ErasmusLoedolff_2015_CHAPTER1ManagingTrain_ManagingTrainingAndDe.pdf

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CHAPTER 1 MANAGING TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT IN ORGANISATIONS All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law. LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this chapter you should be able to discuss the concepts of education, training and development describe the training and development function as a subsystem in an organisation illustrate the training and development function using a diagram give a brief description of a training and development model define the various management elements of a training and development programme define the respective development phases of a strategic training plan describe the various functions of an education, training and development practitioner discuss the importance of a training and development policy and an annual training plan. 1.1 Overview The South African workplace is rapidly transforming due to changes in value systems, increased local and international competition, new technologies, participative management, and the changing socio-economic environment. According to estimates, South African organisations (excluding parastatals) spent an average of 3,13 per cent (2010) of their payroll on training and development.1 This is far more than the one per cent that is required by the Skills Development Act (No. 97 of 1998) (SDA). It is an unfortunate fact that strategic human resource (SHR) training and development in South African organisations have been widely neglected over the past few decades. Copyright 2015. Oxford University Press Southern Africa. However, a concerted effort has recently been made by government and the private sector to plan better and invest more in training and development initiatives. The lack of HR investments has resulted in low productivity, older staff members becoming redundant, a higher staff turnover, a possible fear of technological advancement, and may even result in an illiterate workforce. Furthermore, in difficult economic times, the top management of organisations usually rationalise those departmental functions that do not directly generate income. Training and development is often categorised in this way, but if the return on investment can be proven, this trend can be reversed. This is a real challenge faced by training and development managers. We begin this chapter by describing the concepts of training, education and development. The reasons for training and development are also briefly mentioned, followed by various generalised approaches to training and development interventions in organisations. The role of the training and development function is discussed and its function as a subsystem is emphasised. To provide an EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY AN: 1161703 ; Erasmus, Loedolff, Mda, Nel.; Managing Training and Development 7e Account: s8416366.main.ehost 19  overview of the total training and development process in an organisation, the models of Nadler, Camp et al. and the High-Impact Training Model, are discussed. This is followed by a discussion on various aspects relating to the management of training and development, such as planning, with the emphasis on strategic human resource training and development and training and development policy, as well as the organising, leading and controlling of training and development. The chapter ends with a brief description of the role that the education, training and development practitioner plays. 1.2 The concepts of training, education and development The concepts of training, education, and development are terms we need to understand thoroughly in order to manage the training and development processes in any organisation.2 1.2 The concept of training.1 Training refers to the ‘planned acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities to carry out a specific task or job in a vocational setting’.3 Training is the way in which an organisation uses a systematic process to modify the knowledge, skills and behaviour of employees to enable it to achieve its objectives. It is ‘task orientated’ because it focuses on the ‘work’ performed in an organisation based on job or task descriptions. The job or task requirements will determine the training standards for a particular job. Training therefore aims to improve employee performance in an organisation – usually when work standards are low because of lack of knowledge and/or skills and/or poor attitudes among individual employees or groups. As a result, we can also view training as a ‘deliberate intervention’ taken or planned to address present and/or anticipated shortcomings in knowledge, attitude and skills. A training system aims to: ensure that all students pass the training course provide further assistance to employees who do not succeed at first ensure that the pass standard is attainable produce trained employees to fill positions in the organisation. In summary, training is primarily directed at improving employee performance in the short term or to help him/her attain a required level of knowledge or skill that will help the organisation achieve its goals. 1.2 The concept of education.2 Education is defined as ‘the deliberate, systematic and sustained effort to transmit, evoke or acquire knowledge, attitudes, values, skills and sensibilities, and any learning that results from the effort, intended or unintended’.4 In a very broad sense, the concept of education also includes the learning activities that occur in an organisation, specifically those that managers and both skilled and unskilled workers require. Unskilled workers could also receive education in the form of basic adult education to help them develop basic literacy and numeracy skills. Education and training both create circumstances in which an employee can acquire and apply the skills, knowledge and attitudes that will satisfy organisational objectives. The underlying philosophy is that education creates a general basis that prepares the individual for life, and that training prepares the individual to perform specific tasks in a particular job. In South Africa, official education (excluding education in households) is mainly the task of the State. Educational programmes are offered by schools, colleges, universities as well as by private training institutions. In summary, education is a form of learning in which the knowledge, skills, values and beliefs of EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 20  a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next. It is aimed at creating circumstances and opportunities for young people and adults to develop an understanding of the traditions and customs of the society they live in. Education is furthermore divided into stages such as preschool, primary school, secondary school and then tertiary education. 1.2 The concept of human resource development (HRD).3 Earlier authors such as Nadler and Nadler (1989) defined human resource development (HRD) as ‘a learning experience organised mainly by an employer, usually within a specific period of time, to bring about the possibility of performance improvement and/or personal growth’.5 A more recent definition of HRD by Werner and DeSimone suggests that HRD is a ‘set of systematic and planned activities designed by an organisation to provide its members with the opportunities to learn necessary skills to meet current and future job demands’.6 HRD therefore seeks to develop people’s knowledge, expertise, productivity and job satisfaction for the benefit of the organisation, community and individual. McGuire and Jorgenson (2011) cite the view of McLagan (1989) who argued that HRD is comprised of training and development, organisational development, career development and that HRD can be viewed as ‘the synergetic combination of all three foci, bringing about greater organisational efficiencies and effectiveness through more fully engaged and skilled employees whose performance and work outputs are congruently linked to the goals of the organisation’.7 The same view is shared by Wilson (2012) who defines HRD as the ‘process for increasing the cognitive, affective and behavioural capacities of all people and organisations in a society’.8 So from this, one can deduce that apart from the combination of the three main components or foci, HRD must be closely linked to the overall business strategy and plan of the organisation. The bottom line is that HRD is about the development of people within the organisation and, as Gilley et al. argue, well-trained, highly skilled, and knowledgeable employees are more valuable to an organisation than those who are not.9 Another term used in this domain is referred to as Education, Training and Development Practitioners (ETD Practitioners). ETD Practitioners include teachers, facilitators, tutors, markers, lecturers, development officers, mentors and the like. See Table 5.2 in Chapter 5.10 In summary, development is the formal education, job experiences, relationships and assessment of personalities and abilities that help employees prepare for the future. An important element linked to development is management development, which is directed at equipping managers with the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities to manage the organisation, to grow and develop within the organisation and move up the career ladder. Development therefore contains elements of both training and education. 1.2 An integrated approach.4 The concepts of training and development, as described above, are commonly used in organisations according to their unique needs, sometimes as synonyms. Training, development and education cannot be divided into watertight compartments as a variety of methods and terms may be used within organisations. For example: Employees who are trained for a specific purpose are being ‘developed’ in the process, and training courses also contain some elements of education. Human resource development could be viewed as a term used to include training, development and education, and described as an integrated and holistic, conscious and proactive approach to changing work-related knowledge and behaviour, using a range of learning strategies and techniques.11 These strategies and techniques are intended to assist individuals, groups and organisations to realise their full potential. Ultimately, the main aim is to improve organisational performance. An integrated approach is suggested to achieve organisational training and development objectives while the broad educational task remains the domain of primary, secondary and higher educational institutions. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 21  1.3 Why do organisations offer training and development? Employees are trained and developed in organisations because it benefits both the individual and the organisation. The individual benefits from training and development in the following important ways: Employees are empowered to make better decisions and solve problems more effectively. Motivational variables of recognition, achievement, growth and responsibility are internalised and operationalised. Employees are able to handle stress, tension and conflict more effectively. Job satisfaction is increased and knowledge, communication skills and attitudes are improved. The organisation benefits from training and development in the following important ways: The job knowledge and skills of employees at all levels are improved. Improved profitability and/or better service follow. The morale of the workforce is improved and employee turnover is reduced. The corporate image is enhanced. Relationships between superiors and subordinates are improved. It contributes to organisational development. It contributes to increased productivity and quality of work. It helps to keep costs down. It improves labour/management relations. It improves the organisational climate. Employees are helped to adjust to change. A positive climate for growth and communication is created. The minimum general skills that employers require from their employees, in addition to their technical skills, are that employees:12 must know how to learn as this forms the basis for lifelong learning have to be able to read write, and compute – a crucial factor in South African organisations not only have to be able to communicate effectively, but also have good listening skills have to be creative thinkers and problem solvers have to be motivated and possess positive self-esteem have to have good interpersonal skills and be effective team members should be effective leaders and organisers should be honest, have integrity, be good team players, and have a strong work ethic. One may think that training and development is the solution to many business problems, but there are issues that training and development cannot solve, for example when management: does not allow employees to use their skills (poor management) does not tell employees what is required of them provides inefficient equipment, processes and tools performs inappropriate recruitment and placement of employees in jobs. 1.4 Generalised approaches to training and development interventions in organisations Reid and Barrington13 describe various generalised approaches to training and development interventions. Each approach has its unique advantages and disadvantages and may be more or less EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 22  successful, depending on the circumstances in the organisation. 1.4 The ‘learning by exposure’ (sitting by Nellie) approach.1 Strictly speaking, learning by exposure is not an approach to employee training and development, but because learning takes place (by chance), it may be considered a management option and is often very popular. This approach involves individual learning, where the student is assumed to gather knowledge and to use it without any help other than that offered by colleagues. Training and development practitioners are not prepared for their roles. This may, however, be changed by instructing the training and development practitioner and by providing learning objectives against which progress may be measured and may, therefore, be developed into a useful approach. 1.4 The ‘educational’ approach.2 This approach serves individual needs. The learning content of most formal educational programmes is externally developed and frequently leads to recognised qualifications. This is normally a long-term planning process and involves attending classes or open and distance learning. 1.4 The ‘systems’ approach.3 A system is regarded as a set of interdependent components forming a unit. It is regarded as ‘open’ if there is interaction between the system and its environment and ‘closed’ in the absence of such interaction. An organisation is regarded as an ‘open’ system because it obtains its resources (such as capital and labour) from the environment, and is directly or indirectly affected by various environmental factors (such as economic, legal, technological and political changes). A system should, therefore, obtain inputs from the environment, process them and then provide outputs to the environment in the form of products and services (see Figure 1.1). EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 23  FIGURE 1.1 The organisation as a system An organisation can consist of various subsystems that all strive to achieve organisational objectives by means of different organisational processes. These subsystems are arranged according to their unique needs and include subsystems such as the marketing, production, financial and HR functions in general. Each of these subsystems can be subdivided into sub-subsystems or sub-sub-subsystems. How does the systems approach tie in with training and the development function? The training and development function receives its input from the internal and external environment of the organisation. As far as the external environment is concerned, the market and technological environment can influence training in the following ways: a decline in market share the changing needs of consumers increased competition use of the latest technology. The economic state of a country is also an important environmental input. If the demand for the products of an organisation rises, this implies, among other things, that more employees will have EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 24  to be employed and trained. Input for training and development from the internal environment of an organisation can be divided into two categories: technical input organisational functioning. Technical input (see Figure 1.2) refers to inputs such as job descriptions, HR planning, recruitment and assessment, whereas organisational functioning refers to aspects that have a negative influence on the organisation such as low productivity, wastage, staff turnover, absenteeism, or a lack of morale and motivation among the employees. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 25  FIGURE 1.2 Internal and external training and development environment The transformation process represents the training and development function and relates to those activities that are addressed in Chapters 6 and 7, such as the development of a curriculum, training and development activities, methods and techniques. The outputs are, among others, higher productivity, better quality products or service, lower labour and absenteeism costs, changing attitudes, and improved ability and skills. These positive outputs contribute to the external environment of the organisation, resulting in more satisfied clients, an improved market share, higher turnover and increased profit. Another general characteristic of the systems approach to an organisation is that the outputs provide the feedback that repeats the cycle of events. 1.4 The ‘problem-centred’ approach.4 This approach solves short-term problems and is ad hoc in nature. It is dominated by operational problems that determine the needs of the individual or the group. This approach is often very acceptable because it is pragmatic and budgets are allocated for special operational needs. The success of this approach depends on the identification of high-level skills and not the redefinition of an operational problem. On the surface, it seems to solve work problems and to be cost-effective but the underlying fact is that the problem is often not properly diagnosed. 1.4 The ‘action learning’ approach.5 This approach focuses on managers who study real-life problems and how to solve those problems within a real-life environment. This approach offers a challenge which, in turn, provides motivation and demands the transformation of problems into opportunities. 1.4 The ‘analytical’ approach.6 Traditionally, this approach has been associated with the organisational training needs assessment, followed by analysis of the knowledge, skills and attitudes required for specific jobs. The information is drawn from job specifications and job descriptions and is normally used to develop courses for new job entrants. Where job performance can be measured, the so-called ‘training gap’ is determined and training and development programmes can be developed based on this information. Although this approach is time consuming, its basis remains very important. 1.4 The ‘competence’ approach.7 This approach describes the ‘outcome’ for a specific job and does not focus on the learning method. The student and/or the training practitioner can decide how the student can become competent. Standards are described in terms of the following: Elements of competence: An action, behaviour or outcome that an employee must be able to demonstrate. Performance criteria: Statements against which the performance of an employee is measured. Range statements: Statements which define the range or breadth of competence required for the employee to be considered occupationally competent. These three elements collectively form the standard. 1.4 The ‘training process’ or ‘procedural’ approach EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 26  The.8 procedures that accompany this approach are the: existence of a training and development policy inclusion of training and development responsibilities in job descriptions regular and periodic definition of training needs creation of training and development plans provision of training and development resources implementation of training and development plans assessment of training and development results. These procedures set out the basic requirements to follow in a training and development intervention and are widely used. 1.4 Knowledge management system.9 This is a concept that has grown rapidly with the development of information technology. A knowledge management system (see also Section 10.18) requires a well-planned and structured management information system where information is stored. This information is then made available to those wishing to retrieve it; this will help employees to find information that would assist them in personal development and work needs. Depending on the strategic direction of the organisation, a variety of approaches could be adopted simultaneously to achieve strategic objectives. 1.5 The place and role of the training and development function in the structure of the organisation FUNDAMENTALS OF ORGANISING Building an organisational structure revolves around the fundamentals of organising, namely: design jobs for employees group employees into teams or departments assign authority establish a command structure establish coordination mechanisms. The purpose of HRD is to bring about the changes that are necessary to enhance the organisation through organisational and performance improvements. In short, the function of HRD is ‘to make a difference’ in the way an organisation and its employees operate.14 An organisation can consist of various subsystems that pursue the organisation’s objectives by means of different organisational processes. These organisation subsystems are organised according to the unique needs of each organisation and usually include subsystems such as the marketing, production, financial and HR functions. Each of these subsystems can again be divided into smaller systems or sub-subsystems such as the planning, provision, maintenance, training and development of human resources, as well as labour relations. Figure 1.3 shows the role that the training and development function plays in an organisation. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 27  FIGURE 1.3 An example of the role of the training and development function in an organisation The training and development function is normally regarded as a subsystem of the HR management function (see Figure 1.4), based on the following assumptions: The training and development function: This is a processing system that determines training needs, applies training technology and expertise, and transforms untrained employees into trained employees who are able to make productive contributions to the organisational objectives. The primary input into a training and development system: This refers to training needs and untrained employees, and is transformed into an output (trained employees) by means of training processes such as analysis, design, development and the evaluation of training. As a subsystem of an organisation: The training and development function is exposed to the same influences as the other systems in the organisation. These influences include politics, the economy and legislation. The training and development function should be viewed as part of the HR function as a whole, but should function as a separate training and development department if this is affordable. This is because training and development takes place at various levels in an organisation and provides a support service to the organisation as a whole. A critical factor is that, in order to ensure success, training practitioners should continuously monitor the training and development input that is made available against the organisational objectives. This will increase the credibility of the training and development department in the organisation. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 28  FIGURE 1.4 The training and development function as an important subsystem of the organisation The key functions and activities that should be present in all HRD (training and development) departments are as follows: management of the HRD function, which includes managing the organisational learning and performance management systems, planning, organising, staffing, controlling and coordinating the HRD function, and providing strategic leadership training and development needs analysis design and development of curricula and programmes development and obtaining of training resources the delivery of education, training and development evaluation of training and development and the total HRD effort quality assurance of training and development initiatives administrative management career development organisation development. Training and development departments often take on the following additional duties: marketing training and development courses and student registration systems supply of training and development material for on-the-job training supply and management of training and development facilities and equipment EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 29  organisation of achievement conferences representation of the organisation on professional bodies. The training and development function in an organisation must be viewed by the rest of the organisation as a partner and should do work that is strategic in nature. However, it is not only the training subfunction that should be considered a ‘strategic business partner’, but also the overall HR function and all its activities. 1.6 Training and development models In the previous section, the role of the training and development department in an organisation, as well as what a training and development system entails, were described. In this section, we will briefly discuss general training models consisting of various steps, such as determining training needs (Chapter 5), programme design and development (Chapter 6), presenting training (Chapter 7 ) and assessing learning and evaluating training and development (Chapter 8). The purpose of this section is to provide a brief overview of the overall training and development process. It is important to note that there are many training and development models and, depending on the needs in the organisation, one model or a combination of models could be followed. As mentioned previously, each of the aspects or actions in the training and development models will be discussed in more detail in this book. 1.6 Nadler’s model.1 The model proposed by Nadler16 is a general model for training and development and views the training and development process in holistic terms. This so-called ‘critical events model’ is shown in Figure 1.5. The model contains eight steps. However, evaluation and feedback are aspects central to this model and must be regarded as continuous processes to be executed in each step of the training process. Continuous evaluation and feedback ensure the accurate execution of each step. Step 1: Identify organisational needs A number of factors (both internal and external) affect the ability of an organisation to survive in economic terms and to grow. As it is an open system, there is continuous interaction between the organisation and the internal and external environments. A number of factors generate needs for the organisation and the employees, including: change in the product or in the service provided change in equipment and rules new product or service. An important consideration during this step is that both organisation and individual needs are taken into account when information is gathered. Once all the interested parties have reached agreement regarding the nature of the training needs in an organisation, the design and implementation of a training and development programme can take place. Step 2: Specify performance During this step, an employee’s job is analysed to determine the content. Information on the job tasks being investigated can be obtained from supervisors, co-workers and the employees themselves. The aim of this step is to determine job standards against which individual performance can be measured. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 30  FIGURE 1.5 Nadler’s critical events model Step 3: Identify training needs This step forms a critical part of the training process. The fact that people have specific needs must be taken into consideration when determining training needs. The essence of identifying these training needs lies in determining the gap between the performance of the individual and the set standard. The following formula can be used: P – KD = N, where P represents expected performance, KD represents what the employee already knows, and N represents needs. Once the needs have been established, the rest of the programme can be developed. The overall success of the training programme is largely dependent on the accuracy of this step. Step 4: Determine objectives Once the training needs have been determined, the training objectives are formulated. A distinction can be drawn between general training objectives that are directed at defining student performance in general terms, and specific training objectives directed at satisfying specific training needs. The development of training objectives (now referred to as learning outcomes) is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 31  Step 5: Compile a syllabus Training should take place in accordance with a carefully planned syllabus. The emphasis is on what must be learned and the order in which it must be learned. The syllabus is therefore based on training objectives and the subject content must enable students to achieve the training objectives. Step 6: Select instructional strategies Instructional aids must be selected with a view to presenting the training in a meaningful and enriching manner. Instructional strategies cover a wide variety of techniques, methods and media to choose from, and it is essential that strategies selected should suit the content and aim of a training programme. Note that there is no single strategy which will suit all learning situations. Organisations therefore have to develop strategies to suit their unique circumstances. Step 7: Obtain instructional resources This step requires that a variety of resources be considered to ensure the successful presentation of a training programme. Three broad categories can be distinguished: Physical resources: These include equipment, material and facilities. Financial resources: The focus is on aspects such as the cost-effectiveness of training and the management of a training budget. Human resources: These refer to people such as programme facilitators, instructors and students. Step 8: Present training The last step in the training model is the presentation stage. In this step, all the preparations mentioned above are combined, and the success of this phase ensures the success of the training programme as a whole. The presentation phase integrates all previous steps and also includes aspects such as presenting, evaluating and concluding the training programme. 1.6 Camp, Blanchard, and Huszczo’s training model.2 Nadler’s training model coincides with the model of Camp, Blanchard, and Huszczo18 who place their model in the perspective illustrated in Figure 1.6. Training programmes that are developed and presented within an organisation must be geared towards definite needs. This is why it is important to carry out a comprehensive training needs analysis (Step 1). Step 2 involves determining the training objectives that are discussed in Chapter 7. The training objectives serve as guidelines for the rest of the training programme. Training is an expensive process and funds set aside for this purpose must be used in a cost-effective manner (Step 3). At the end of a training programme, management will question how effective it has been. The development of the curriculum (Step 4) and the aids involved (Step 5) mostly agree with Nadler’s description and are also discussed elsewhere. However well a training programme may have been designed (containing learning objectives, learning content, practical examples, and so on), if the physical presentation is not professional, the programme will be doomed to failure. The same applies to the presentation of training (Step 7). The last step (Step 8), where data is gathered and evaluated, is of specific importance to management since this is where the future of training in an organisation is decided. At the end of a training programme, management will question how effective it has been. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 32  FIGURE 1.6 Training model of Camp, Blanchard, and Huszczo 1.6 High-Impact Training Model.3 The High-Impact Training Model is a six-phase process that focuses on providing effective, targeted training.20 Each phase of the model moves the training effort forward. The result of each phase is the input for the next phase (see Figure 1.7). Phase 1: Identify training needs During this phase, the specific training needed to improve job performance is identified. The reasons for training must be investigated and the required training has to be devised to satisfy the need described. Phase 2: Map the training approach Once the training needs have been identified, measurable objectives must be set and the design must be mapped out. The objectives define what type of training is required in detail to improve job performance. To develop the design plan, objectives are used to guide the trainer through the process of choosing an approach to meet the objectives. Phase 3: Produce effective learning tools The actual development of the training approach (Phase 2) that has been chosen is done during this phase, and the actual training materials are created. These might include training manuals or material to support on-the-job training or an instructor-led course. The products of this course are manuals, audiovisual aids, job aids, etc. Objectives set in Phase 2 are used as a guide to develop training materials. Phase 4: Apply successful training techniques EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 33  During this phase, the training is delivered to the target group. The tools chosen in Phase 3 will determine the approach during this phase. For a computer-based course, the training must be delivered based on a one-to-one coaching approach. FIGURE 1.7 High-Impact Training Model Phase 5: Calculate measurable results During this phase, the trainer must determine whether the stated objectives were achieved and whether the training that was applied in Phase 4 has contributed to job improvement. The results must be communicated and redesign measures (if needed) must be taken. Phase 6: Track ongoing follow-through Once the success of Phase 5 has been determined, the trainer must ensure that training remains objective. Organisations change constantly, and appropriate training must be developed to adapt. REFLECTION Reflect on what you have studied regarding models for training. Do you think there is a place for the use of models for the design, development and evaluation of training and development? Motivate your answer. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 34  1.7 A managerial approach to training and development 1.7 Introduction.1 The responsibility of the training and development manager is to manage the training and development function in such a way that achieves the set objectives (also see Section 1.12). It must, however, be noted that all managers should accept personal responsibility for the training and development of their direct reports. Traditionally, managing implies planning, organising, leading, and controlling the training function. The training and development department is normally a subdepartment of the HR department. The ETD practitioner must manage the training and development department with due consideration of the vision, mission, strategies, and overall objectives of the organisation (in particular strategic human resource training and development: see Section 1.8). WHAT IS MANAGEMENT? Management is a process followed by managers to achieve organisational goals. To achieve goals, managers must plan (what has to be done), organise (how it must be done), lead or guide (instructions must be provided to see that things get done), and control must be exercised (check that they are done). 1.7 Planning.2 Planning involves those activities of management that determine the mission and goals of an organisation – in other words, planning determines the direction an organisation must follow to accomplish goals. PLANNING PROCESS Step 1: Goal setting: Vision, mission and formulation of goals. Step 2: Develop plans: Choices between alleviative plans of action to reach the goals. Step 3: Implementation: Execution of the plan throughout using organising, leading and control measures. The most important responsibility is to develop a strategic training and development (HRD) plan for the organisation. More details of this process are described in Section 1.8 in this chapter. However, it is important to reiterate that strategic HRD core capabilities make an organisation more change-ready and adaptive to change.22 Strategic HRD has moved from HRD prescriptive practices to a more descriptive and holistic approach, in order to achieve internal and external alignment and to promote an organisational learning culture. In so doing, McGuire suggests that ‘HRD professionals must connect with customers both internally and externally through formulating solutions that deliver practical and measureable business results’.23 Developing a HRD plan will ensure that the training and development is planned efficiently – in other words, that the correct types of training and development interventions are identified to ensure the success of the organisation. Once this step has been finalised, it is of vital importance that training and development is delivered effectively. This includes determining the training needs at macro-organisational and individual levels (see Chapter 5), followed by the analysis of tasks and the formulation of training objectives or outcomes. (Section 1.6 of this chapter contains an overview of various models describing the training process provided.) The ultimate goal of the formal planning process for purposes of training delivery is to establish learning outcomes for elected training programmes and to plan the successful delivery of the training and development programmes (see Chapter 6, Section 6.4 and Chapter 7, Sections 7.2 and 7.3). EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 35  IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING Planning is important because it: 1 gives direction 2 promotes coordination between departments and people in an organisation 3 compels managers to look to the future 4 ensures that organisations keep abreast of technology 5 ensures cohesion 6 promotes stability. 1.7 Organising.3 Organising is the second fundamental element of the management process. Management must deploy people, equipment, finances and other resources to achieve its goals. An organisational structure indicates the work to be done and the connection between various positions and tasks. Overall, the training and development as identified by the strategic plan and the required resources should be organised to ensure delivery structures. Resources (such as human and capital) and facilities should be organised and coordinated in such a manner that the execution of training can be done. The set objectives or outcomes must be achieved, and this can be done by means of departmentalisation, specialisation and coordination. All steps must be coordinated and communicated to establish a framework within which the training programme can be executed (see Chapters 6 and 7). The following should be decided upon: a suitable training approach to achieve the strategy applicable training aids and facilities the correct target group and students the right trainers/facilitators programme content requirements for divisions accommodation and general administrative rules. 1.7 Leading.4 In the context of training and development, leading on the macro level implies that from the Chief Executive Officer throughout the entire organisation, all leaders should create the opportunity for employees to be trained and developed in line with organisational goals. On a micro level, leading refers to the steps taken to coordinate, lead and motivate students and training practitioners to enable them to voluntarily achieve the set study objectives or outcomes. In order to do this, facilitators must be motivated and constantly supported to ensure that they perform at an optimal level (see Chapter 7). Motivational theories, such as those of Maslow and Herzberg, are not discussed in this book but the basic concepts of these theories do apply to training management. Leading also implies that the training manager should ensure that the vision of the HRD department must be clearly articulated and that line managers are activated to support HRD initiatives. It may help to look briefly at the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to the content factors inherent in the student or the task and forms the basis of modern training theories. Extrinsic motivation refers to contextual or external factors that are imposed on the task or the student by the trainer. Reward and punishment are examples of extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is very similar to Maslow’s two higher-order needs (self-actualisation and esteem needs), while extrinsic motivation is similar to the three lower-order EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 36  needs (psychological, safety and physiological needs). The person in charge of the training process must try to create an environment that is conducive to productive learning (see Chapter 3). The leadership style must create a positive learning atmosphere in which students receive recognition and experience growth, autonomy and the achievement of personal objectives. The aim is for trainees to feel excited about the opportunities they are afforded to develop and grow in the organisation, rather than feeling forced to attend training sessions against their will. Employees need to be motivated and committed to undergo training and development. Wilson24 emphasises the need for HRD managers to develop their own training and development staff in order to maintain a high level of morale and job satisfaction, and to ensure that the organisation’s objectives are achieved. They achieve this by keeping staff informed of all developments at national, industry and organisational level, by providing learning opportunities for them in order remain up to date, by developing career paths for them, and by recognising their achievements and contributions. 1.7 Control.5 It is crucial that the achievement of goals in the short and medium terms is monitored to ensure that the strategic plan is implemented and feedback is provided to enable the strategic direction to be adjusted. During the control phase on the micro level, the ETD practitioner must determine whether the organising efforts and the guidance offered have resulted in objectives or outcomes being achieved (see Chapter 8). If this is not the case, action must be taken to remedy this, but the objectives may not be altered. McGuire & Jorgensen25 suggest that, in an increasingly competitive environment, organisations are looking to HRD programmes to add value and increase employee capability. If this is not achieved, appropriate action must be taken to remedy this, but the strategic objectives should not be altered. Control does not take place only after guidance, but is a continuous process, for example, one that leads from the process of determining training needs to the evaluation phase (see Nadler’s model, Section 1.6.1). The emphasis is on: evaluating the system as a whole measuring the learning process achieving organisational objectives. REFLECTION How is training and development approached in your organisation? Share your views about the effectiveness of this approach. The management activities of planning, organising, leading and controlling should be used as the point of departure for the management of the HRD function in organisations. 1.8 Strategic human resource training and development 1.8 Introduction.1 Due to its importance and the costs involved, strategic human resource training and development in an organisation must be effectively managed. Within the context of HR management, the training and development practitioner today faces a wide range of challenges, namely: The ETD practitioner must ensure that all training and development programmes are presented in a purposeful and effective manner: Organisations should never offer training merely for the sake of training. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 37  The existing imbalance between skilled managers from the different population groups has to be rectified as soon as possible: Management development programmes should, therefore, be specifically developed to prepare black, coloured and Indian personnel for managerial positions, and to supplement shortages. The transformational agenda must be driven and managed. Management must realise that attitudes towards affirmative action training and development programmes do not change overnight: Resistance to the implementation of such programmes is likely. Training and development programmes must be designed in accordance with educational principles: This is to ensure maximum training effectiveness. ETD practitioners must be selected: This is because the success of training and development is largely dependent on the quality of ETD practitioners. Garavan & Carbery (2012)26 provided three theoretical perspectives to understand the contribution of strategic human resource development to individual and business performance, namely the human capital theory, resource-based theory and the behavioural perspective. The human capital theory recognises that investment in education, training and experience can bring huge benefits to individuals. Because of the benefits to individuals the individual will participate freely and the core competency of the organisation could be enhanced. The resource-based theory concentrates on a human resource development strategy that has its focus on human resource competence improvement and commitment to enable the organisation to achieve its competitive advantage. The behavioural theory emphasise the use of appropriate HRD practices and tools to allow the organisation to achieve various strategies. There should be a link between organisational strategies and HRD strategies. In brief – organisations cannot achieve its strategies if employees are not competent to execute the strategies. To ensure that strategic human resource training and development is purposeful, it is important at the outset (before developing any training programme) to investigate the nature and extent of the overall strategic business plan of the organisation, and in particular the HR management role in this strategy. 1.8 Business strategy, HR management strategy, and HR training and.2 development strategy For a full understanding of strategic human resource training and development, it is essential to be exposed to the broad process of strategic management and the contribution that HR management can make. Strategic planning may be described as a process in which an organisation states its overall purposes and objectives and how these will be achieved. TYPES OF PLANS Strategic planning: Long-term planning to realise the mission of the organisation; carried out by top management. Functional and tactical planning: Refers to medium-term planning carried out by middle management and is derived from strategic plans. Short-term planning: Called operational planning, usually developed by lower management and derived from medium-term planning. The concept of strategy has its origins in the military, where the Greek word strategos referred to a role of a person such as a ‘general’ who leads his troops to defeat the enemy. In modern times, strategic management has become an integral part of management decision-making and can be EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 38  defined as ‘a set of decisions and actions that result in the formulation and implementation of plans designed to achieve a company’s objectives.’27 A shortened version of a traditional strategic planning process includes the following:28 Develop a mission statement for the organisation: It has been argued that the mission statement should only be finalised once the vision of the organisation has been set. This vision is a statement of ‘what the organisation wishes to be in future’ and a mission defines the basic business scope and operations that distinguish the organisation from others of a similar nature. Questions to be answered are: ‘Why do we exist?’ ‘What is unique about our organisation?’ Scan the organisational external and internal environment: The external environment includes challenges posed by political, legal, economic, social and technological issues and the internal environment includes organisational culture, structure, mission, history, span of control, leadership and power. Planners must also scan the industry environment to determine what competitors are planning, whether new firms are entering the market or whether substitute products or services may be introduced. The reason for scanning the different environments is to determine the threats and opportunities each pose to the organisation. In the process of scanning the internal environment, the organisation’s strengths and weaknesses are assessed because the organisational goals should be focusing on building on the organisation’s strengths and avoiding its weaknesses. The organisation may, for example, try to steer away from its management weaknesses by moving from a hierarchical structure to a matrix management structure. (See Chapter 2 on macro factors influencing training.) The setting of strategic goals is essential if the organisation wishes to achieve its mission: Strategic goals should be measurable, challenging and attainable. They should also address a wide variety of aspects, such as marketing, productivity and financial aspects. Formulate a strategic plan to specify the course of action an organisation must take to achieve its goals: Organisational goals are translated to more narrow functional areas or departmental goals. After that, specific plans are devised to achieve the set goals. These plans are set for departments, such as production, marketing, finance and HR. The strategic human resource training and development function in an organisation is part of the HR function and it is therefore essential that the broad HR strategic plan should first be finalised. HR planning involves linking all HR functions to the broad organisational goals. The HR plan should ensure that individuals with the right characteristics and skills are available to achieve organisational goals. To achieve HR goals, the HR planning process is to determine future HR needs. To establish these needs, a demand forecast (such as the number of people required at some time in the future and the profiles of those people required) should be made and compared with the supply of HR (analysis of the skills levels) presently in the organisation. The differences between the demand and supply of HR signify the HR needs. When an oversupply of personnel exists in the organisation, employees may have to be reallocated to different jobs or possibly be retrenched. If there is a demand for personnel and there are job vacancies, staff to fill the vacancies must be recruited and employees retrained and developed for other HR functions to satisfy the job requirements. Strategic human resource training and development focuses on all those activities related to the training and development of people in the organisation to deal with the over-and undersupply of personnel in the organisation. See Section 1.8.4 for a more detailed discussion of strategic human resource training and development. The tremendous rate of change in the area of information technology and the effect of globalisation make managing organisations very complex, and this means that a total rethink of the traditional approach to strategic management is required. In future, the emphasis might be on how accurately information is assessed to determine its impact on an organisation’s risk and on organisational learning. The introduction of change management processes and systems might be the most vital driver in organisations to ensure success – its impact on how individuals learn and EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 39  their contributions to organisational survival will be crucial. The very important role training and development can play, especially as strategic partner and as change agent, cannot be overemphasised. TYPICAL HR FUNCTIONS HR planning Job analyses Recruitment Induction and orientation Selection Training and development Performance management and appraisal Pay and benefits Productivity Labour relations Health and safety. All indications are that, if strategic human resource training and development are well planned and executed in organisations, not only the individual but also the organisation and the country as a whole will benefit. The focus of strategic human resource training and development management is to put training and development on the organisation’s strategic planning agenda and to deliver the required knowledge, skills and attitudes to ensure success. The idea of having a single training and development strategy to cater for all training and development eventualities in organisations is unrealistic. The secret of success, however, is to be prepared to put as many strategic training plans in place to cater for both unforeseen immediate and for long-term needs. Action which has to be taken because of a turbulent organisational environment will depend on the unique circumstances of the organisation. Good preparation – with emphasis on flexibility, speed and timing – is essential for effecting training and development in organisations. The main aim of training and development in organisations should be to assess and address skills deficiencies in the short-and long term and should therefore be a strategic priority. The following are suggested:29 Upgrading managers’ skills to enable them to steer and guide the organisation to success remains one of the crucial priorities: Without suitably qualified managers and workers, no organisation can expect to have growth and success. The Skills Development Act (No. 97 of 1998) and the Skills Development Levies Act (No. 9 of 1999) are examples of the high priority government places on training and development. Training and development should act as catalysts for change in organisations: Various techniques (such as team building and participative work practices) are available to sensitise the workforce on new issues and also to assist in the strategic changes organisations intend to make in a turbulent environment. Another purpose of strategic human resource training and development is to assist organisations to achieve and maintain a competitive edge: Not only will strategic goals be achieved, but organisations that invest more in training and development will attract better candidates. Using training and development as a strategic HR tool to meet the organisation’s objectives will enhance the overall improvement of organisational outputs. A learning climate will be increased in the organisation if training and development is a strategic priority: The emphasis is on the learning needs of individuals guided by organisational goals. Untapped potential might be identified that will enhance individual performance and a EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 40  dynamic learning organisation (see box below). LEARNING ORGANISATIONS (See also the discussion on learning organisations in Chapter 10.) A learning organisation is an organisation which facilitates the learning of all its members and continually transforms itself: It contains an individual and organisational change element.30 Learning in a learning organisation becomes a lifelong team and organisational effort with new emphasis on how learning is executed and performance is managed: Learning is not seen as restricted only to the individual but also requires a change in organisational culture. Learning organisations have the following characteristics: People orientated, customer focused, action and results focused, possess learning opportunities at all levels of the organisation, technology driven, externally focused, have a systems approach, improved job satisfaction, innovation, shared vision, teamwork, empowerment, and inspired leadership. Figure 1.8 shows the relationship between the above strategies. The figure is self-explanatory and no further discussion is required. FIGURE 1.8 The relationship between business strategy, HR management strategy and HRD strategy In the United States of America (US), most of the top 100 training companies link training to business goals and objectives. Apart from valuing people for people’s sakes, each top 100 company also develops a clear understanding of the direct link between an organisation’s ultimate prosperity and the extent to which employees are encouraged to develop their own potential. It is no surprise that some 90% of these companies strategically align personal development plans with overall missions, goals, and objectives.32 In the South African context, a high priority is placed on the EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 41  training and development of people by employers, Government and SETAs (Sector Education and Training Authorities; see Chapter 2), so it seems that South African companies are doing the same as the top 100 companies in the US. However, empirical evidence is not available to prove this notion. 1.8 What is strategic training management or strategic human resource.3 development (SHRD)? Strategic human resource development (SHRD) is geared to the strategic business plan to help implement the HR strategy by improving the knowledge and skills of employees of the organisation and/or the knowledge and efficiency levels of interest groups outside the organisation. HRD strategy can be defined as the pattern of planned and unfolding activities that focuses on developing capabilities to achieve current and future strategic objectives.33 In this definition, HRD is seen both as planned and unfolding, and HRD makes the achievement of business strategy possible. The question is how does HRD plan integrate with the business strategy (vertical integration) and with the HR strategy (horizontal integration), for example, performance systems and succession planning? Finally, HRD strategy develops capabilities that are needed to deliver on current and future business strategies. Strategic human resource training and development models can be either prescriptive or explanatory. These two models will be briefly explained in the sections that follow. 1.8.3 Garavan’s prescriptive model.1 Garavan’s34 prescriptive model consists of nine elements, namely: the integration of HRD activities with the mission and goals of the organisation environmental scanning management support for HRD activities HRD policies and plans must be formulated and implemented line management must be involved in the design SHRD must be aligned with related human resource practices expanded role for training acknowledgment of the role of culture in the design, and delivery of strategic human resource training and development and the evaluation of the impact of strategic human resource training and development on the individual and organisational effectiveness. The aforementioned eight characteristics of this model were further developed by McCracken & Wallace (2000) and Garavan, Heraty & Mortey (1998) by emphasising the fact that strategic human resource development strategy simultaneously responds and influences the business strategy as it evolves.35 A strong focus is on a learning culture and on organisational change, and depending on the maturity of the human resource development function, it will play different roles. Prescriptive models are normally criticised because it is assumed that there is an end point in strategic human resources development strategy rather than HRD being an emergent process, that it is a one-size-fits-all model, and because it does not explain the relationship between various components. 1.8.3 Garavan’s and Peterson’s explanatory models.2 Garavan and Peterson36 each present a specific explanatory model, which will be briefly explained in the following sections. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 42  Garavan’s model Garavan’s (2007) model acknowledges the fact that strategic human resource training and development operates in an environment that is very dynamic. The model identifies four levels that impact on strategic human resource training and development namely::37 Level 1: The global environment which includes the local environment (economic and political trends, and industry context), the national environment (technology change, labour market, national HRD systems and national culture), and multinational environment (cross cultural differences and international law and regulations). Level 2: The internal context of the organisation which includes strategy, structure, culture and leadership. Level 3: Emphasise the job and its unique value and contribution to the organisation. Level 4: The focus is on the individual’s expectation, employability and career opportunities. Talent management initiatives play an important part, especially when decisions are made to enhance careers through training and whether employees are identified as ‘high potential’ candidates. This model suggests and places a high premium on the management of stakeholder expectations and the characteristics of HRD professionals (skills, attitudes and knowledge). Peterson’s model Peterson’s model38 is based on ‘systems thinking’. Although the external environment is important, the internal environment is the primary focus area. The internal environment focus areas include HRD strategic goals, the role of the training and development practitioners as strategic partners, and the capacity level of HRD staff. The model also acknowledges external factors, such as the economical, political, cultural, international and regularity environment. Organisations will have to respond to all of these factors, but more importantly, for organisations to survive, they will have to respond to these factors based on their own assessment of organisational strengths and weaknesses. This model is a self-initiate and proactive approach rather than a reactive approach. The internal organisational dimensions which contribute to strategic human resource training and development are: the culture of learning the commitment to performance improvement the capacity of HRD staff which needs to align training and development goals to the organisational mission and strategy. The success of this model depends on how effective the HRD function forges strategic relationships with line managers, align systems and processes to create a high performance work system and culture, accept accountability, and how effective it is as the ultimate HRD strategic partner to line managers in the organisation. Garavan and Carbery (2012)39 are of the view that strategic human resource training and development practices in most organisations do not always follow a specific model, but emphasise that in using strategic human resource training and development approach models, one should know that the ‘one size fits all’ approach is incorrect. They report that four variants of strategic human resource training and development approaches have been observed in organisations, namely: 1 a traditional function, but with increased recognition of the need to be strategic 2 a function that supports strategy in its implementation 3 a function where the training and development practitioner is viewed as an expert in the strategic process 4 a fully-fledged strategic human resource training and development function which is based on strategic partnership ideas. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 43  1.8.3 Rothwell and Kazanas’s model40.3 The following brief discussion of the approach of Rothwell & Kazanas41 shows the systematic planning of the strategic approach to training and development in organisations and includes elements of both the prescriptive and explanatory models as explained above. This approach should be viewed as part of the HR management strategy and contains the following phases (see Figure 1.9): 1 Determine the purpose of the HRD effort. 2 Analyse the current circumstances/conditions: What are the strengths and weaknesses of the organisation regarding HR skills? Strengths would entail the skills that employees possess, and weaknesses would entail the training and development needs within the organisation. 3 Scan the external environment: What threats and opportunities arising from changes outside the organisation will affect HR performance? A threat will be construed as not having the necessary skills within the organisation to cope with the external factors, while an opportunity will be a particular skills base in the organisation to cope with external factors. 4 Compare present strengths and weaknesses to future threats and opportunities. 5 Choose a long-term organisational strategy for HRD that will assist individuals in preparing for the future. 6 Implement the organisational strategy for HRD by means of the following: organisational development non-employee development employee development employee education and training. 7 Evaluate the HRD programme. This model will be explained in more detail in the section that follows. FIGURE 1.9 Strategic Training and Development (T&D) Model EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 44  LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT Top management: Small group of executives who control the organisation and take final authority and responsibility for executing the management process. Middle management: Responsible for certain fundamental areas of the organisation and accountable for executing policies, plans and strategies determined by top management. Lower management: A group also referred to as supervisory management and responsible for smaller segments of the organisation. 1.8 Strategic training and development: Rothwell and Kazanas’s approach.4 Strategic human resource development (SHRD) means the ‘process of changing an organisation, stakeholders outside it, groups inside it, and people employed by it through planned learning so that they possess the knowledge and skills needed in the future. SHRD helps implement strategic business plans and HR management plans’. In the next section Rothwell and Kazanas’s approach to SHRD will be briefly discussed.43 1.8.4 Key assumptions of SHRD.1 The following key assumptions of SHRD are identified:44 There should be an overall purpose statement for the organisation and the HRD effort should be related to it. Every major plan of the organisation should be weighed in terms of human skills available to implement it and alternative ways of obtaining those skills. People at all levels in the organisation’s chain of command should share responsibility and accountability for HRD. There should be a formal, systematic and holistic planning process for the organisation, HR department and HRD. 1.8.4 The purpose of the SHRD effort.2 The mission of the organisation is the fundamental reason for its existence. It defines activities the organisation performs or intends to perform and the kind of organisation it is or intends to be. It does not require much imagination to see that these questions are applicable to HRD. Indeed, a good starting point in long-term planning of a HRD effort is to pose the following questions, which could clarify the purpose of the HRD effort and assist in determining priorities: What purpose does HRD seek to attain inside or outside the organisation? What part of this purpose is the responsibility of the HRD department, supervisors or students? What is known about the students? How can they be classified? How can this classification scheme be used in planning instruction? How are HRD activities currently benefiting the organisation? How should they benefit the organisation? How are HRD activities currently meeting students’ needs? How should they meet students’ needs in the future? What is the organisation’s present philosophy about HRD? What should that philosophy be in the future? Without a purpose, HRD practitioners may embark upon and successfully complete projects, but may never know how they are contributing to the organisation’s goals or improving job performance. It is of paramount importance that HRD practitioners clarify the purpose of the HRD effort in the organisation and ensure that it is aligned with the broad business purpose. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 45  1.8.4 Needs assessment.3 The starting point for planning all organised learning events in an organisation is a comprehensive needs assessment, which is defined as a broad systematic examination of conditions conducted for the purpose of identifying general differences between what people ‘should know or do’ and what they ‘actually know or do’45 (see Chapter 5). Needs assessment is the second step in the SHRD model. It follows the first step in the model and managers and supervisors should be well acquainted with present conditions before planning for the future. Comprehensive needs assessment can be viewed as the process of specifying present gaps between what people should know or do and what they actually know or do. The gap or training need could be viewed as a weakness but the assessment should also identify talents, competencies and skills generally referred to as strengths. It thus emphasised what is done satisfactorily and unsatisfactorily. To execute a proper assessment of strengths and weaknesses, HRD practitioners and line managers should, at some point: identify students and prospective students and determine their location, contact numbers, motivation level, ability to learn and what the most appropriate learning period would be classify students into broad ‘market segments’ compare actual to desired knowledge and skills for each student market segment identify present learning needs for each market and student market segment. Weaknesses are identified when employees do not possess the skills they should have. A well-trained core of employees is a strength in the organisation. Changes in the external environment create unique threats and opportunities for any organisation. 1.8.4 Environmental scanning.4 Environmental scanning can be described as a ‘structured examination of the future external environment. It is a systematic procedure for monitoring the world that sustains the organisation to identify opportunities and threats’.46 The various steps that can be followed to execute an environmental scanning could include the following: Step 1: Classify the external environment into sectors. Step 2: Decide on a time horizon appropriate for their scanning efforts. Step 3: Examine environmental sectors for expected changes over the chosen time horizon. Step 4: Try to infer the effects of environmental changes on the general public, external stakeholders, departments or work groups in the organisation, individuals and job requirements. Step 5: Identify future learning needs of the general public, external stakeholders, departments or work groups, individuals and job requirements. Step 6: Reassess learning needs by market segment from a future orientation. 1.8.4 Comparing present strengths and weaknesses to future threats and opportunities.5 Strengths in organisations lead to success against competitors, while weaknesses, if not handled carefully, lead to competitive failure. Proper knowledge of an organisation’s strengths and weaknesses helps managers to decide which businesses to enter or leave, which resources to allocate to which activities, and how to manage interactions between business units. An analysis of strengths and weaknesses provides valuable information for the planning of job EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 46  training and education. Studying the strengths and weaknesses of different work groups provides information to plan employee and organisational development. With this knowledge, a training and education curriculum can be planned for each job, class or category. When the results of environmental scanning are considered, two major questions should be answered. First, which major threats and opportunities will environmental changes probably pose to the organisation’s dealings with the general public, key external stakeholders, and the organisation as a whole? Second, what should the future status of the organisation be relative to the general public and key external stakeholders? Taking the aforementioned in consideration, a threat is any expected deficiency between what is at present and what should be in the future that stems from lack of knowledge or skill. It is a future learning need, an expected deficiency. An opportunity is the opposite of a threat. It is a future talent or competency. Organisational strategy for SHRD is established when strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities are compared. It is also the beginning of a SHRD strategy. 1.8.4 Choosing and implementing an organisational strategy.6 When choosing an organisational strategy for HRD, the plan best suited to meeting the organisation’s objectives is chosen from among alternative plans (see Figure 1.10). SHRD integrates long-, intermediate-, and short-term learning plans designed to cultivate the necessary talent. It helps to meet the needs created by strategic business plans and HR plans. Organisational strategy for HRD means a comprehensive, general instructional plan (otherwise called a curriculum) which supports the achievement of strategic business plans and HR plans. ‘Choosing an HRD strategy’ means deciding on an organisational strategy for HRD – a long-term direction for planned learning activities offered by the organisation. The resulting strategic choice is thus a unified learning plan that integrates HRD functions as organisational development, non-employee and employee development, and employee education and training. 1.8.4 Choosing an organisational strategy.7 ETD practitioners and top management strategists rarely have total freedom to pursue what they believe is the ‘best’ or ‘optimal’ choice; rather, they must consider possible strategies for long-term learning efforts based on tests of acceptability. The grand strategy selection matrix (see Figure 1.11) is a helpful tool in this process. Used in strategic business planning, it focuses on two key issues. Should strategies devote attention to overcoming present weaknesses or building on present strengths, or concentrate efforts inside or outside the firm? See Table 1.1 for the meaning of the different grand strategic choices for organisations and for HRD. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 47  FIGURE 1.10 Choosing an organisational training and development (T&D) strategy 1.8.4 Implementing an organisational strategy.8 Implementation is the process of turning plans into actions. As in strategic business planning, the implementation of an organisational strategy for training purposes is perhaps the single most important step. Without careful forethought about what actions to take, when to take them and who should take them, no strategy can ever succeed. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 48  Implementation can be considered as a series of steps in which training practitioners and line managers (see also Section 1.10: Annual training and development plan): Establish operational objectives for the training and development effort and review and revise training policies. Examine leadership in the corporation or business. Review the structure of the organisation, training and development department and learning experience sponsored by the organisation (the re-engineering of the training and development function is very important). Review reward systems. Budget for resources to implement strategy. Communicate about an organisational strategy for training and development. Develop functional training and development strategies. Start implementing and executing the training and development initiatives. 1.8.4 Evaluation.9 Evaluating training and development is important because it: provides information which can be used to improve planned learning, making it more effective in meeting needs, solving past performance problems and anticipating future opportunities for performance improvement sheds light on problems of all kinds, both those stemming from lack of individual knowledge or skill and those stemming from other causes points out the results of training activities, demonstrating their efficacy generally stimulates improvement, providing feedback which triggers additional plans and actions. EBSCOhost - printed on 8/5/2023 9:54 AM via NELSON MANDELA UNIVERSITY. All use subject to https://www.ebsco.com/terms-of-use 49  FIGURE 1.11 Grand strategy selection matrix TABLE 1.1 Meanings of different grand strategic choices for organisations and for HRD GRAND STRATEGY TRADITIONAL MEANING MEANING FOR HRD Vertical integration Purchase businesses that provide an The HRD effort is tied formally to organisation with important supplies. ‘suppliers’ to distributors of talent within the organisation (for example the recruitment/selection division of personnel) or outside the organisation (for example university programmes). Conglomerate diversification Purchase another business solely Expand into totally new areas of because it is a good investment, not