In Chapter 1 the emphasis was on aspects relating to the management of training and development in organisations. In this chapter, the focus is on the external factors influencing training and development in organisations, specifically those aspects that need to be considered in the formulation of a training and development strategy and policy for the organisation. Other aspects discussed in this chapter are the South Africa’s Human Resource Development Strategy, and the Skills Development Strategy for South Africa as well as the training-and development-related legislation. 2.2 An overview of the factors that affect training, development, and work in organisations EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY AN: 1161703 ; Erasmus, Loedolff, Mda, Nel.; Managing Training and Development 7e Account: s8416366.main.ehost 63  The development of the labour force is a high priority within the South African labour dispensation. Education and training are two of the most important factors that will influence economic growth in a positive way, create political stability, and encourage social success. However, certain important factors can affect the training and development of employees in South African organisations (see Chapter 1, Section 1.8.4.4). The focus of this section of the chapter is on the factors that will influence the world of work, but more importantly, the training and development agenda in organisations. Eight factors that impact on organisations are briefly discussed, namely population profile, education levels, unemployment, the supply and demand for labour, technological acceleration, HIV/Aids, changes in society, and the availability of energy sources. Before we continue, let us put the focus of this book in context. The focus is on the management of training and development of people in organisations. We know that it is at the heart of any society to satisfy its economic needs and this is done through the establishment of organisations (businesses, profit and non-profit). Entrepreneurs start a business, and in the process create jobs, economic growth is generated, and prosperity follows. It is a fact that an organisation cannot exist without human activity, such as people who manage machines, money and other resources to create an output to benefit society. A business cannot operate in a vacuum, but is an integrated part of a total economy (country-specific and the world) and is more or less affected by certain factors depending on the industry and context. The purpose of training and development of human resources in an organisation (see Section 1.8), given its own context, is to equip those people working in organisations with the requisite knowledge, skills and attitudes to achieve organisational objectives. In order to achieve those objectives, organisations have to consider whether or not each of the eight factors discussed in the rest of the chapter or a combination thereof could influence decisions on how to approach a training or development interventions. However, it is recommended that as a start, all these factors should be analysed individually to understand its impact before choices are made to ignore some of them. 2.2 Population profile.1 In 2011 South Africa’s third census since the introduction of the democratic era was conducted. The results show that the South African population has increased with approximately 7 million from 2001 to 51,77 million in 2011. Further important census statistics are provided below:1 51,3% of the population were female and 48,7% were male. Africans are in the majority, making up 79,2% of the total population, followed by white and coloureds at 8,9% and Indians at 2,5%. The provinces of Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal account for 42% of South Africa’s population, with approximately 23,7% people living in Gauteng and 19,8% in KwaZulu-Natal. Although the Northern Cape is the largest province in South Africa, it is an arid region with the smallest population only 2,2% (+ 1,15 million) people. The fastest growing province is the Western Cape, growing by 29% between 2006 and 2011. Nearly one-third (29,6%) of the population is younger than 15 years, and a further 28,9% is aged between 15–34 years. Approximately 8,01% is 60 years and older. To provide a more comprehensive picture, the 2013 midyear important population statistics are provided below:2 For 2013, Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) estimated the mid-year population as 52,98 million. Approximately 51% (+ 27,16 million) of the population is female. Gauteng comprises the largest share of the South African population. Approximately 12,7 million people (24,0%) live in this province. KwaZulu-Natal is the province with the second largest population, with 10,5 million people (19,7%) living in this province. with a population of approximately 1,16 million people (2,2%), The Northern Cape remains the province with the smallest share of the South African population. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 64  About 29,2% of the population is aged younger than 15 years and approximately 7,8% (4,15 million) is 60 years or older. Of these, younger than 15 years, approximately 22% (3,42 million) live in KwaZulu-Natal and 19,5% (3,01 million) live in Gauteng. Migration is an important demographic process in shaping the age structure and distribution of the provincial population. For the period 2006–2011 it is estimated that approximately 264 449 people will migrate from the Eastern Cape, Limpopo is estimated to experience a net out-migration of nearly 227 919 people. During the same period, Gauteng and the Western Cape are estimated to experience a net inflow of migrants of approximately 1 046 641 and 307 411 respectively. Life expectancy at birth for 2013 was estimated at 57,7 years for males and 61,4 years for females. The infant mortality rate for 2013 was estimated at 41,7 per 1 000 live births. The estimated overall HIV prevalence rate is approximately 10%. The total number of people living with HIV was estimated at approximately 5,26 million in 2013. For adults aged 15–49 years, an estimated 15,9% of the population is HIV positive. Other factors that could affect population numbers are: the emigration (of whites in particular) the ageing white and Indian populations the impact of urbanisation on fertility and lifestyle/health preferences the possibility that a cure will be found for HIV/Aids the number of immigrants to South Africa. Gratton3 is of the opinion that demography and longevity forces will significantly influence the workplace, for example, the way we think and the tools we use because of the adoption and influence of technology and for how long we will be working. According to this author there will be three aspects of demography that will influence work in the future, namely generations cohorts, birth rates and longevity. The generation cohorts in the South African workforce of today display four distinct generations: the baby boomers (born around 1945 to 1964), generation X (born around 1965 to 1979), generation Y (born around 1980 to 1995) and generation Z (born after 1995). Generation Z are about to enter the workforce soon. (See more about the differences of the generation groups at http://www.wmfc.org/uploads/GenerationalDifferencesChart.pdf.) Organisations not only need to take into account the factors discussed above when developing training and development programmes that focus on organisational needs, but it is also a reality that most employees in organisations are adult students. It is therefore essential that cognisance be taken of their learning styles and preferences to achieve success in any training and development endeavour. Older workers need to be enabled to adapt to changing external influences such as technology-driven systems and processes. Furthermore, training and development efforts in organisations will have to focus on the black population to give effect to employment equity legislation without neglecting the other population groups. Training and development programmes to develop the diverse workforce in South Africa need to focus on, among other things literacy, numeracy, conflict handling, supervisory skills and management development. As generation Z will be entering the workplace soon, known for their particular technological skills focusing on connectivity, this generation will also grow up surrounded by different challenges and value systems. While generations X and Y will be managing their careers, baby boomers will be leaving organisations, and by 2025 most will have left, taking with them critical institutional knowledge and know-how which need to be managed proactively by means of mentorship, coaching, training of scarce skills, to name but a few priority areas. 2.2 Education levels.2 Table 2.1 shows the highest education levels of the South African population, based on the 2011 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 65  Census data and the 2012 General Household Survey (GHS) published by Stats SA. TABLE 2.1 Highest education levels of the South African population LEVEL OF EDUCATION CENSUS 2011 2012 Percentage Percentage No schooling 8,6% 5,8% Some primary education 12,2% 10,9% Completed primary education 4,6% 5,3% Some secondary education 33,8% 38,0% Grade 12/Standard 10 28,4% 27,2% Higher education 12,1% 12,5% Other 0,4% 0,3 Source: Statistics South Africa4 Table 2.1 shows that the percentage of individuals aged 20 years and older who have obtained Grade 12 has decreased from 28,4% in the 2011 Census to 27,2% in the 2012 General Household Survey (GHS) published by Stats SA. Over the same period, the percentage of individuals with some post-school (higher) education increased with 0.4% (from 12,1% to 12,5%) from 2011 to 2012, and the percentage of individuals without schooling decreased from 8,6% (in 2011) to 5,8% in 2012. The highest percentage of individuals without schooling during the survey conducted in 2012 was observed in Limpopo (11,6%) and Mpumalanga (10,6%), while the percentages were the lowest in the Western Cape (1,5%) and Gauteng (1,9%). According to the 2011 Census data, approximately 20,8% of the population is functionally illiterate, in other words, has a Grade 5 or lower qualification, or no schooling at all. However, according to the General Household Survey (2012), improved access to schooling has led to a decrease in the percentage of functionally illiteracy in the 20–39 age group. In summary, despite the number of literacy programmes run by the private sector and government departments, literacy levels in South Africa remain low. About 92,9% of adults and 96,8% of the youth (15 to 24 years) are considered functionally literate (in other words, they can read and write). This figure compares well with literacy levels in other developing countries such as Nigeria (61,3%), India (74,4%), and Mozambique (56,1%), Zimbabwe (90,7%), Mexico (93,4%), Malaysia (93,1%) and Brazil (90,4%), but it does not compare well with the US (99%), the United Kingdom (UK) (99%) and Australia (96%). In 2012, nearly 38,0% of the population aged 20 years and older had completed their secondary education. Table 2.2 summarises the number of graduates by qualification type in 2011. TABLE 2.2 Number of graduates per qualification type in 2011 QUALIFICATION TYPE NUMBER OF GRADUATES Undergraduate, certificates and diplomas 53 012 Undergraduate degrees 64 547 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 66  Post-graduate degrees 31 800 Master’s degrees 9 691 Doctoral degrees 1 576 Total 160 626 Source: Department of Higher Education and Training5 Table 2.2 shows that over 160 000 students graduated with degrees, or received certificates/diplomas, from public higher education institutions in 2011. About 10 000 students graduated with a Master’s degree, while just over 1 500 students graduated with a Doctoral degree. The report furthermore indicates that the majority of graduates or students receiving diplomas were in the fields of Science, Engineering and Technology and Business. Because of the high cost of education and training, and the high costs associated with the government’s reconstruction and development programme and its National Planning Commission initiatives (see Section 2.2.4 as well), the South African economy will have to grow by a minimum of 7% per annum for the next five years in order to accommodate these programmes. However, if South Africa is to become a competitive nation, education levels will have to be increased. It is indicated that the lower the level of education, the less likely it is for an individual to be employed in the formal sector. Only about 45% of those people with no education were employed in the formal sector. The opposite also holds true – the higher the level of education, the more likely the person is to be employed in the formal sector – 85,4% of people with a Grade 12 and higher qualification were employed in the formal sector. The Minister for Higher Education and Training published a Green Paper for Post-school Education and Training in 2012, where significant new changes were suggested to address the challenges facing South Africa. Comments were obtained from various stakeholders in the post-school system and were incorporated into the White Paper published in 2014. The aim of the White Paper is to outline the framework that defines the Department’s focus and priorities with regards to higher education and training in South Africa for the period up to 2030 (White Paper) (see textbox below as well as Annexure A). THE WHITE PAPER: BUILDING AN EXPANDED, EFFECTIVE AND INTEGRATED POST-SCHOOL SYSTEM The White Paper seeks to set out a vision for the type of post-school education and training system the South African government aims to achieve by 2030. It was developed after consideration of the nearly 200 responses to the Green Paper received from various stakeholders in the post-school system. The post-school system is understood as comprising all education and training provision for those who have completed school, those who did not complete their schooling, and those who never attended school. It consists of the following institutions, which fall under the auspices of the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET): 23 public universities 50 public technical and vocational education and training (TVET) colleges (formerly known as further education and training (FET) colleges) public adult learning centres (soon to be absorbed into the new community college) private post-school institutions (registered private FET colleges and private higher education institutions, also to be renamed TVET colleges) the SETAs and the National Skills Fund (NSF) EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 67  regulatory bodies responsible for qualifications and quality assurance in the post-school system – the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) and the Quality Councils. The White Paper sets out strategies to improve the capacity of the post-school education and training system to meet South Africa’s needs. It outlines policy directions to guide the DHET and the institutions for which it is responsible in order to contribute to building a developmental State with a vibrant democracy and a flourishing economy. Its main policy objectives are: a post-school system that can assist in building a fair and equitable democratic South Africa a single, coordinated post-school education and training system expanded access, improved quality and increased diversity of provision a stronger and more cooperative relationship between education and training institutions and the workplace a post-school education and training system that is responsive to the needs of individual citizens, employers in both public and private sectors, as well as a broader societal and developmental objective. Source: Department of Higher Education and Training6 2.2 Unemployment.3 High unemployment levels in South Africa are related to high population growth, low economic growth and a declining number of production processes that require labour. According to the Quarterly Labour Force Survey (Quarter 4) of February 2014,7 South Africa has an estimated 35,0 million people aged between 15 and 64 years (working age population) (see Table 2.3). Among these people approximately 20,0 million (57%) were economically active, of whom: 15,2 million (43%) were employed 4,8 million (13,7%) were unemployed 15,0 million were not economically active. TABLE 2.3 Key labour market indicators EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 68  Source: Statistics South Africa8 The characteristics of the unemployed are as follows: 1,5 million lost their jobs. 316 000 left their jobs. 1,9 million are new entrants to the job market. 237 000 have re-entered the job market. The characteristics of the not economically active are as follows: 6,2 million were students. 2,9 million were home-makers. 1,7 million were too old or too young to work. 1,2 million were discouraged job seekers. This implies that the official unemployment rate is estimated to be 24,1%. There was a decrease (0,4%) in the unemployment rate in the fourth quarter of 2013 compared to the third quarter of 2013 (see textbox: Unemployment rate eases to 24,1%).9 The decline in the unemployment rate could be attributed to a decline in the unemployment rate in six of the nine provinces. The highest decreases were observed in the Northern Cape (42,9%), Eastern Cape (27,8%) and Western Cape (21,0%). The Free State had the highest unemployment rate (33,0%), while Limpopo had the lowest unemployment rate (16,9%). In comparison to the same period last year, the official unemployment rate increased the largest amount in North-West (4,1%). Blacks had the highest unemployment rate (27,1%) and whites the lowest (7,2%) in the country. The unemployment rate for women (37,7%) exceeded that of men (34,0%) in all population groups. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 69  UNEMPLOYMENT RATE EASES TO 24,1% South Africa’s unemployment rate eased to 24,1% in the fourth quarter of 2013 from a revised 24,5% in the third quarter. The number of jobs increased by 141 000 in the quarter, largely due to an increase of 123 000 jobs in the informal sector and 64 000 jobs in the formal sector. Most of the increase was among people with temporary and short-term contracts. The portion of South African’s with jobs, at 43,3%, is still below the pre-recession peak of 46,2% observed in the fourth quarter of 2008. The informal non-agricultural sector’s jobs increased by 123 000 over the fourth quarter, while the formal sector agricultural jobs increased by 64 000. Over the course of the quarter, the agricultural sector and private households shed 27 000 and 20 000 jobs respectively. The number of unemployed people decreased by 50 000 over the period, while the labour force grew by 91 000. Source: SouthAfrica.info10 Lower unemployment rates are found among those with low educational qualifications and those with post-matric qualifications. The highest unemployment rates are found among those with educational qualifications between Grade 8 and Grade 12, applying to both men and women. Across all educational levels, the unemployment rates for women exceed those of men. It is discouraging to note the high unemployment rate when at the same time we are also faced with skills shortages. It should also be noted that 62,6% of the unemployed are younger than 34 years old, which means that young people are seeking jobs, but the majority are from previously disadvantaged communities and have probably never worked in the formal sector before (see textbox: SA youth unemployment third highest in the world). In 2011 the National Planning Commission (NPC) identified that not enough people are employed and declared that this is one of the future challenges to address (see textbox: NPC Highlights in Section 2.2.4). The New Growth Path, released during November 2010 by the Minister of Economic Development, indicated that five million jobs need to be created by 2020. This means all role players need to take an active role in improving educational and skill levels in South Africa. SA YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT THIRD HIGHEST IN THE WORLD According to the World Economic Forum, South Africa has the third highest unemployment rate in the world for people between the ages of 15 and 24. The report further estimates that more than 50% (approximately 73 million) of young South Africans between 15 and 24 are unemployed, and are therefore also known as the ‘lost generation’. The report further states that more than 25% of the world’s youth have no productive work, and females and younger individuals are affected the most by environmental risks such as water crises, greater incidence of natural catastrophes, and extreme weather events. Source: Fin2411 2.2 The supply and demand for labour.4 The labour market is an imaginary market where labour in the form of a person wanting to ‘work’ presents him-or herself to an employer who may or may not wish to ‘buy’ the person’s services.12 The employer is normally in a stronger position than the worker. For this reason, labour legislation EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 70  has been introduced to ensure fairness, and to acknowledge the rights of workers and trade unions with the aim of encouraging a long-term relationship between employer and employee. When a person (seller) and the employer (buyer) agree to begin a work relationship, such agreement is formulated in a contract of employment regulating conditions of service. The supply of labour (people available to work) consists of persons and groups with a variety of skills, demographic profiles and personality traits. These people sell their services at different prices, depending on geographical area and type of occupation and economic activity. Whereas the supply of labour in South Africa has in the past increased due to a high population growth, it has recently declined (see Section 2.2.2). The changes are due to lower fertility rates in all population groups due to, among others: higher educational levels better living standards urbanisation more women working (women now form about 60% of the economically active population) a higher mortality rate due to HIV/Aids (see Section 2.2.6) the high influx of illegal immigrants the brain drain. The demand for labour is a ‘derived demand’. It is derived from the demand for goods provided by the employer, and is therefore affected indirectly by economic conditions in the country and directly by the cost of labour and the productivity of labour. The nature and the competitiveness of the organisation will also determine the demand for labour. In 2014 Higher Education Minister, Blade Nzimande, published the national scarce skills list and top 100 occupations in demand (see textbox: Summary of the National Scare Skills List: Top 100 occupations in demand (2014)) in the Government Gazette No. 37678 of 23 May 2014. The Human Resource Development Strategy of South Africa 2010–2030 (refer to Section 2.3) puts emphasis on the need for a national scarce skills list which is aligned to the country’s social and economic priority goals. Information about scarce skills is therefore vital for the development of these skills in South Africa. The list was released in May 2014 for comments from interested parties. Some of the problems in the labour market are:13 poverty income equality unemployment high cost of labour low productivity. The success of South African organisations depends on the quality of labour, among other things. All initiatives by government and in particular the Department of Labour aim to improve the status of workers and enhance skills (see Section 2.2.2), with the ultimate aim being to improve the competitiveness of organisations and to contribute to economic growth. Several suggestions have been made to improve the skilled labour shortages: Primary and secondary education should be upgraded. Education and training outputs of Further Education and Training Colleges (FETs) should be improved. Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) should become more effective. Domestic policies should not result in the outflow of skilled workers. Immigration policies should encourage the inflow of skilled workers. The full implementation of the Employment Equity Act should be ensured. Strategies to address HIV/Aids should be implemented. Strategies to focus on skills shortages and the education and training of these groups should be devised (see Annexure A). EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 71  Strategies should be implemented to address the increasingly globalised position of and competitive environment in which South African organisations have to function. The process of international integration, namely globalisation, has changed the way in which we do business. Since the 1940s, the combination of political will and motivation and technological innovation has created the means to join up the world.14 For example, the emergence of the world’s manufacturing and trading stage of emerging markets from China, India and Brazil is probably the biggest globalisation story in the twenty-first century. With the large domestic markets and increasing determination to export goods and services, these emerging markets have rewritten the rules of global trade.15 Not only is India and China known as the ‘back office’ or ‘factory’ of the world, but they also produce talented scientists and engineers, and companies that are invested in talent management, snap up these scientists and engineers to reap benefit. Gratton16 further states that the majority of the world’s population are living in urban areas, and this trend will continue into the future. At the same time, innovative clusters are attracting a disproportionate number of the most talented and educated people. The megacities of the world will become home to an ever-greater proportion of the population. Third world countries (or the underclass) will also extend across the developed and developing worlds. They will be marked by their inability to join the global market for skills or to have the skills and aspirations to become one of the players who care for the needs of a growing urban population. It is important to take note of the initiatives of the National Planning Commission (NPC) (see textbox below) and the influence it will have on the supply of and demand for labour. NPC HIGHLIGHTS The launch of the council was motivated by the fact that the country is still faced with skills shortages and a range of challenges in developing its human resource base. This, to a large extent, may be attributed to weaknesses in the education and training system from pre-primary and primary education to secondary and post-school level, as well as to inadequacies in workplace education and training. The NPC will therefore focus on the following: Create 11 million jobs by 2030, which should reduce the unemployment rate to 14% by 2012 and to 6% by 2030. Total employment should rise from 13 million to 24 million by 2013. 90% of new jobs are to be created by small and expanding private companies. Reduce the ratio of households living below a monthly poverty line of R418 per person from 39% to 0%. Inequality measured by the Gini Coefficient should fall to 0,6 from 0,7 in 2009 (0 is minimum and 1 is maximum inequality). The economy should grow by an average annual rate of 5,4%, nearly trebling in size by 2030. Exports should grow by 6% a year, with non-traditional exports growing by 10% a year. Investment measured by gross fixed capital formation should rise to 30% of gross domestic product (GDP) from 17%. Savings ratio should rise to 25% of GDP from 16%. Provide clear certainty over property rights, tax treatment and mineral rights in the mining sector. Simplify procedures for probation and dismissal in the labour market. Simplify and even eliminate employment equity and skills development regulations for small businesses. Public employment programmes should reach one million employed by 2015 and two million by 2015. Create a Financial Centre for Africa in South Africa to attract project finance. Source: Stanlib17 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 72  SUMMARY OF THE NATIONAL SCARCE SKILLS LIST: TOP 100 OCCUPATIONS IN DEMAND (2014) The purpose of the document is to provide a list of the top 100 occupations in the country that are considered to be in short supply, and can be used to support decision-making with regards to: supply-side planning undertaken by public and private education and training institutions the development of labour market-relevant programmes and qualifications the determination of funding norms for the programme-qualification mix prioritising student funding through Institutions such as the National Student Financial Aid Scheme the identification of skills programmes that are facilitated by Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) and to inform SETA support for bursaries, internships, learnerships and artisan training the identification of training programmes offered by private providers and parastatals career advisory services sector, industry, regional and employer plans immigration policies. An intensive process was followed and various sources were used in the compilation of the National Scarce List. These sources include, for example, the Report of the Joint Initiative on Priority Skills Acquisition (JIPSA), the Scarce and Pivotal Skills List (2013/2014) (compiled by the SETAs), the New Growth Path (2010) and the National Development Plan (2012), just to name a few. A number of representatives from organisations such as the Department of Home Affairs, the Department of Trade and Industry, the Department of Economic Development, and so forth were consulted in the process to verify the list of scarce skills. The top 20 scarce skills on the list are: 1 Electrical engineer. Civil engineer 2 Mechanical engineer. Quantity surveyor 3 Programme or project manager. Finance manager 4 Physical and engineering science technicians. Industrial and production engineers 5 Electrician. 6 Chemical engineer. Construction project manager 7 Mining engineer. Accountant (general) 8 Energy engineer. Material engineer 9 Electronics engineer. Metallurgical engineer 10 Medical superintendent/Public health manager. Telecommunications engineers 11 Energy engineering technologist/Millwright. 12 From. the above list it is clear that engineers are in short supply in South Africa. 13As mentioned in section 2.2.3, the New Growth Path is a strategy to create millions of jobs in South Africa. The strategy. aims to target at least 30 000 additional engineers by 2014. It also hopes to improve skills in every job and 14 target 1,2 million employees for certified on-the-job skills improvement programmes annually from 2013. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 73. For more information regarding the top 100 occupations in demand, refer to Annexure B. 15 Source:. South Africa. Department of Higher Education and Training18 16. 17. Technological acceleration 18 Technology enables people to, among other things, see further, drive faster, hear better and. communicate over greater distances than would otherwise be possible. Technology also makes it possible 19 for people to provide clothing, food, shelter and other sophisticated services and products. According. to Bothma,19 the speed of technological development can, to some extent, be ascribed to the20convergence of the various cutting-edge technologies, such as the microchip, computers, networks,. satellites, telecommunications, cellular technologies, the Internet, nanotechnology (minute or microscopic devices), biotechnology (which makes use of living organisms as the 2.2 engines in devices), and so on. The total impact of these technologies working together is far greater.5 than any one of them alone. In this century, as a result of the impact and speed of development of new technologies, we can expect to experience even more dramatic changes in the way we live and work. Training and development is the instrument by means of which the knowledge to implement technology is conveyed. Technological innovation increases the importance of training and development because not only must new entrants into the market be trained, but technological change also necessitates continuous retraining. The new globalised economy has shifted from asset-intensive to knowledge-intensive, driven by technology and the availability of information. The Internet is possibly the most important driver in that it creates opportunities for information sharing, collaboration and improved learning in the workplace. The role of the Internet in the training and development of employees can be extremely important; however, if not developed and utilised adequately, it can also be disadvantageous. E-LEARNING AND THE TABLET Since the launch of tablets, it has become obvious that the tablet stands to take over from the notebook and the desktop PC. Researchers estimated that the tablet will overtake notebooks by 2016. The changes reflect a change in customer preferences, because tablets are smaller and more convenient to use than notebooks. Tablets are also increasingly used in education. Some educators focus on presenting a recorded video of a lecture, which tablets can already handle readily. Others involve the use of virtual environments, chats, quizzes and down loads, but which are not easily resented on a tablet. Currently, many learning applications are not suitable for tablets, since they require specialised software of applications (apps) that are not treated the same on all the mobile platforms. Teachers, students and software providers will have to reconfigure their behaviour to accommodate the tablet, and students will be responsible for driving the process forward. Currently there are various challenges that need to be overcome, but if these challenges are overcome, students and employees will reap the benefits of online learning. Source: KnowledgeVision20 REFLECTION What are your views on learning, and even writing examinations, on a tablet? What do you think tablets will be used for in the future? Do you also think that they will replace the notebook and desktop PC? EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 74  Training and development programmes in organisations should keep abreast of changes in technology and how these changes will affect the organisation. Organisations should continuously implement the latest technology, to improve the broader human resource management activities and training and development initiatives. Training practitioners should be challenged to innovate and take the lead in adapting technology to address the unique needs of South African society. Organisational competitiveness is dependent on many factors. One of these factors relates to the success of the learning process in organisations and how education and training practitioners can directly contribute to the bottom line of the organisation. Technology should be fully utilised as a strategic tool to improve the teaching and learning experience in organisations and specifically by different educational institutions such as schools. Some of these technologies are discussed in the textbox below. TOP TEN STRATEGIC TECHNOLOGIES FOR 2015 Gartner Inc. highlighted the top 10 technologies and trends that will be strategic for most organisations in 2015. They define a strategic technology as one with the potential for significant impact on the enterprise in the next three years. Factors that denote significant impact include a high potential for disruption to IT or the business, the need for a major dollar investment or the risk of being late to adopt. A strategic technology may be an existing technology that has matured and/or became suitable for a wider range of users; it may also be an emerging technology that offers an opportunity for strategic business advantage for early adopters or with potential for significant market disruption in the next five years. Top ten strategic technology trends for 2015 1 Computing everywhere Mobile phones and wearable devises continue to proliferate and are now part of an expanded computing environment which includes things such as consumer electronics and connected screens in the workplace. 2 The Internet of Things. The combination of data streams and services created by digitising everything creates four basic usage models, namely manage, monetise, operate and extend. Organisations should not limit themselves to thinking that only the Internet of Things has the potential to leverage these four models. For example, the pay-per-use model can be applied to assets such as industrial equipment, and services (such as pay-as-you-drive), people (such as movers), places (such as parking spots) and systems (such as cloud services). 3 3D Printing. Worldwide shipments of 3D printers are expected to grow 98% in 2015, followed by a doubling of unit shipments in 2016. 3D printing will reach a tipping point over the next three years as the market for low-cost 3D printing devices continues to grow rapidly. 4 Advanced, pervasive and invisible analytics. Analytics will become more important as the volume of data gathered increases and vast pools of structured and unstructured data inside and outside the organisation are analysed. 5 Context-rich systems. Ubiquitous embedded intelligence combined with pervasive analytics will drive the development of systems that are alert to their surroundings and able to respond appropriately. 6 Smart machines. Deep analytics applied to an understanding of context provide the preconditions for a world of smart machines. This foundation combines with advanced algorithms that allow systems to understand their environment, learn for themselves and act autonomously. Prototype autonomous vehicles and advanced robots are examples. 7 Cloud/client computing EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 75. The focus of cloud/client computing will be on synchronising content and application states across multiple devices and addressing application portability across devices. Over time, applications will support simultaneous use of multiple devices. 8 Software-defined applications and infrastructure. Software-defined networking, storage, date centres and security are maturing. 9 Web-scale IT. Web-scale IT is a pattern of global-class computing that delivers the capabilities of large cloud service providers within an enterprise IT setting. More organisations will begin thinking, acting and building applications and infrastructure like Amazon, Google and Facebook. 10 Risk-based security and self-protection. Perimeters and firewalls are no longer enough – every app needs to be self-aware and self-protecting. This is an extract from a press release by Gartner, Inc., printed with their kind permission Gartner, Inc. 2014. Gartner identifies the top 10 strategic technology trends for 2015. [Online]. [Accessed 7 July 2015]. Available from http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2867917 Source: Cearley21 2.2 HIV/Aids in South Africa.6 South Africa has one of the highest per capita HIV prevalence and infection rates in the world (5,26 million of the country’s population is estimated to be infected) – an estimated 178 373 adults died from Aids-related illnesses in 2013. It is anticipated that HIV/Aids will also influence the projected population composition, for example whereas the total size of the South African population would have been over 60 million by 2015 in the absence of HIV/Aids, the expected population size for 2015 will now be less than 50 million.22 2.2.6 Reasons for HIV/Aids.1 Various factors, or a combination of factors, have been identified as to why Aids-related death rates and the prevalence of HIV infection are so high in South Africa. These are briefly listed as follows: social and family disruption due to apartheid and labour migration inadequate knowledge of how to avoid HIV/Aids high-risk sexual behaviour high levels of poverty and inequality and the low status of women in many communities crime and rape. 2.2.6 Impact of HIV/Aids in the workplace.2 The impact of HIV/Aids on the lives of South Africans in general, and in particular the workplace, will be severe. On the labour supply side, for example, a substantial percentage of the economically active population will die because of Aids-related diseases. Labour demand could also decline because employers might opt for capital intensive production in the face of anticipated reduced productivity due to workforce losses. Mainly working-age adults will be affected, and it can be expected that substantial losses in labour supply will be incurred due to Aids-related diseases. This labour loss could amount to 40 to 50% of the current workforce of some organisations. The nature of EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 76  the losses will, however, depend on the nature of the organisation, its production processes, the type of products manufactured and the services rendered. Human capital realisation, skills availability and skills shortages in South Africa will also be affected by HIV/Aids. Although Aids will have a greater effect on the semi-and unskilled segments of the labour force, it is also expected to have a substantial impact on the skilled and highly-skilled segments of the labour force. Such high levels of HIV among the highly-skilled and skilled segments will lead to much lower human capital realisation rates and will aggravate the existing skills shortages. The impact on organisations will not only be that over 90% of those infected will be in their key productive years (aged between 20 and 50 and lead to with increased absenteeism and loss of trained personnel), but production costs could also be affected. Costs that will increase are: group insurance, medical aid contributions and recruiting costs to replace labour (see Table 2.4). TABLE 2.4 Southern African Development Community (SADC) People Profile: 2012 EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 77  Source: World Bank/CIA23 The impact of HIV/Aids on households could entail the following:24 Breadwinners will experience a loss of income. Medical expenses may increase dramatically. An HIV/Aids death will lead to a loss of income for the household. Caring for ill household members suffering from Aids-related diseases could keep economically EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 78  productive members from work or children from school. Orphaned children due to Aids-related deaths could lead to lower levels of social and human capital development among children. The number of burials will increase. A further complication could be that surviving family members may be forced into very low paid work, prostitution or crime. This could, in turn, place such family members in the high-risk HIV infection group. The high number of infected workers and the expensive treatment will also have a significant impact on the health sector. Aspects to be considered in an organisation are to: develop an Aids risk profile adopt a policy on HIV/Aids conduct training and development sessions monitor trends. THE IMPACT OF HIV/AIDS ON SOUTH AFRICA An estimated 6,5 million people were living with HIV/Aids in South Africa in 2011, the highest number of people in any country. In the same year, 270 190 South Africans died of Aids-related causes. Although this figure reflects the huge number of lives that the country has lost to Aids over the past three decades, it is 100 000 fewer deaths than in 2001, demonstrating that many lives may have been saved through a massive up-scale of treatment in the last few years. The impact of the HIV and Aids epidemic has been seen in the dramatic change in South Africa’s general mortality rates. The overall annual number of deaths increased sharply between 1997, when 316 559 people died, and 2006 when 607 184 people died. Those who are particularly shouldering the burden of the increasing mortality rate are young adults, the age group most affected by the epidemic. Almost one in three women aged between 25–29, and over a quarter of men aged between 30–34, are living with HIV. Aids was therefore the principal factor in the overall rise in the number of deaths. It is however interesting to note that life expectancy has risen vastly since 2005. Source: Avert25 2.2 Changing society.7 The way in which society is structured, has changed in the past and will continue to change in the future. The way in which mankind sees their lives and their communities, is continuously transformed. People endlessly try to change the way they think about themselves and others. They change their hopes and ambitions for work. Gratton26 is of the opinion that human behaviour and ambitions are mysterious and difficult to predict. She goes on to explain that humans want to be independent, and yet be part of a regenerative community, and they are excited about technology and connectivity, but want to be alone. These important paradoxes will hence shape the way in which we work (see the textbox: Seven trends from society that will shape out future of work). SEVEN TRENDS FROM SOCIETY THAT WILL SHAPE OUT FUTURE OF WORK 1 Families become rearranged: Families across the world will become smaller and rearranged as stepparents, stepbrothers and stepsisters displace the traditional family structure. 2 The rise of reflexivity: As families become rearranged and work groups more diverse, people begin to think more about themselves, what they want to achieve and what is important to them. Reflexivity is thus EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 79  important in understanding choices and the courage to make difficult decisions. 3 The role of powerful women: Over the coming decades we can expect women to play a more predominant role in leadership and management positions. This will have an implication on the expectations of women, the norms of work and the relationship between men and women. 4 The balanced man: There is evidence that the perception of men’s roles in organisations is also changing. Men are increasingly faced with choices regarding wealth and spending time with their families. 5 Growing distrust of organisations: It seems as if trust in leaders and organisations has decreased in developed countries, and may continue to decrease in the future. 6 The decline of happiness: An increase in the standard of living has led to a decrease in happiness. 7 Passive leisure increases: Since the industrialisation of work, there has been an increase in leisure time. It could be that in the coming decades, the growth of virtual participation will create a significant ‘cognitive surplus’ which can be used to focus on more productive activities. Source: Gratton27 2.2 Energy resources.8 According to Gratton28 energy resources will have an impact on the future of work in the following ways: 1 Energy prices will increase: Over the coming decade, the readily available resources will be depleted and countries such as China and India will increase their resource requirements significantly. This will furthermore have an impact on the movement of goods, and transportation of people will have to be reduced. 2 Environmental catastrophes displace people: Globalisation has led to changes in many ecosystems of the world – sea levels began rising, wind patterns had changed and heat waves and draughts had become more prevalent. 3 A culture of sustainability begins to emerge: One of the implications of the dwindling of easily accessed energy resources could be a renewed interest in sustainability and a widespread adoption of a more energy-efficient way of living. Thus a culture of sustainability could have a profound impact on the way that work is done. In summary, eight factors that affect training and development in organisations were discussed in this section. As indicated in Section 1.8, training and development operates in an environment that is very dynamic and certain environmental factors, such as the local government, national environment and multinational environment, need to be taken into consideration. These factors will have an impact on the strategic training and development plan of the organisation because a more holistic approach to training and development is applied. As a result, HRD practitioners must now engage with stakeholders internally and externally through formulating solutions that deliver practical and measurable business results. It is furthermore important to take these factors into account, because factors such as education and unemployment were identified as priorities in the HRD strategy and NSDS III which will be discussed in the next sections. 2.3 A human resource development (HRD) strategy for South Africa (2010–2030) 2.3 Introduction.1 If a country wishes to experience economic growth and to utilise its citizens as effectively as EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 80  possible, a national training and development strategy is of crucial importance. In 1991, the National Training Board (NTB) developed a provisional national training strategy for South Africa. This was followed in 1993 by the appointment of a more representative task group, also under the auspices of the NTB. This consisted of four major role players: employers, unions, the State and education and training providers. In 1994 a document entitled The Discussion Document on a National Training Strategy Initiative: A Preliminary Report was published. The HRD strategy which was launched in 2001 called the Human Resource Development Strategy for South Africa (HRD-SA). ‘A nation at work for a better life’ has its origins in the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), which identified the people of South Africa as its most important resource and attempts to meet the needs of the economy. The strategy was supported by SETAs, skills plans and learnerships, the Council on Higher Education, the National Board for Further Education and Training, and the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA). A new HRD strategy for South Africa (2010–2030)29 has been formulated to meet the following objectives: to replace the existing HRD strategy; to address the shortcomings in the existing strategy; and to optimise the efficacy and outcomes of HRD in respect of South Africa’s developmental agenda. The new HRD strategy is a call to action for all stakeholders in South Africa. There should be an accelerated development to ensure that there is a match between supply and demand for human resources in South Africa and to effect the optimal utilisation of the resources. 2.3 Purpose, goals, and strategy.2 Purpose 2.3.2.1 The primary purpose of the strategy is to identify and implement a set of actions that will create sufficient leverage for the full scope of HRD inputs and activities to promote outcomes that favour the country’s development priorities (page 12 of the HRD strategy). 2.3.2 Goals and strategy.2 The goals of the HRD strategy are: to urgently and substantively reduce the related scourges of poverty and unemployment in South Africa to promote justice and social cohesion through improved equity in the provision and outcomes of education and skills development programmes to substantively improve national economic growth and development through improved competitiveness of the South African economy. The HRD strategy is designed to complement a range of purposefully developed development interventions to achieve the following: Improve South Africa’s Human Development Index and the country’s position in global HDI ranking. Improve the measure and ranking of South Africa’s economic competitiveness. Reduce in the Gini coefficient (corresponding to a reduction in the inequality of wealth in the country). Improve in the measure of social cohesion as measured through specific social surveys. The following 20-year strategic framework with strategic priorities has been identified: Priority 1: Ensure universal access to quality Early Childhood Development, commencing from birth up to age four. Priority 2: Eradicate adult illiteracy in the population. Priority 3: Ensure that all people remain in education and training until age 18 years. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 81  Priority 4: Ensure that all new entrants into the labour market have access to employment-focused education and training opportunities. Priority 5: Ensure that levels of investment are above the global average for all sectors of the education and training system. Priority 6: Ensure that inequality of education outcomes in education and training outcomes is significantly less than income inequality prevailing at that time. Priority 7: Ensure that education and training outcomes are equitable in terms of race, gender, disability and geographic location. Priority 8: Ensure that the balance of immigration and emigration reflects a net positive inflow of people with priority skills required for economic growth and development. Priority 9: Ensure that all adults in the labour market (unemployed and employed) have access to education and training opportunities that will enable them to acquire a minimum qualification at Level 4 of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF). Priority 10: Ensure progressive improvement in the external efficiency and effectiveness of higher education, GET and the occupational learning systems. Priority 11: Ensure that South Africa is ranked in the top 10% of comparable countries in terms of its economic competiveness. Priority 12: Ensure that South Africa is ranked in the top 10% of comparable countries in terms of its human development index. Priority 13: Ensure that South Africa is ranked in the top 10% of comparable countries in terms of its knowledge and education dimension of the HDI, as measured by the adult literacy rate (with two-thirds weighting) and the combined primary, secondary and tertiary gross enrolment ratio (with one-third weighting). Priority 14: Ensure that South Africa is ranked in the top 10% of comparable countries in terms of its technology and innovation index. Priority 15: Ensure that South Africa ranks in the top 10% of comparable countries in terms of levels of human capital stock. For more details please refer to the HRD Strategy 2010–2030.30 2.4 National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS) 2.4 Introduction.1 A National Skills Development Strategy (NSDS III, 2011–2016)31 is a South African plan on skills development for the period 2011 to 2016. The NSDS III follows the integration of higher and further education and skills development into a single Department of Higher Education and Training. The NSDS III must ensure that increased access to training and skills development opportunities are provided to achieve the fundamental transformation of inequities linked to class, race, gender, age and disability in society. Emphasis is therefore placed on institutional learning which is linked to occupationally directed programmes. It furthermore promotes the growth of post-school institutions in order to address national skills needs, and to achieve significant increases in qualifications and skills to support priorities and initiatives such as the New Growth Path and the HRD strategy. The vision, mission, principles and objectives of the NSDS III will be briefly discussed in the next section. 2.4 Vision, mission and key driving forces.2 The vision of the NSDS III is to have a skilled and capable workforce that is able to share and EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 82  contribute to the benefit and opportunities of the economy and an inclusive growth path. The mission of the NSDSIII is to increase access to quality education and training opportunities in South Africa, and to ensure effective participation of South Africans in the economy and society. The key driving forces of the NSDS III are: the improvement, effectiveness and efficiency of the skills development system an explicit commitment to encouraging the linking of skills development to career paths, career development and promoting sustainable employment and work progression to encourage and actively support the integration of workplace training with theoretical learning to enable trainees to enter the formal workforce or create a livelihood for themselves to promote basic numeracy and literacy skills. 2.4 Objectives and success indicators of the NSDS III.3 The eight objectives of the NSDS III are summarised in Table 2.5. TABLE 2.5 Objectives of the NSDS III Objective 1: Establishing a credible institutional mechanism for skills planning. Objective 2: Increasing access to occupationally-directed programmes. Objective 3: Promoting the growth of a public FET college system that is responsive to sector, local, regional and national skills needs and priorities. Objective 4: Addressing the low level of youth and adult language and numeracy skills to enable additional training. Objective 5: Encouraging better use of workplace-based skills development. Objective 6: Encouraging and supporting cooperatives, small enterprises, worker-initiated, NGO and community training initiatives. Objective 7: Increasing public sector capacity for improved service delivery and supporting the building of a developmental state. Objective 8: Building career and vocational guidance. Source: Department of Higher Education and Training32 The NSDS III (see Annexure C) is the overarching strategic instrument for skills development and guides sector planning. The strategic areas of focus for the NSDS III requires a new approach, and it must recognise that sectors do have different skills needs but should support a common commitment to the national vision of an inclusive society. The strategic focus is therefore to address the challenges of the post-school system through the publication and wide consultation of a White Paper for post-school education and training. This may lead to fundamental changes to policies and approaches once the national plan for post-school education has been published and gone through all the processes required for implementation. 2.5 Training and development-related legislation EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 83  2.5 Overview.1 This section deals with three training and development-related Acts that create the structures and framework to support the NSDS III (see Section 2.4), namely: the National Qualifications Framework Act (No. 67 of 2008) which replaced the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) Act (No. 58 of 1995), focusing on the national qualifications framework and quality councils the Skills Development Act (No. 97 of 1998), as amended, and focusing on training practices and institutions to assist with this process the Skills Development Levies Act (No. 9 of 1999), prescribing a levy payment to fund skills development in South Africa. 2.5 The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Act (No. 67 of 2008).2 2.5.2 Introduction.1 Subsequent to the publication in 1994 of the National Training Strategy Initiative document and debate thereon, the government’s White Paper on Education and Training, 1995 was published and the South African Qualifications Authority Act (No. 58 of 1995) was passed on 4 October 1995. The objective of the SAQA Act was to provide for the development and implementation of the NQF and to establish the South African Qualifications Authority, and to provide for matters connected therewith. The SAQA Board, which is responsible for establishing the NQF, is represented by different sectors, such as education and training providers, non-governmental organisations, trade unions and industry. In terms of the SAQA Act, structures and processes must be established for the NQF and standards and qualifications criteria must be developed, approved, registered and published. It required the quality of education and training to be monitored and education and training providers to be continually assessed. The NQF Bill was published in the Government Gazette No. 31039 on 9 May 2008 and the NQF Act33 (No. 67 of 2008) was signed into law on 17 March 2009. The NQF Act mainly provides for the NQF, the responsibilities of the Ministers of Education and Labour, (the Department of Education has been abolished and replaced by the DHET and the Department of Basic Education). The whole of the NQF has been assigned to the DHET (except section 9) to include the South African Qualifications Authority, for Quality Councils and the repeal of the SAQA Act of 1995. 2.5.2 The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) and its principles.2 A national qualifications framework is based on a credit system for achieving learning outcomes. A learning outcome is in essence an ability developed by the student that reflects an integration of knowledge and skill that can be transferred to different contexts. Qualifications can be obtained by means of full-time study, part-time study, distance education, work-based learning, or a combination of these, together with an assessment of previous learning experiences and general experience. The objectives of the NQF as described in Chapter 2 of the Act are to:34 1 Create an integrated national framework of learning achievements. 2 Facilitate access to, and mobility and progression within education, training and career paths. 3 Accelerate the redress of past unfair discrimination in education, training and employment opportunities. 4 Contribute to the full development of students. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 84  5 Enhance the quality of education and training. The objectives of the NQF are designed to contribute to the full personal development of each student and to the social and economic development of the nation at large. The NQF (see Table 2.6) is an approach to education and training in South Africa. Table 2.6 shows that the NQF (as amended by the Minister of Higher Education and Training in August 2013) consists of a framework with ten levels and each level is described by a statement of learning achievement known as a level description (also refer to Annexure D). The latter provides a broad indication of learning achievements or outcomes for a qualification at that level. In the next paragraph the two subframeworks are explained. TABLE 2.6 NQF structure and its sub-frameworks Source: Department of Higher Education and Training35 The first sub-framework is Higher Education (contemplated in the Higher Education Act (No. 101 of 1997)). It comprises Levels 5 to 10. The previous Higher Education Band comprised Levels 5 to 8, where Level 7 included higher degrees (honours and professional qualifications) and Level 8 Master’s and Doctoral qualifications. The second sub-framework is General and Further Education and Training (GFET), namely formal schooling and Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) (contemplated in the GENFETQA or General and Further Education and Training Quality Assurance Act (No, 58 of 2001)). This sub-framework comprises Levels 2 to 4. Here a large number of providers can provide education EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 85  and training. Level 4 is equivalent to Grade 12 of schooling. Under the QCTO, the system of developing quality assuring qualifications also changed significantly with Development Quality Partners replacing the Standards Generating Bodies and Assessment Quality Partners replacing the SETA Education and Training Quality Assurance bodies (ETQAs). The QCTO also decided to replace the qualifications registered under the SAQA Act with occupational qualifications that consist of three components, namely theoretical, practical and workplace-based. These changes have had a significant impact on the skills development system. The third sub-framework is Trade and Occupations (contemplated in the Skills Development Act). At the time of going to print, clarity on the various levels and how they relate to the various sub-frameworks have not been obtained. According to the Department of Labour Quality Assurance framework draft policy for Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (Department of Labour, dated 26 July 2008), two types of occupational qualifications can be obtained, namely a National Occupational Award and a National Skills Certificate (see Annexure D). However, progress has been made by the DHET by publishing in the Government Gazette on 23 December 2011, three sub-frameworks on: the proposed qualifications sub-framework for Higher Education which was revised by the Council on Higher Education (CHE) in the light of experience thus far the revised sub-framework for General and Further Education and Training which was developed by Umalusi the proposed qualifications sub-framework for Trades and Occupations which was developed by the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations(QCTO). Moving forward will require a new mind-set or paradigm shift among education and training providers. It will also affect the way scholars, students at higher educational institutions and employees in the workplace learn and continue to learn. The concept of lifelong learning is also introduced in the sense that different forms of learning, for example part-time, full-time, in-house training, and work experience, could be recognised and credits awarded and registered with the NQF. The NQF provides the foundation for people to achieve national qualifications through formal and informal learning and in the process contribute to the government’s aims of equality, quality, access to opportunities, and the redress of past inequalities. The past was characterised by the following:36 no national standards varying quality focus on inputs students rated against one another ad-hoc reporting examinations institution-centred one-chance education non-recognition of prior learning either academic or vocational streaming. The present structure is characterised by the following: registered national standards national quality management systems focus on outputs students assessed against the standard national record of learning database contextual assessment (moderated) student-centred lifelong learning EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 86  recognition of prior learning multiple learning pathways. The Higher Education sub-framework, comprising Levels 5 to 10, includes the following: Undergraduate Higher certificate – Level 5 Advanced certificate – Level 6 Diploma – Levels 5 to 6 Advanced diploma – Level 7 Bachelor’s degree – Levels 5 to 7 Professional degree – Levels 5 to 8. Postgraduate Postgraduate diploma – Level 8 Honours degree – Level 8 Master’s degree – Levels 9 Doctoral degree – Level 10. Undergraduate programmes and qualifications are typically focused on particular disciplines, professions or broad areas of study, while postgraduate studies additionally include trans-, inter-and multidisciplinary programmes and qualifications. The benefits of the NQF can be described as follows:37 It is a consistent approach to education and training with an emphasis on meeting quality standards and practices. There will be scope for industry, the professions and formal education to set their own standards but with the emphasis on national qualifications. In the process, training and nationally-based qualifications will be available – industries which have never offered national training opportunities will be able to do so. Learning will be able to take place on the job, at tertiary institutions, secondary schools and in private training establishments. The training industry will be better equipped to compete on the international market, and overseas workers will be able to have their qualifications assessed for equivalence against South African qualifications registered with the NQF. Detailed and credible reporting of individual attainment will be available to all stakeholders. A set of principles is, however, required to underpin qualifications and for the NQF to provide the benefits as stated above. These principles are:38 Integration: Education and training should form part of a system of human resources development which provides for the establishment of an integrated approach to education and training, expressed in terms of nationally acceptable qualifications. Relevance: Education and training should be and remain relevant to national development needs; industry and service sector needs; regional, local, and community needs; individual development needs; and needs relating to the advancement of knowledge, science, and technology. Credibility: Education and training should have international credibility and credibility in industry and service sectors, as well as among providers and students with regards to being able to achieve the nationally agreed aims for education and training. These aims should be consistent with economic and social development priorities. Coherence and flexibility: Education and training should adhere to a coherent framework of principles and certification which may be established at national level, but should permit the flexibility of interpretation required to meet the needs of industry and service sectors, providers, and students. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 87  Standards: Education and training standards should be expressed in terms of a nationally agreed framework and nationally and internationally accepted outcomes that will be defined separately. Legitimacy: To ensure transparency, opportunities should be provided for all significant shareholders to participate in the planning and coordination of education and training. Access: Access to appropriate levels of education and training should be provided for all prospective students in a manner which facilitates progression. Articulation: Education and training should make it possible for students to move between components of the delivery system on the successful completion of accredited prerequisites. Progression: Education and training should ensure that the framework of qualifications permits individuals to progress through the levels of national qualifications via different appropriate combinations of the components of the delivery system. Portability: Education and training should provide for students to transfer their credits or qualifications from one learning institution and/or employer to another. Recognition of prior learning: Through assessment, education and training should give credit to prior learning obtained through formal, non-formal and informal learning and/or experience. Guidance of students: Education and training should provide for the guidance of students by persons who meet nationally recognised standards for educators and trainers. 2.5.2 Responsibilities of Ministers.3 Chapter 3 of the NQF Act describes the joint and sole responsibilities of the Ministers of Higher Education and Training and the Minister of Labour. The main joint responsibilities include the advancement and the achievement of the objectives of the NQF and to uphold the coherence and public credibility of the NQF. The Minister of Higher Education and Training has executive responsibility for the NQF, South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA), the Quality Council (QC) for General Education and Training and the QC for Higher Education. The Minister of Labour has executive responsibility for QC for Trades and Occupations established by the Skills Development Act. 2.5.2 South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA).4 The South African Qualifications Authority continues to exist as a juristic person despite the repeal of the SAQA Act. The purpose of the Authority is to oversee the further development and implementation of the NQF, advance the objectives of the NQF, and coordinate the sub-frameworks. Two important aspects to be emphasised are unit standards and standard setting. Unit standards According to SAQA a unit standard should consist of the following important aspects. These requirements will be reviewed as a result of the NQF Act (No. 67 of 2008) as amended: a unit standard title standard generations body name a unit standard registration number a unit standard level on the NQF the credits attached to the unit standard the field and subfield of the unit standard registration date registration start and end date the purpose of the unit standard unit standard range the learning assumed to be in place and recognition of prior learning; EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 88  specific outcomes and assessment criteria (including embedded knowledge considered essential to the outcomes) accreditation and moderation options for the unit standard embedded knowledge critical cross-field outcomes a notes category which: must include critical cross-field outcomes supported by the unit standard should include references to embedded knowledge if not addressed may include other supplementary information pertinent to the unit standard. See Annexure E for an example of a unit standard. Standards setting With the recent establishment of the three QCs, the responsibility for standard setting for the sub-frameworks will be subject to change. The following are presented as background information: SAQA had two main areas, namely standards setting and quality assurance. The subareas in standard setting are National Standards Bodies (NSBs) and Standards Generating Bodies (SGBs). Twelve organising fields were identified and SAQA will establish NSBs for each field of learning. Subfields may be recognised by NSBs, and SGBs will be established to determine draft unit standards and qualifications. SGBs may take a number of forms, such as stakeholders from a subfield that forms their own group, or a plenary group which includes an expert group. Features of the NSBs include: nominations will be called for during a public process national stakeholders will be involved three-year appointments will be made according to certain criteria a full-time official will be appointed to coordinate activities. Main functions of NSBs have been to: identify subfields of learning establish SGBs for subfields of learning ensure that SAQA requirements are met by SGBs recommend to SAQA the registration of unit standards and qualifications establish moderation requirements to be applied by Education and Training Quality Assurers (ETQAs) liaise with ETQAs (see Section 2.5.2.5) update and review qualification standards. When standards are set for a field or sector, all levels (one to ten) have to be considered, and the required knowledge, skills, attitudes and range of contexts in which these are used, should be identified. The main functions of SGBs have been: generating standard (see unit standards) and qualifications updating and reviewing standards recommending standards and qualifications to NSBs recommending criteria for the registration of assurers and moderators. Since the original prescripts regarding NSBs and SGBs were published, there have been new developments regarding NSBs and SGBs, subject to ministerial approval. According to information EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:55 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 89  obtained from SAQA, these developments have been as follows: On 31 March 2005 the 12 SAQA NSBs expired. Subsequently, the primary function of the NSBs – critiquing and recommending qualifications and unit standards for registration on the NQF – has been managed by ad hoc consultative panels. The generation of qualifications has always been the prerogative of the SGBs (statutory bodies established by and responsible to SAQA). The eventual establishment of fit-for-purpose panels (as mooted in the NQF review documents) to replace the SGBs has been addressed with the promulgation of NQF Act 67 of 2008 (see Section 2.5.2.5 below). 2.5.2 Quality councils (QCs).5 Umalusi is the QC for General and Further Education, the Council on Higher Education is the QC for Higher Education (a document entitled Framework for Qualification Standards in Higher Education: a Consultative Document was published in November 2011, and the QC for Trades and Occupations is the body of that name established by the Skills Development Act (See section