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LESSON 1: Strategic Human Resource Development HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT HRD programs must respond to job - A process for developing and changes and integrate the long-term unleashing human expertise through plans and strategies o...

LESSON 1: Strategic Human Resource Development HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT HRD programs must respond to job - A process for developing and changes and integrate the long-term unleashing human expertise through plans and strategies of the training and development and organization to ensure the efficient organization development for the and effective use of resources. purpose of improving performance In short, while training and (Richard Swanson). development activities, or “T&D” for - Learning is at the core of all HRD short, constitutes a major part of efforts as the major focus today is on human resource development, workplace learning and activities such as coaching, career performance. development, team building, and organization development also are JACOBS and PARK define WORKPLACE aspects of HRD. LEARNING as: - process used by individuals when HISTORY OF HRD engaged in training programs, education and development courses, a. Early Apprenticeship Training or some type of experiential learning Programs in 18th Century activity for the purpose of acquiring the competence necessary to meet Small shops operated by skilled artisans current and future work produced virtually all household goods, requirements. such as furniture, clothing, and shoes. To meet a growing demand for their products, HRD can be defined as a set of craft-shop owners had to employ additional systematic and planned activities workers. Without vocational or technical designed by an organization to schools, the shopkeepers had to educate provide its members with the and train their own workers. For little or no opportunities to learn necessary wages, these trainees, or apprentices, skills to meet current and future job learned the craft of their master, usually demands. working in the shop for several years until they became proficient in their trade. HRD seeks to: 1. develop people’s knowledge; b. Early Vocational Education 2. expertise; Programs 3. productivity; and 4. satisfaction whether for personal or - In 1809, a man named DeWitt group/team gain, or for the benefit of an Clinton founded the first recognized, organization, community, nation, or, privately funded vocational school, ultimately, the whole of humanity. also referred to as a manual school, in New York City. The purpose of the manual school was to provide  occupational training to unskilled mechanical and machinist training young people who were unemployed programs, which were referred to as “factory or had criminal records. Manual schools.” schools grew in popularity, particularly in the midwestern states, D. Early Training Programs for because they were a public solution Semiskilled and Unskilled Worke to a social problem: what to do with “misdirected” youths. Regardless of Started after two significant historical their intent, these early forms of events. The first was the introduction of the occupational training established a Model T by Henry Ford in 1913. The Model prototype for vocational education. T was the first car to be mass-produced using an assembly line, in which production - Today, vocational instruction is an required only the training of semiskilled important part of each state’s public workers to perform several tasks. The new education system. In fact, given the assembly lines cut production costs current concerns about a “skills gap” significantly and Ford lowered its prices, (especially for technical skills), making the Model T affordable to a much vocational education has become larger segment of the public. With the even more critical at the present increased demand for the Model T, Ford time. had to design more assembly lines, and this provided more training opportunities. Most C. Early Factory Schools of the other automobile manufacturers who entered the market at this time also used With the advent of the Industrial Revolution assembly line processes, resulting in a during the late 1800s, machines began to proliferation of semiskilled training replace the hand tools of the artisans. programs. “Scientific” management principles recognized the significant role of machines E. The Human Relations Movement in better and more efficient production systems. Specifically, semiskilled workers One of the undesirable by-products of the using machines could produce more than factory system was the frequent abuse of the skilled workers in small craft shops. This unskilled workers, including children, who marked the beginning of factories as we were often subjected to unhealthy working know them today. Factories made it conditions, long hours, and low pay. Led by possible to increase production by using Mary Parker Follett and Lillian Gilbreth led machines and unskilled workers, but they the campaign that gave rise to the “human also created a significant demand for the relations” movement advocating more engineers, machinists, and skilled humane working conditions. mechanics needed to design, build, and repair the machines. Fueled by the rapid Among other things, the human relations increase in the number of factories, the movement provided a more complex and demand for skilled workers soon outstripped realistic understanding of workers as people the supply of vocational school graduates. instead of merely cogs in a factory machine. To meet this demand, factories created Chester Barnard, the President of New function or attending college qualified for Jersey Bell Telephone, in his influential associate membership. 1938 book The Functions of the Executive, described the organization as a social G. Emergence of HRD structure integrating traditional management During the 1960s and 1970s, and behavioral science applications. professional trainers realized that their role extended beyond the training classroom. The movement continued into the The move toward employee involvement in 1940s, with World War II as a many organizations required trainers to also backdrop. Abraham Maslow coach and counsel employees. Training and published his theory on human development (T&D) competencies therefore needs, stating that people can be expanded to include interpersonal skills motivated by both economic and such as coaching, group process facilitation, noneconomic incentives. and problem solving. This additional He proposed that human needs are emphasis on employee development arranged in terms of lesser to inspired the ASTD to rename itself as the greater potency (strength) and American Society for Training and distinguished between lower order Development (ASTD). In 2010, ASTD had (basic survival) and higher order approximately 40,000 members in over 100 (psychological) needs. countries. Theories like Maslow’s served to reinforce the notion that the varied THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HRM needs and desires of workers can AND HRD/TRAINING become important sources of motivation in the workplace. Human resource management (HRM) can be defined as the effective selection and utilization of employees to F. The Establishment of the Training best achieve the goals and strategies of an Profession organization, as well as the goals and needs of employees. Many defense-related companies established their own training departments. These departments designed, organized, and coordinated training across the organization. In 1942, the American Society for Training Directors (ASTD) was formed to establish some standards within this emerging profession.19 At the time, the requirements for full membership in ASTD included a college or university degree plus two years of experience in training or a related field, or five years of experience in training. A person working in a training FUNCTIONS OF HRM 4. Compensation and benefits administration is responsible for 1. Human resource planning activities are establishing and maintaining an equitable used to predict how changes in internal wage structure, a competitive management strategy will affect future benefits package, as well as incentives tied human resource needs. These activities are to individual, team, or organizational critically important with the rapid changes in performance. external market demands. HR planners must continually chart the course of an 5. Employee (labor) relations activities organization and its plans, programs, and include developing a communications actions. system through which employees can address their problems and grievances. In a 2. Equal employment opportunity unionized organization, labor relations will activities are intended to satisfy both the include the development of working legal and moral responsibilities of an relations with each labor union, as well as organization through the prevention of contract negotiations and administration. discriminatory policies, procedures, and practices. This includes decisions affecting 6. Health, safety, and security activities hiring, training, appraising, and seek to promote a safe and healthy work compensating employees. environment. This can include actions such as safety training, employee assistance 3. Staffing (recruitment and selection) programs, and health and wellness activities are designed for the timely programs. identification of potential applicants for current and future openings and for 7. Human resource development activities assessing and evaluating applicants in are intended to ensure that organizational order to make selection and placement members have the skills or competencies to decisions. meet current and future job demands. SECONDARY HRM FUNCTIONS LINE VS STAFF AUTHORITY 1. Organization/job design activities are concerned with One of the primary components of an interdepartmental relations and the organization’s structure is the authority organization and definition of jobs. delegated to a manager or unit to make 2. Performance management and decisions and utilize resources. performance appraisal systems are used for establishing and Line authority is given to managers and maintaining accountability organizational units that are directly throughout an organization. responsible for the production of goods and 3. Research and information services. systems (including Human Resource Information Systems) Staff authority is given to organizational are necessary to make enlightened units that advise and consult line units. human resource decisions. HRD FUNCTIONS (MCLAGAN) 1. Training and Development 2. Organization Development 3. Career Development 1. Training and Development Counseling techniques are used to Training and development (often help employees deal with personal abbreviated as T&D) focuses on changing problems that may interfere with the or improving the knowledge, skills, and achievement of these goals. attitudes of individuals. Training typically Counseling programs may address involves providing employees the such issues as substance abuse, knowledge and skills needed to do a stress management, smoking particular task or job, though attitude cessation, or fitness, nutrition, and change may also be attempted (e.g., in weight control. sexual harassment training). Developmental activities, in contrast, have a longer-term Management training and focus on preparing for future work development programs to ensure responsibilities while also increasing the that managers and supervisors have capacities of employees to perform their the knowledge and skills necessary current jobs. to be effective in their positions. These programs may include Employee Orientation is the supervisory training, job rotation, process by which new employees seminars, or college and university learn important organizational values courses. and norms, establish working relationships, and learn how to 2. Organization Development (OD) is function within their jobs. The HRD defined as the process of enhancing the staff and the hiring supervisor effectiveness of an organization and the generally share the responsibility for well-being of its members through planned designing the orientation process, interventions that apply behavioral science conducting general orientation concepts. OD emphasizes both macro and sessions, and beginning the initial micro organizational changes: macro skills training. changes are intended to ultimately improve the effectiveness of the organization as a Skills and technical training whole, whereas micro changes are directed programs then narrow in scope to at individuals, small groups, and teams. teach the new employee a particular skill or area of knowledge. 3. Career Development is “an ongoing process by which individuals progress Coaching encourages individuals to through a series of stages, each of which is accept responsibility for their characterized by a relatively unique set of actions, to address any work-related issues, themes, and tasks. It involves two problems, and to achieve and distinct processes: sustain superior levels of 3.1 Career planning involves activities performance. Coaching involves performed by an individual, often with the treating employees as partners in assistance of counselors and others, to achieving both personal and assess his or her skills and abilities in order organizational goals. to establish a realistic career plan. 3.2 Career management involves taking WORKPLACE LEARNING AND the necessary steps to achieve that plan, PERFORMANCE ROLES and generally focuses more on what an 1. Designing Learning organization can do to foster employee 2. Improving Human Performance career development. 3. Delivering Training 4. Measuring and Evaluating ROLES AND COMPETENCIES OF AN 5. Facilitating Organizational Change HRD PROFESSIONAL 6. Managing the Learning Function 7. Coaching Role is a specific set of tasks and expected 8. Managing Organizational Knowledge outputs for a particular job, for example, 9. Career Planning and Talent classroom trainer or instructional designer. Management Foundational competencies fall into AREAS OF EXPERTISE three areas: 1. Personal 1. Interpersonal 2. Interpersonal Building trust 3. Business/management Communicating effectively Influencing stakeholders FOUR KEY ROLES FOR HRD Leveraging diversity PROFESSIONALS Networking and partnering 1. Learning strategist is involved in 2. Business/Management the high-level decision making Analyzing needs and concerning how HRD initiatives will proposing solutions support the goals and strategies of Applying business acumen an organization. Driving results 2. Business partner works together Planning and implementing with managers and others in change determining how the HRD initiative Thinking strategically will be implemented and evaluated. 3. Project manager is involved with 3. Personal the day-to-day planning, funding, Demonstrating adaptability and monitoring of HRD initiatives. Modeling personal 4. Professional specialist adds his or development her expertise to particular areas, for example, designing, developing, OTHER HRD ROLES AND OUTPUTS FOR delivering, and evaluating an HRD HRD PROFESSIONALS initiative. HRD managers and executives are most likely to be The HR strategic advisor consults involved with the learning strategist strategic decision-makers on HRD and business partner roles. issues that directly affect the articulation of organization strategies and performance goals.  Outputs include HR strategic plans The instructor/facilitator presents and strategic planning education and materials and leads and facilitates training programs. structured learning experiences. Outputs include the selection of The HR systems designer and appropriate instructional methods developer assists HR management and techniques and the actual HRD in the design and development of program itself. HR systems that affect organization performance. Outputs include HR The individual development and program designs, intervention career counselor assists individual strategies, and implementation of employees in assessing their HR programs. competencies and goals in order to develop a realistic career plan. The organization change agent Outputs include individual advises management in the design assessment sessions, workshop and implementation of change facilitation and career guidance. strategies used in transforming organizations. The outputs include The performance consultant (or more efficient work teams, quality coach) advises line management on management, intervention appropriate interventions designed strategies, implementation, and to improve individual and group change reports. performance. Outputs include intervention strategies, coaching, The organization design design and implementation. consultant advises management on work systems design and the The researcher assesses HRD efficient use of human resources. practices and programs using Outputs include intervention appropriate statistical procedures to strategies, alternative work designs, determine their overall effectiveness and implementation. and communicates the results to their organization. Outputs include The learning program specialist research designs, research findings (or instructional designer) and recommendations, and reports. identifies needs of the learner, develops and designs appropriate Some popular HRD jobs: learning programs, and prepares ○ instructional designer materials and other learning aids. ○ change agent Outputs include program objectives, ○ executive coach lesson plans, and intervention ○ multimedia master strategies. FRAMEWORK FOR THE HRD PROCESS environment that enhances learning, and resolving Needs assessment problems that may arise. ○ A need can be either a Missing equipment current deficiency, such as Conflicts between poor employee performance, participants or a new challenge that Evaluation demands a change in the ○ This is where the way their organization effectiveness of the HRD operates. intervention is measured. Design ○ This is an important but often ○ This involves the following underemphasized activity. Selecting the specific ○ Careful evaluation provides objectives of the information on participants’ program. reaction to the program, how Developing an much they learned, whether appropriate lesson they use what they learned plan for the program. back in the job and whether Developing or the program improved the acquiring the organization's effectiveness. appropriate materials ○ Evaluation results allow for the trainees to managers to make better use. decisions about various Determining who will aspects of the HRD effort, deliver the program such as: Selecting the most Continuing to use a appropriate method particular technique or methods to or vendor in future conduct the program. programs. Selecting the Offering a particular program. program in the future. Implementation Budgeting and ○ This means that the program resource allocation. or intervention must be Using some other HR delivered or implemented managerial approach using the most appropriate (like employee means or methods (as selection or changing determined in the design work rules) to solve a phase) problem. ○ Delivering any HRD program generally presents numerous challenges, such as executing the program as planned, creating an LESSON 2: INFLUENCES ON EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR MAJOR CATEGORIES OF EMPLOYEE 1. Outcomes BEHAVIOR occur as a result of a given 1. Task performance - those relating employee behavior. to performing the critical tasks can be personal or organizational in associated with a given job. nature. 2. Organizational Citizenship - a Personal outcomes are those that culture of innovation and have value to the individual, such as initiative-taking, team-building efforts pay, recognition, and emotions. that promote cooperation and Organizational outcomes are things teamwork, coaching or mentoring valued by an organization, such as efforts. teamwork, productivity, and product quality. WORK ENVIRONMENT THAT AFFECT These outcomes are what an EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR organization would ultimately hope 1. Outcomes: types and effect on to achieve by the collective efforts of motivation all organizational members. 2. Supervisors: leadership and performance expectations ➔ The word VALUE should not imply 3. Characteristics of the that outcomes are always positive or organization itself: reward desirable. structure, organizational culture, and ➔ Behavior can also result in outcomes job design that employees fear or dislike. 4. Coworkers: control of outcomes, Embarrassment, disciplinary actions, norms, group dynamics, and transfers, loss of pay or privileges, teamwork/ and ostracism are all possible trust/cohesiveness unpleasant outcomes of employee behavior.  2. Supervision And Leadership There are almost as many definitions An immediate supervisor plays an of leadership and theories about it as important role in the employee’s there are leadership researchers. Two work life: examples serve to demonstrate the 1. delegating tasks and responsibilities effect a supervisor’s leadership may 2. setting expectations have on employee behavior: 3. evaluating performance 4. providing (or failing to provide) Robert House’s Path-Goal theory - feedback a leader’s role is to identify goals 5. rewards and clarify paths employees may 6. discipline take to reach these goals. If this is Even with the shift toward greater done, then motivation, job use of teams, including more satisfaction, and employee self-directed work teams, performance are predicted to supervisors continue to play a critical increase. Research has supported role in the success of most the theory’s predictions regarding organizations. job satisfaction. George Graen’s A. Self-fulfilling prophecy Leader-Member-Exchange (or or the Pygmalion effect, shows how LMX) model of leadership (earlier the expectations a supervisor called the vertical-dyad linkage establishes can influence a approach) observes that supervisors subordinate’s behavior. tend to develop different quality First demonstrated in classroom relationships with different settings, self-fulfilling prophecy subordinates. states that expectations of Subordinates look to their managers performance can become reality for cues about appropriate and because people strive to behave inappropriate behavior. If a manager consistently with their perceptions of or supervisor speaks and behaves in reality. ways that indicate training and If supervisors (or trainers) expect development are unimportant, good performance, their behavior employees will likely have little may aid and encourage their enthusiasm for these activities. subordinates (or trainees) to raise Alternatively, if managers and their own self-expectations, increase supervisors take these activities their efforts, and ultimately perform seriously and reward employees for well. The opposite can happen if learning and using new skills, supervisors or trainers expect poor techniques, and attitudes, HRD performance. efforts will be more effective, and ultimately the employee, manager, B. Leadership and organization will benefit. the use of noncoercive influence to direct and coordinate the activities of a group toward accomplishing a goal. THE ORGANIZATION itself can influence events, know what is expected of employee behavior through the following: them, and behave in appropriate Reward structure ways in new or unfamiliar situations. Culture Organizations that have a strong Job Design culture try to perpetuate that culture by selecting individuals who already 1. Reward structure focuses on: share the culture. the types of rewards an organization uses (material, Job design is the development and social) alteration of the components of a job (such how rewards are distributed as the tasks one performs, and the scope of (e.g., equally to all, relative to one’s responsibilities) to improve each individual’s contribution, productivity and the quality of employee or on the basis of need) work life. the criteria for reward distribution (results, behavior, As proposed by Richard Hackman nonperformance issues, such and Greg Oldham, when jobs as seniority or tenure) contain factors that satisfy employees’ personal growth needs It is important for supervisors and or provide elements that generate HRD professionals to understand feelings of responsibility, what an organization’s reward meaningfulness, and knowledge of system is intended to do, how it is results, employees will be more put into practice, and how satisfied and more productive. employees respond to it. Some performance problems may be IMPLICATIONS OF JOB DESIGN solved simply by adjusting the 1. The way an organization chooses to reward system. It must also be construct its jobs can affect an understood that a major reason why employee’s behavior and attitudes. many employees become involved 2. To improve an employee’s in HRD programs is to obtain valued performance and attitudes, the focus rewards, such as promotions, pay can be on altering the job rather than increases, and more desirable work the employee. assignments. COWORKERS AND TEAM can exert a 2. Organizational culture - a set of strong influence on an employee’s behavior values, beliefs, norms, and patterns in at least three ways: of behavior that are shared by organization members and that 1. Coworkers control some of the guide their behavior. outcomes valued by an employee and can use those outcomes to Individuals who understand an influence the employee’s behavior. organization’s culture are better able 2. Norms, or informal rules for to accurately interpret organizational appropriate behavior established  within work groups, can serve as a. Trust has to do with guidelines for appropriate behavior, expectations that another if the employee chooses to comply. person (or group of people) will act benevolently toward 3. Because HRD programs are often you. Research demonstrates administered to groups of strong links between employees and employees must interpersonal trust and perform newly-learned behaviors in employee performance group settings, HRD professionals (including citizenship need to understand the effect of behaviors), problem solving, group dynamics on behavior and cooperation. GROUP DYNAMICS influence the way an b. Cohesiveness is the employee may behave when interacting in a members’ sense of group. Dynamics such as groupthink and togetherness and willingness social loafing show that the performance of to remain part of the group. individuals within groups can differ from how they behave alone. Given team members’ high level of interdependence, they must trust one 1. Groupthink occurs when group another and feel a sense of cohesiveness if members are primarily concerned the team is to work together and be with unanimity and make poor successful. decisions by failing to realistically assess alternatives. MOTIVATION: A FUNDAMENTAL INTERNAL INFLUENCE ON EMPLOYEE 2. Social loafing is the tendency for BEHAVIOR group members to reduce their effort as the size of the group Motivation is the psychological processes increases. The implication of that cause the arousal, direction, and dynamics such as social loafing persistence of voluntary actions that are and groupthink is that consideration goal-directed (Mitchell). must be given to how employees will behave when they Motivation to work should be are in group settings understood first and foremost as a voluntary behavior 3. Teamwork - both amplifies the Motivation focuses on several importance of coworkers’ influences processes affecting behavior: on individual behavior and brings a. Energizing - the generation other dynamics to the forefront. or mobilization of effort b. Direction - applying effort to one behavior over another c. Persistence - continuing (or ceasing) to perform a behavior  Motivation at work is usually seen as Expectancy beliefs reflect an individual’s an individual phenomenon because judgment of whether applying (or all people have unique needs, increasing) effort to a task will result in its desires, attitudes, and goals. successful accomplishment. Stated another way, people with high expectancy believe APPROACHES TO EXPLAINING that increased effort will lead to better MOTIVATION performance, but people with low expectancy do not believe that their efforts, no matter how great, will affect their performance. Instrumentality is a judgment about the connection the individual perceives (if any between task performance and possible outcomes. Making an instrumentality judgment entails asking the question, “If I perform this task successfully, is it likely to get me something I want (or something I 1. Need-Based Theories of don’t want)? Motivation Needs are deficiency states or imbalances, Valence refers to the value the person either physiological or psychological, that places on a particular outcome. Valence energize and direct behavior. judgments range from strongly positive (for highly valued outcomes), through zero (for Henry Murray proposed that humans outcomes the person doesn’t care about), to experience a large number of needs, such strongly negative (for outcomes the person as aggression, affiliation, autonomy, and finds aversive). achievement. Although needs are internal states, they can be influenced by forces in Goal-Setting Theory contends that the environment. performance goals play a key role in motivation. The theory proposes that 2. Cognitive Process Theories of goals can mobilize employee effort, Motivation direct attention, increase persistence, and affect the strategies Expectancy theory, first proposed by employees use to accomplish tasks. Victor Vroom, assumes that motivation is a conscious choice process. According to this Goals influence an individual’s theory, people choose to put their effort into intentions, which are defined as the activities they believe they can perform that “cognitive representations of goals to will produce desired outcomes. Expectancy which the person is committed.” This theory argues that decisions about which commitment will continue to direct activities to engage in are based on the employee behavior until the goal is combination of three sets of beliefs: achieved or until a decision is made expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. to change or reject the goal.  Social Learning Theory by Albert AS A THEORY OF WORK MOTIVATION, Bandura proposes that outcome IT IS BASED ON THREE ASSUMPTIONS: and self-efficacy expectations affect individual performance. 1. People develop beliefs about what is fair for them to receive in exchange for the An outcome expectation (similar to contributions that they make to an the concept of “instrumentality” in organization expectancy theory) is a person’s 2. People determine fairness by comparing belief that performing a given their relevant returns and contributions to behavior will lead to a given those of others outcome. 3. People who believe they have been treated unfairly (called inequity) will Self-efficacy can be defined as experience tension, and they will be “people’s judgments of their motivated to find ways to reduce it. capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain Reinforcement Theory is rooted in designated types of performances. It behaviorism, the theory attempts to is concerned not with the skills one explain behavior without referring to has but with judgments of what one unobservable internal forces such as can do with whatever skills one needs or thoughts. possesses.” ○ Behaviorists seek to explain behavior by focusing only on The major prediction of the social things they can directly learning theory is that a person’s observe: the behavior itself self-efficacy expectations will and environmental events determine that precede and follow the ○ whether a behavior will be behavior. performed, ○ Reinforcement theory argues ○ how much effort will be that behavior is a function of spent, and its consequences. ○ how long the person will ○ This is based on the law of continue to perform the effect, which states that behavior. behavior that is followed by a pleasurable consequence will Equity Theory suggests that occur more frequently (a motivation is strongly influenced by process called the desire to be treated fairly and by reinforcement), and behavior people’s perceptions about whether that is followed by an they have been treated fairly. adverse consequence will occur less frequently.  ○ According to reinforcement OTHER INTERNAL FACTORS THAT theory, a manager or trainer INFLUENCE EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR can control an employee’s behavior by controlling the Attitudes Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities consequences that follow the (KSAs) employee’s behavior. Knowledge is defined as an understanding Reinforcement theory can be applied of factors or principles related to a particular using a set of techniques known as subject behavior modification. Behavior modification suggests four choices Skills are categorized as psychomotor for controlling an employee’s activities (whereas abilities tend to be more behavior: cognitive), and skills are typically measured in terms of the ease and precision evident in ❖ Positive reinforcement refers to the performance of some task. Increasingly, increasing the frequency of a skills are being studied and addressed behavior by following the behavior using the broader term of “competency.” with a pleasurable consequence. Abilities develop over time through the ❖ Negative reinforcement increases interaction of heredity and experience and the frequency of a behavior by are long-lasting. Skills are similar to abilities, removing something unpleasurable but differ in that they combine abilities with after the behavior is performed. capabilities that are developed as a result of training and experience. ❖ Extinction seeks to decrease the frequency of a behavior by removing the consequence that is reinforcing it. ❖ Punishment seeks to decrease the frequency of a behavior by introducing an adverse consequence immediately after the behavior