ENG 101 Midterm Handouts - Virtual University of Pakistan

VU ENG 101 Professor Dr. Surriya Shaffi Mir © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 1 VU Table of Contents Page Lecture No. Topic...

VU ENG 101 Professor Dr. Surriya Shaffi Mir © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 1 VU Table of Contents Page Lecture No. Topic No. Lecture No.01 Reading and Dictionary 4 Lecture No.02 Pronunciation 12 Lecture No.03 Reading for Main Idea 16 Lecture No.04 Reading: Topic, Main Idea 20 Lecture No.05 Reading: References 25 Lecture No.06 Reading Skills 30 Lecture No.07 Reading and Vocabulary 36 Lecture No.08 Word Formation- Prefixes 43 Lecture No.09 Reading: Description, Locating Information 51 Lecture No.10 Reading: Word Forms 59 Lecture No.11 Reading: Understanding Reading 66 Lecture No.12 Reading: Making Inferences 73 Lecture No.13 Reading: Assessing the Text 80 Lecture No.14 Reading: Assessing Texts 86 Lecture No.15 Evaluating Texts: Interpreting Visual Data 91 Lecture No.16 Reading: Evaluating Texts 102 Lecture No.17 Reading: Cloze for Comprehension 109 Lecture No.18 Reading: Skimming and Scanning 115 Lecture No.19 Reading: Scanning and Language Functions 122 Lecture No.20 Reading: Classifying, Cause and Effect Relationship 129 Lecture No.21 Reading: Presenting Information Graphically 137 Lecture No.22 Writing: Sentence Types 145 Lecture No.23 Writing: Effective Sentences: Unity, Coherence, Emphasis 153 Lecture No.24 WRITING: IDENTIFYING SENTENCE ERRORS 158 Lecture No.25 WRITING: REVISING SENTENCE ERRORS 163 Lecture No.26 Subject Verb Agreement 169 Lecture No.27 Writing 175 Lecture No.28 Word Choice 182 Lecture No.29 Punctuation 190 Lecture No.30 Writing: Paragraphs: Structural Parts 199 Lecture No.31 Writing: Paragraph 203 Lecture No.32 Writing: Paragraphs 209 Lecture No.33 Writing: Essay Writing 216 Lecture No.34 Essay writing 222 Lecture No.35 Writing: Essay Outlines 228 Lecture No.36 Writing: Selecting and Researching an Essay Topic 234 Lecture No.37 Writing: Ways of Organizing Texts: Linear 240 Lecture No.38 Writing: Ways of Organizing Texts 244 2 VU Lecture No.39 Writing: Ways of Organizing Texts 248 Lecture No.40 Writing Skills 252 Lecture No.41 Writing: Summary Writing 257 Lecture No.42 Grammar and Usage: Tenses and Passive Sentences 261 Lecture No.43 Grammar and Usage: Word Order: Adverbs 268 Lecture No.44 Grammar and Usage: Articles 277 Lecture No.45 Language Functions: Language Forms and Functions 286 © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 3 VU Lesson -01 Reading and Dictionary This lesson is in two parts. In the first part, you will learn about the: uses of a language dictionary how to use a dictionary In the second part of the lesson, you will read an interesting story. Definition of Dictionary A dictionary is a book that not only lists and records the words of a language but it also tells you how speakers of the language spell, pronounce, define, explain and use the words of their language. Reference Book - provides useful information. It is valuable only if you learn how to use it correctly and efficiently. List of Dictionary Uses (9) The following is a list of things that can be learned from a dictionary: (i) Spelling (ii) Pronunciation iii) Part of speech iv) Origin of word (v) Meaning/explanation (vi) Usage/restrictive lables (vii) Synonyms & antonyms (viii) Foreign words & phrases ix) General information. i) Spelling Many students find English spelling very confusing. So what do you do? Consult your dictionary. It will clarify your confusion by showing you the different spellings of the same word. 4 VU Look at the words catalogue and theatre. You must have noticed that the dictionary lists both BRE and AE/US spelling of the words. Both are correct. Exercise (i) Spelling: Use the dictionary to answer the following questions about spelling. a) What other possible spellings does your dictionary give for these words? Centre Color b) Does your dictionary say anything about the spelling ‘humor’ and ‘rumor’? (ii) Pronunciation Students have problems in pronouncing English words. A dictionary will help you learn the pronunciation of any word but only if you are familiar with the symbols in which they are written. We will discuss this in greater detail in the next lesson. All language dictionaries carry a pronunciation key/table. Be sure to read it. (iii) Part of speech All dictionaries indicate the part of speech a word belongs to - whether the word is commonly used as a Noun, Pronoun, Verb (transitive, intransitive), Adjective, Adverb, Conjunction, or Preposition etc. iv) Origin of Words Some dictionaries indicate the origin and derivation of a word before it became an English word. (v) Meaning/ Explanation / Definition of words The most important information that a dictionary provides about a word is its meaning. Most of the words have many meanings or shades of meaning. Do not just read the first listed meaning of the word you are looking for. Go down the numbered list. Look for the meaning that best suits the context in which the word is used. Also look up words above and below the word that you are looking for. You will find that words are often closely related. It will help to extend your recognition of the word in other forms and contexts. Exercise (v-a) Meaning: Look up the words ‘fast’ and ‘set’ in a dictionary. Write the total number of different meanings of each word. Include all the numbered and lettered meanings for each part of speech. Exercise (v-b): Meaning/ Explanation / Definition of words. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 5 VU Use the dictionary to find the specific meanings of the word ‘play’ in each of the following: 1. The boys like to play on the hard court. 2. Amna will play the sitar in the concert. 3. The play produced by the arts club was a success. 4. It was a clever play that won the football game. 5. The gardener played the hose on the flower beds. 6. A ‘week without water can make one weak’ is a play on words. (vi) Usage/Restrictive Labels A dictionary uses different labels like Br (British), Am (American), fml (formal), infml (informal), col (colloquial), pl (plural), poetic (poetic), sl (slang).This information is important in writing. A dictionary will tell you the usage of words and phrases, idioms / proverbs of the language. It will also tell you about the limitations of the use of the word. Special labels are used to show this. If a word is no longer in current use it will be labelled archaic (arch) or obsolete (obs). Other labels will tell you of the level of usage: whether the word has literary flavour (poetic) or is slang (sl), formal (fml) informal (infml). Exercise ( vi-a )Usage Restrictive Labels: Idioms / Two-word Verbs / Phrasal Verbs / Noun Phrase Look up the underlined words in the dictionary and write their meanings. 1. 1. Prof. Widdowson held forth for over an hour about the need for communication language teaching. 2. 2. I don’t get how you found the answer. 3. My roommate is pretty hard up these days. Exercise (vi-b) Restrictive or Usage Labels: a) Look up the following words / phrases in the dictionary. Write whether its use is primarily slang, informal or colloquial. Guys Cool Example: Will it be O.K. if I meet you in the library about eight? 6 VU Label: Colloquial Meaning: All Right (vii) Synonyms and Antonyms: Similar and opposite meanings of words are also given but not in all dictionaries. (viii) Foreign words and Phrases: Dictionaries define / explain many common foreign words and phrases either with the main entries or in a special section at the back. Exercise(viii)Foreign Words & Phrases: Look up each of these foreign words o phrases. Write its English meaning. etcetera, e.g., et al., a prior, coup d’état, per se. ix) General Information This section varies from dictionary to dictionary. Names of important persons, places, countries, nationalities, are listed either in the alphabetical order of words or in special sections at the back. Some dictionaries may include rules for spelling, punctuation, list of common first names in English, systems of weights and measures, conversion tables, etc. How to use a dictionary: Learning what a dictionary contains and how it is used will save much of your time. Step I: Know the correct order of the letters of the English alphabet.  all entries in dictionary are arranged in an alphabetical order.  words are arranged according to the 1st letter.  when the words begin with the same letter, they are arranged according to the 2nd letter.  if both the 1st and the 2nd letters are the same then the words are arranged according to the 3rd letter, & so on... Step 2: Finding Words Quickly A) When looking for a word first thumb through pages quickly.  Look only at guide words  When you come to the guide word nearest the word you want then look down that page for the word. Guide Words B) Look at top of any page in the dictionary. The words in heavy type/bold face are the © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 7 VU GUIDE WORDS. They guide you to the word you are looking for. - The word on the top left are same as the first bold face word on that page. - Word on the top right of the page is the last bold face entry on that page. RECAP - As the students of English you need to know how to use a dictionary. - Dictionary is a tool - must learn to use it properly in order to discover the full potential of the language. - It will make you an independent learner. - It is helpful like a friend. This concludes the first part of the lesson1. Now we move to the second part which, I hope you will enjoy. First we are going to show you the text of a story.You will read a folk tale from North America. The story is about a natural event. Raven and the Coming of Daylight (Gail Robinson and Douglas Hill) When the earth was very young, it was dark and old like a winter’s night through all the year’s seasons. Gull was the Custodian of Daylight, and he kept it locked tight in a cedar box beneath his wing. Being Custodian made Gull feel very important, and he was not going to lose his position by letting Daylight out of the box. “He is too vain!” screeched Owl, at a meeting of the People upon Meeting Hill. “We can never travel, in this darkness, to our half-homes in this south,” cried Robin. Her breast was bleached of colour for the lack of light. Gull agreed to come to the meeting. But it was clear, when he came, that he was not going to change his mind or listen to what Raven said. He had come only because it made him feel even more important to have Raven pleading with him. “I was made Custodian of Daylight in the beginning of things,” said Gull. “I am to keep Daylight safe. And I will keep it safe.” And he curved his swing tighter around the cedar box. Raven had run out of words to make Gull see the People’s need for light. He thought angrily to himself, “I wish this Gull would step on a large thorn.” 8 VU No sooner had he shaped this thought than Gull cried out, “Squee! My foot!” “A thorn, Cousin?” asked raven innocently. “Let me see-I will take it out for you.” But of course it was so dark that he could not see the thorn to remove it. “I must have light to take out the thorn,” said Raven. “Light? Never!” said Gull. “Then the thorn will remain.” Gull complained and hopped on one foot and wept, and he finally opened his cedar box a crack, a crack so narrow that out glanced a shaft of light no brighter than a single star. Raven put his hand to Gull’s foot, then pretended not to see the thorn. Instead, he pushed it in deeper. “Squee!” cried Gull. “My foot!” “More light, more light!” shouted Raven. And the lid of the box raised a further crack, so that light gleamed forth like a winter moon. Then Raven reached again for the thorn and pushed it even further into the soft flesh of Gull’s foot. “More light!” roared Raven. “Squee, squee, squee!” screamed Gull, and in his pain he flung off the lid of the cedar box. Like a molten fish the sun slithered from the box, and light and warmth blazed out over the world. Nor was it ever to be recaptured, no matter how loudly or how sadly Gull called to it to return to its safe hiding place beneath his wing. Now after reading the story answer the following questions. Q1. Read the four statements given below. Select the one which best expresses the main idea of the story. a) The removal of the thorn from the Raven’s foot. b) The meeting of birds and animals upon Meeting Hill. c) The release of daylight over the earth. d) The capture of daylight in the cedar box. ‘C’ is the correct statement. “The release of daylight over the earth”. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 9 VU Q2. Read the following statements: Write T if it is true or F if it is false. a) Raven and Gull are birds. b) Gull and Raven are related. c) Raven felt important being custodian of Daylight. d) Daylight was kept under a wing. e) Raven pushed a thorn into Gull’s foot. f) Gull at once opened the box for Raven to see the thorn. g) The sun slipped out of the box. h) Gail Robinson is the author of the tale. Statements a, b and g are true. Statements c, d, e, f and h are false. Try to answer the following questions: 1. What is the story about? 2. What natural event the writer is trying to explain in this story? 3. What is a myth? It is an ancient story containing magical and religious ideas. It describes an early attempt of mankind to understand their surroundings and to give meaning to life. An honest, plain sensible Country Mouse is said to have entertained in his hole, one day, a fine Mouse of the Town. Having formerly been playfellows together, they were old acquaintances, which served as an apology for the visit. However, as master of the house, he thought himself obliged to do the honours of it, in all respects, and to make as great a stranger of his guest as he possibly could. In order to do this, he set before him a reserve of delicate grey peas and meat, a dish of fine oatmeal, some parings of new cheese, and to crown all, with a dessert, a remnant of a charming mellow apple. In good manners her forbore to eat any himself, lest the stranger should not have enough, but, that he might seem to bear the other company, sat and nibbled a piece of wheaten straw very busily. At last, said the spark of the town, “Old Crony, give me leave to be a little free with you: how can you bear to live in this nasty, dirty, melancholy hole here, with nothing but woods, and meadows, and mountains, and rivulets about you? Do you not prefer the conversation of the world to the chirping of birds; and the splendour of a court to the rude aspect of an uncultivated desert? Come, take my word for it, you will find it a change for the better. Never stand considering, but away this moment. Remember we are not immortal, and therefore we have no time to lose. Make sure of to-day, and spend it as agreeably as you can; you know not what may happen tomorrow.” In short, these and suchlike arguments prevailed, and his country acquaintance was resolved to go to town that night. So they both set 10 VU out upon their journey together, proposing to sneak in after the close of the evening. They did so, and about midnight made their entry into a certain great house, where there had been an extraordinary entertainment the day before, and several titbits, which some of the servants has purloined, were hid under the seat of a window. The country guest was immediately placed in the midst of a rich Persian carpet: and now it was the courtier’s turn to entertain, who indeed acquitted himself in that capacity with the utmost readiness and address, changing the courses as elegantly, and tasting everything first as judiciously as any clerk of the kitchen. The other sat and enjoyed himself like a delighted epicure, tickled to the last degree with this new turn of his affairs; when, on sudden, a noise of somebody opening the door made them start from their seats, and scuttle in confusion about the dining-room. Our country friend, in particular, was ready to die with fear at the barking of a huge mastiff or two, which opened their throats just about the same time, and made the whole house echo. At last recovering himself. “Well,” said he, “if this be your town life, much good may it do you; give me my poor quiet hole again, with my homely, but comfortable grey peas.” Does the fable teach you any lesson? Possible answer: To each his own environment. How important are Freedom and Security in life? Reading exercises: Just read the stories — Do not look up the meanings of words in the dictionary. Q.1 Is there anything common between the two stories? Q.2 Are there any specific lessons the authors want you to learn? This brings us to the end of our first lesson. Let us recapitulate/ recall what we learnt today:  We learnt to use the dictionary.  Then we read simple texts to find the general meaning. Consult your reading package for assignments related to the first lesson. Your next lesson will deal with using the dictionary for learning pronunciation of English words. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 11 VU Lesson -02 Pronunciation This lesson is about the usage of a dictionary to know the pronunciation of English words. The students of English are often worried about English pronunciation because spellings of English words often cause confusion. The students generally face difficulty to pronounce a word correctly after they read it. This lesson is in two parts. In the first part, you will be familiarized with a set of special symbols known as phonemic symbols that are used to indicate each speech sound. The second part of the lesson consists of a few exercises. Look at the following words: Chorus k sound Church chey sound Ration sh sound Machine sh sound The word ‘chorus’ which begins with the letters ch is pronounced with the 'k' sound while in the word church the letters ch is pronounced as the Urdu/Punjabi letter :. e.g. In the word ‘ration’,- tion is pronounced as ‘sh’ while in the word ‘machine’- ‘ch’ is also pronounced as ‘sh’ Remember that the phonemic symbols are given in slash brackets in the dictionary. / / Now try to say these words louder. Pay special attention to the shape of your mouth and lips. Short Vowels (7) Long Vowels (5) 12 VU Notice that the symbols for long vowels have two small dots in front of them. Diphthong Next we have 8 diphthong vowels. These are sounds which are produced by combining two vowel sounds. There is a movement or glide from one vowel sound to another. So there are 20 vowel phonemes in English. (7 short, 5 long and 8 diphthongs). Now we will look at the consonant sounds / phonemes. In English there are 24 consonant sounds. These are the sounds produced by the complete or partial stoppage of breath. Now repeat after me. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 13 VU Another area closely related with English pronunciation is STRESS. Stress Stress is the extra force used in pronouncing or speaking a particular word. A dictionary will indicate stress by a tiny mark on the top of a word like this: ` When you look up a word in the dictionary, be sure to learn where the stress falls on the word. E.g.: (a) mother table after – In these examples the first part of the word is stressed. (b) hotel bamboo banana- There are some words in English which have the same spelling but belong to different parts of speech because they are stressed differently. E.g. `rebel (n) The r`ebels laid down their arms. re`bel (v) Children re`bel against their parents. `present (n) The `present was lovely. `present (adj) Were you `present at the party? Pre`sent (v) Please pre`sent your work. 14 VU Read the following passage. COMPUTERS IN OUR DAILY LIVES Computers are now an integral part of our lives. Many things, public or private, that we do during the course of the day are affected by them. Visit any public organization or office, from hospitals to schools, from the meteorological bureau to the stock exchange, etc. and you are sure to come across people working at computers. Gone are the days when entries were made manually in registers and ledgers at the bank. Now all monetary transactions are conducted by the computer. Most films and TV advertisements use graphics or pictures produced with the help of a computer. There is hardly a sphere of life that does not involve the use of a computer. Even when you go out on personal errands, to the travel agent to buy an airline ticket or book a seat on the intercity bus, to the shopping plaza or a grocery store, the man behind the counter uses a computer equipped with laser and bar code technology to scan the price of each item you put before him and then uses it to add up the price to present you with a total, all within few minutes. A bar code is a pattern of thick and thin lines and spaces that represent characters that can be read by a scanner. The bar code identifies the item to which it is affixed; the scanner transfers the signal to a computer that matches the code to a price or inventory unit. Computers are no longer things only encountered outside the home; they are very much a part of the household items. One cannot imagine a world without computers. Exercise I: The passage will be read out a second time. As you read this passage you will see a list of words on your TV screen. Tick only the words that you hear being read. 1. Integral 6. Involve 11. Bookkeeping 2. Games 7. Maintain 12. Encountered 3. Machines 8. Errands 13. Scanner 4. Ledgers 9. Grocery 14. Art 5. Flight 10. Libraries Exercise II: You may face difficulty in using the right stress for the following words. Use dictionary to find where the stress falls in the each word: © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 15 VU 1. Advertisement 6.Computer 10. Meteorological 2. Affected 7.Exchange 11. Technology 3. Affixed 8.Inventory 12. Thick 4. Bureau 9.Manually 13. Transactions 5. Character Lesson -03 Reading for Main Idea Lesson 3 is devoted to develop your reading skills. It is the most important skill that you will need for success in your studies. If you read inaccurately you will miss some of the information or ideas that you read. If you read slowly, you will unnecessarily spend a lot of time in reading, so your other work will suffer. 16 VU Your ability to read English rapidly and accurately depends upon purposeful practice. This lesson will introduce you the ways by which you can improve your reading skills. You learn to read by reading. You must continue to practice on your own later. This lesson is in three parts. In the first part you will learn to identify the topic of a paragraph, in the second part you will learn to pick the main idea of the paragraph and in the last part you will learn to recognize details which support the main idea. Topic of a paragraph If you are able to identify the topic of a paragraph it will go a long way in developing your reading ability. A good reader is quickly able to identify the topic of a paragraph. What is the topic of a paragraph? It is the subject of the whole paragraph — i.e. what the whole paragraph is about. It can usually be expressed in a word or two. When you read a paragraph ask yourself the question: What is the writer trying to say or discuss throughout the paragraph? And the answer that comes up (from your heart or mind) will surely be the answer. Here are a number of short paragraphs taken from different text books. At the end of each paragraph three or four possible answers are given. Select one which you consider is the topic of the paragraph. Text 1: New species of plants are being discovered every year. It is estimated that the yearly average, for the higher groups of plants alone is approximately 4700 proposed new species. It is obviously necessary, from practical as well as scientific standpoint that attention be given to the naming and the proper classification of the vast assemblage of plants, both native and cultivated. The scientists who do these things are systematic botanists or taxonomists. Most certainly it is essential for those working on the various fields of plant science- whether they are agriculturists, florists, foresters, physiologists or morphologists- to know which plants they are dealing; they must know their proper scientific names and their relationships. (Robbins et al., Botany, p. 7.) A. the role of taxonomists. B. new plant species. C. plant science. D. importance of classifying new plant species. Text2: The term Groups has long been a pivotal concept of sociology. A group is any number of human beings in reciprocal communications. It may be well to emphasize certain aspects and implications of this short definition which beginning students, as well as some sociologists themselves, frequently overlook or do not appreciate fully. First, a group refers only to persons in © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 17 VU communication. Mere physical closeness, if there is not communication, does not make a group. The communication creates the group, not the mere fact of spatial proximity or physical contact. Second, a group maybe of any size from two persons, to theoretically and potentially the entire population of the world. Third, communication need not be face-to-face or by “word of mouth”; it may be indirect through writing or at long range through such instruments as the telegraph. (Cuber, Sociology, p.273.) A. communication in groups. B. definition of a group. C. social limitations of a group. D. size of groups. Text 3: Plants absorb water and mineral salts from the soil; they take in oxygen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. They manufacture sugars, starches, fats, proteins, and scores of other substances; they conduct materials from one part of the plant to another; they respire, they grow; they react to the environment in which they live; they reproduce. In short, plants carry on a number of activities; they do work; they have functions. Plant physiology is the area of botany concerned with the study of these activities and functions. (Robinsetal., Botany, p. 9) Topic: __________________________________________________ Now here is a short exercise to test what you have learnt. Topic sentences are given, followed by three statements. Choose the statement that best expresses the topic sentence. The first one is done for you. 1. TOPIC SENTENCE The Nile, the largest river in Egypt, is unique because it: A. describes where Egypt is. B. explains why the river is unique C. compares the Nile with other large rivers. The correct answer is B — explains why the river is unique. 2. TOPIC SENTENCE A little-known story about M.A. Jinnah tells about his manner of thinking. 18 VU A. Describes the passing of the Lahore Resolution. B. Summarizes Jinnah’s speech at Lahore, March 1940. C. Relates the “Little Known Story”. 3. TOPIC SENTENCE If you want to spend your holidays in a truly unique place, the northern areas of Pakistan are just the place for you. A. Identifies the place and explain its uniqueness. B. Explains the physical and emotional importance of holidays. C. Relates the history of the Pushtoons. Text 4: TOPIC SENTENCE The development of speech in infants follows a definite sequence or patterns of development. Details: A. By the time an infant is six months old, he or she can make twelve different speech sounds. B. Before the age of three months, most infants are unable to produce any recognizable syllables. C During the first year, the number of vowel sounds a child can produce is greater than the number of consonant sounds he can make. D. During the second year, the number of consonant sounds a child can produce increases. E. Parents often reward the first recognizable word a child produces by smiling or speaking to the child. Text 5: TOPIC SENTENCE In some parts of the world, famine is a constant human condition and exists due to a variety of causes. Details: A. In parts of Africa, people are dying of hunger by the tens of thousands. B. Famine is partly caused by increased population. C. Advances in medicine have increased life expectancies, keeping more people active for longer periods of time. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 19 VU D. Agricultural technology has not made substantial advances in increasing the food supply. E. Due to growth of cities, population has become denser, and the agricultural support for these population centers is not available. Text 6: TOPIC SENTENCE An individual deals with anxiety in a variety of ways and produces a wide range of responses. Details: A. Anxiety may manifest itself by such physical symptoms as increased heart activity or labored breathing. B. Fear, unlike anxiety, is a response to real or threatened danger. C. Psychologically, anxiety often produces a feeling of powerlessness, or lack of direct control over the immediate environment. D. Temporary blindness, deafness, or the loss of the sensation of touch is examples of extreme physical responses to anxiety. E. Some people cannot cope with anxiety and are unable to control the neurotic behavior associated with anxiety. Before we end the lesson, let me go over what you have learnt in today’s lesson. In today’s lesson you have learnt three important skills related with reading. - First, to identify the topic of a paragraph. - Second, to select the main idea of the paragraph, and -Third, to recognize the details which support the main idea. Lesson -04 20 VU Reading: Topic, Main Idea In this lesson we will practice skills learnt in previous lessons. These skills are: A. Identifying the topic of each paragraph. B. Identifying the main idea. C. Identifying supporting ideas. The given text is about computers. It consists of six paragraphs. Read the text once through without stopping. As you read the text you will come across many words and expressions that you are not familiar with. Do not be upset. Keep on reading. In your second reading, pause after every paragraph and ask yourself - what the paragraph is about? You will find that each paragraph has a topic, a main or a primary idea and / or secondary ideas that support the main idea. What is a computer? 1- A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits that operate switches or magnetize tiny metal cores. The switches, like the cores, are capable of being in one of two possible states, that is, on or off: magnetized or demagnetized. The machine is capable of storing and manipulating numbers, letters, and characters. The basic idea of a computer is that we can make the machine do what we want by inputting signals that turn certain switches on and turn others, off, or that magnetizes or de- magnetizes the cores. 2. The basic job of computers is the processing of information. For this reason, computers can be defined as a device which accepts information in the form of instructions called a program and characters called data, perform mathematical and / or logical operations on the information, and then supply results of these operations. The program, or part of it, which tells the computers what to do and also provides the information needed to solve the problem, is kept inside the computer in a place called memory. 3. Computers are thought to have many remarkable powers. However, the most of computers, whether large or small have three basic capabilities. First, computers have circuits of performing arithmetic operations, such as: addition, subtraction, division, multiplication and exponentiation. Second, computers have a means of communicating with the user. After all, if we couldn’t feed information in and get results back, these machines wouldn’t be of much use. However, certain computers (commonly minicomputers and microcomputers) are used to control directly things such as robots, aircraft's navigation systems, medical instruments, etc. 4. Some of the most common methods of inputting information are to sue punched cards, magnetic tape, disks and terminals. The computer’s input device (which might be a card reader, a tape drive or disk drive, depending on the medium used in putting information) reads the information into the computer. For outputting information, two common devices used are a © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 21 VU printer which prints the new information on paper, or a CRT display screen which shows the results on a TV-like screen. 5. Third, computers have circuits which can make decisions. The kinds of decisions which computer circuits can make are not of the type: ‘Who would win a war between two countries?’ or ‘Who is the richest person in the world?’ Unfortunately, the computer can only decide three things, namely: Is one number less than another? Are tow numbers equal? Is one number greater than another? 6. A computer can solve a series of problems and make hundreds, even thousands, of logical decisions without becoming tired or bored. It can find the solution of a problem in a fraction of time. A computer can replace people in dull, routine tasks, but it has no originality; it works according to the instructions given to it and cannot exercise any valuable judgments. There are times when a computer seems to operate like a mechanical ‘brain’, but its achievements are limited by the minds of human beings. A computer cannot do anything unless a person tells it what to do and give it the appropriate information; but as electric pulses can move at the speed of light, a computer can carry out vast numbers of arithmetic-logical operations almost instantaneously. A person can do everything a computer can do, but in many cases that person would be dead long before the job was finished. (N. Mullen & P. Brown: English for Computer Science; OUP 16-18) Paragraph 1: A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits that operate switches or magnetize tiny metal cores. The switches, like the cores, are capable of being in one of two possible states, that is, on or off: magnetized or demagnetized. The machine is capable of storing and manipulating numbers, letters, and characters. The basic idea of a computer is that we can make the machine do what we want by inputting signals that turn certain switches on and turn others, off, or that magnetizes or de-magnetizes the cores. Topic: A computer is a machine. Main Idea: We can make the machine do what we want it to do. Supporting Idea: Machine is capable of storing and manipulating numbers letters, and characters. Paragraph 2: The basic job of computers is the processing of information. For this reason, computers can be defined as a device which accepts information in the form of instructions called a program and characters called data, perform mathematical and / or logical operations on the information, and then supply results of these operations. The program, or part of it, which tells the computers what to do and also provides the information needed to solve the problem, is kept inside the computer in a place called memory. Topic: Processing of information. 22 VU Main Idea: The program, which tells the computer what to do and stores the information, is called memory. 12 Paragraph 3: Computers are thought to have many remarkable powers. However, the most of computers, whether large or small have three basic capabilities. First, Computers have circuits of performing arithmetic operations, such as: addition, subtraction, division, multiplication and exponentiation. Second, computers have a means of communicating with the user. After all, if we couldn’t feed information in and get results back, these machines wouldn’t be of much use. However, certain computers (commonly minicomputers and microcomputers) are used to control directly things such as robots, aircraft's navigation systems, medical instruments, etc. Topic: Powers of computers. Main Idea: Three basic capabilities of computers Supporting Idea: Computers are used to control robots, aircraft navigation systems, medical instruments, etc. Paragraph 4: Some of the most common methods of inputting information are to sue punched cards, magnetic tape, disks and terminals. The computer’s input device (which might be a card reader, a tape drive or disk drive, depending on the medium used in putting information) reads the information into the computer. For outputting information, two common devices used are a printer which prints the new information on paper, or a CRT display screen which shows the results on a TV-like screen. Topic: Method of inputting information. Main Idea: Input and Output devices. Supporting Idea: Examples of devices. 14 Paragraph 5: Computers have circuits which can make decisions. The kinds of decisions which computer circuits can make are not of the type: ‘Who would win a war between two countries?’ or ‘Who is the richest person in the world?’ Unfortunately, the computer can only decide three things, namely: Is one number less than another? Are tow numbers equal? Is one number greater than another? Topic: Circuits that make decisions. Main Idea: Computer can only make logical decision Paragraph 6: A computer can solve a series of problems and make hundreds, even thousands, of logical decisions without becoming tired or bored. It can find the solution of a problem in a fraction of time. A computer can replace people in dull, routine tasks, but it has no originality; it works according to the instructions given to it and cannot exercise any valuable judgments. There are times when a computer seems to operate like a mechanical ‘brain’, but its achievements are limited by the minds of human beings. A computer cannot do anything unless a person tells it to © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 23 VU do something and give it the appropriate information; but as electric pulses can move at the speed of light, a computer can carry out vast numbers of arithmetic-logical operations almost instantaneously. A person can do everything a computer can do, but in many cases that person would be dead long before the job was finished. Topic: Speed at which a computer works Main Idea: A computer works according to instructions. Supporting Idea: Computer operations are limited. Main idea Now that you have read each paragraph in detail, let us look at the text as a whole. Read the following four statements and choose the statement that best expresses the main idea. 1. Computers have changed the way in which many kinds of jobs are done. 2. Instructions and data must be given to the computer to act on. 3. Computers are machines capable of processing and outputting. 4. Without computers, many tasks would take much longer to do. Which statement did you choose? The correct answer is choice no.3 Why didn’t you select the other choices? The other choices do not give the distinctive characteristics of what a computer is i.e. the main idea of the passage. They simply provide the details. Understanding the Passage: Decide if these statements are true or false by referring to the text. T F 1. A computer can store or handle any data even if it hasn’t received information to do so. 2. All computers accept and process information in the form of instructions and characters. 3. The information necessary for solving problems is found in the memory of the computer. 4. Not all computers can perform arithmetic operations, make decisions and communicate in some way with the user. 5. Computers can still be useful machines even if they can’t communicate with the user. 6. There are many different devices used for feeding information into a computer. 7. There aren’t as many different types of devices used for giving results as there are for accepting information. 8. Computers can make any type of decision they are asked to. 9. Computers can work endlessly without having to stop to rest unless there is a breakdown. Statements no. 1, 4 and 8 are false. These false statements can be made true by making necessary changes. 1. Computer can store or handle any data which is input. 4. All computers can perform arithmetic operations, make comparisons and output information. 24 VU 8. Computer can decide only these things: -Is one number less than another? - Are two numbers equal? - Is one number greater than another? Content Review The following statements are all taken from the text you have just read. Certain words are missing in these statements. Complete these statements with the appropriate words from the word bank given below. Make sure that you use the correct form i.e. singular or plural. Some words can be used more than once. core device data circuit terminal switch programme memory medium CRT display 1. Every computer has circuits for performing arithmetic operations, operating ___________ or magnetized ______. 2. A ________ with a screen is normally referred to as a ______unit. 3. A computer is a ________ that processes information in the form of _______ and _______ and can store this information in a ______. 4. Card readers, tape drives, or disk drives are different ______for inputting information. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 25 VU Lesson -05 Connectives and Link Words: References In the last lesson you were introduced to two new terms: References and Connectives. The sentences and paragraphs are not words, just put together; they express ideas which are connected to each other. In this lesson, you will practice to recognize these words and phrases i.e. references and connectives that link ideas in a sentence. These words make the text smoother to read. Your reading speed and comprehension will increase considerably if you are able to recognize the links between and within the sentences. References are sometimes relative pronouns, sometimes demonstrative pronouns, or adverbs. Sometimes they are substitutes for words that have come earlier or will come later. We will first look at references within a text. Read the following seven sentences given below. Notice the reference words are italicized and the connectives are underlined. The first five have been done for you. Connect the last two on your own. Text 1: 1. Mr. Salman bought a new car. His children haven’t seen it yet. 2. Our neighbor’s old car didn’t work, but their new one is fine. 3. Everyone seems to think the chairman is guilty. If so, he will probably resign. If not, we should apologize to him. 4. Mrs. Mahmood thought the new curtains were a waste of money, and Saima, her daughter-in- law thought the same. 5. Although the new Hostel warden doesn’t seem to trust the guard, everyone else did. 6. Shama liked the brown sofa but her husband, Salman. preferred the red. 7. The chair was so well made that Ms. Gull decided to buy two. Connectives: Now you will look at another kind of link which is made by conjunctions that join ideas into some kind of relationship within the text. These words or phrases are also known as transitional markers that connect ideas together. They indicate: 1. Result 26 VU 2. Contrast 3. Comparison 4. Illustration / Example 5. Cause and Effect 6. A series / Time Sequence 7. Addition. Link words: References and Connectives: 1. Words that signal RESULT: thus therefore as a consequence hence accordingly consequently 2. Words that signal a CONTRAST: but in contrast conversely however instead nevertheless yet still even though although despite on the other hand on the contrary in spite of 3. Words that show COMPARISON: like likewise as well just as just like similarly like manner equally as in the same way in a similar fashion Examples: 1- Driving a motor car is a skill we learn through practice. Similarly, cooking is a skill we learn through hands-on experience. 2- When family members communicate, they are more likely to solve their problems. In a similar fashion, countries can best solve their problems through communication. 4. Words that show ILLUSTRATION / EXAMPLE: for example to illustrate once for instance such as including 5. Words that show CAUSE AND EFFECT: thus because because of consequently since result therefore accordingly as a result so if…then © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 27 VU 6. Words that show A SERIES / TIME: one, first next as two, second before now three, third after until since soon previously lastly afterward finally then often immediately while during frequently at last Examples: 1. First I skim the newspaper to see what films are on, and then I circle the ones I want to record on the VCR. 2. Previously, the two countries got along. Now, they have resumed diplomatic relations. 7. Words that show ADDITION: and also and…too besides being furthermore one in addition first of all also second secondly third thirdly another next finally You will now look at two sample paragraphs. In the first paragraph the references are highlighted and the connectives are underlined. The arrows connect the references to the ideas they relate to. Sample 1 Some people, of course, still believe that Shakespeare could not have written the plays attributed to him, but they have difficulty in explaining the fact that many contemporaries of Shakespeare, who knew and worked with him, considered him, first, as the actual author, and second, a very fine author indeed. Ben Johnson, for example, never doubted the authenticity of the plays. William Green also referred to Shakespeare as a very fine playwright. These are only two of the many contemporary references that leave little doubt that Shakespeare wrote the plays of William Shakespeare. (Yorkey: p. 133) Sample 1 – A References 1- him Shakespeare (1) 2- they few 28 VU 3- who contemporaries 4- him Shakespeare (2) 5- him Shakespeare (2) 6- these Ben Johnson, William Green Connectives 1- of course 2- but 3- first 4- second 5-for example 6- also Sample 2 A computer like any other machine is used because it does certain jobs better and more efficiently than humans. It can receive more information and process it faster than any human. The speed at which a computer works can replace weeks or even months of pencil - and - paper work. Therefore, computers are used when the time saved offsets their cost which is one of the many reasons they are used so much in business, industry and research. (N. Mullen & P. Brown: English for Computer Science p. 21 -22) Sample 2 - A 1- it computer 2- It like any other machine, is used because 3- it information 4- their computers 5- which the time saved offsets their cost 6- they computers Exercise 1 In the following paragraphs some words are highlighted. Draw a box around the word that the bold words refer to. Then join the circle and the box with arrows. Also, underline any transitional or connective word in the paragraph. Paragraph 1: Computers are electronic machines that process information. They are capable of communicating with the user, of doing different kinds of arithmetic operations and of making three kinds of decisions. However, they are incapable of thinking. They accept data and instructions as input, and after processing it they output the results. Paragraph 2: © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 29 VU When talking about computers, both hardware and software need to be considered. The former refers to the actual machinery, whereas the later refers to the programs which control and coordinate the activities of the hard ware while processing the data. Paragraph 3: The first computer was built in 1930 but since then computer technology has evolved a great deal. There are three different kinds of computers in use today: the mainframe, the minicomputer and the microcomputer. These all have one thing in common: they operate quickly and accurately in solving problems. (N. Mullen & P. Brown: English for Computer Science p. 21) Exercise 1- A 1- that machines 2- they computers 3- they computers 4- it input 5- they computers 6- former hardware 7- which programs 8- these the mainframes, the minicomputer, and the microcomputer 9- they do Exercise 2 Fill in the gaps by using the correct connectives from the word bank. but ,however, because, so for, this reason, therefore Floppies are very cheap, _____________; they are slow and have a limited capacity. Hard disks are fast and can store large amounts of data _____________ they are fixed inside the computer, ___________ you cannot use them to transfer data. You can transfer data with removable hard disks, _______________they are expensive. CD-ROM disks can hold quite large amounts of data. ___________ they are usually read only ___________ you cannot change the information on them. Magneto-optical disks are like CD-ROMs __________ you can write data on to them. They are removable and have large capacities, ___________ they are expensive and do not conform to a standard. ___________ they are not very common. Magnetic tape is cheap and has a large capacity. __________ it does not allow random access and drives are slow. ___________ it is only suitable for backups. (Glendenning & McEwan Basic English for Computer Science Page 36) What Are Computers Computers are the electronic machines that process information. They are capable of communicating with the user, of doing different kinds of arithmetic operations and of making 30 VU three kinds of decisions. However, they are incapable of thinking. They accept data and instructions as input, and after processing it they output the results. When talking about computers, both hardware and software need to be considered. The former refers to the actual machinery, whereas the latter refers to the programs which control and coordinate the activities of the hardware while processing the data. The first computer was built in 1930 but since then computer technology has evolved a great deal. There are three different kinds of computers in use today: the mainframe, the minicomputer and the microcomputer. These all have one thing in common: they operate quickly and accurately in solving problems. Recap: Recognizing reference, connectives/ transitional words improves reading speed and comprehension. Lesson -06 Reading Skills This lesson will follow the pattern established by us in the earlier lessons. We will read a text to help us in comprehension, and then we will do exercises based on that text. When you read the following text, you will probably meet words and expression that are new to you. First try to understand their meaning from the context - read the same passage a few times. When you have read the whole text, check new words in a dictionary. Those words in bold typeface are explained in the Glossary at the end of your reading package. History of Computers 1. Let us take a look at the history of the computers. The very first calculating device used was the ten fingers of a man’s hands. This, in fact, is why today we still count in the tens and multiples of tens. Then the abacus was invented, a bead frame in which the beads are moved from left to right. People went on using some form of abacus in the 16th century, and it is still used in some parts of the world because it can be understood without knowing how to read. 2. During the 17th and 18th centuries, many people tried to find easy ways of calculating. J. Napier, a Scotsman, devised a mechanical way of multiplying and dividing, which is how the modern slide rule works. Henry Briggs used Napier’s ideas produced logarithm tables, which all mathematicians use today. Calculus, another branch of mathematics, was independently invented by Sir Isaac Newton, an Englishman, and Leibnitz, a German mathematician. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 31 VU 3. The first real calculating machine appeared in 1820 as the result of several people’s experiments. This type of machine, which saves a great deal of time and reduces the possibility of making mistakes, depends on a series of ten toothed gear wheels. In 1830 Charles Babbage, an Englishman, designed a machine that was called ‘The Analytical Engine’. This machine, which Babbage showed at the Paris Exhibition in 1855, was an attempt to cut out the human being altogether, except for providing the machine with the necessary facts about the problem to be solved. He never finished this work, but many of his ideas were the basis for building today’s computers. 4. In 1930, the first analog computer was built by an American named Vannevar Bush. This device was used in World War II to help the aim guns. MarkI, the name given to the first digital computer, was completed in 1944. The men responsible for this invention were Professor Howard Aiken and some people from IBM. This was the first machine that could figure out long lists of mathematical problems, all at a very fast rate. In 1946 two engineers at the University of Pennsylvania, J. Ecker and J. Mauchly, built the first digital computer using parts called vacuum tubes. They named their new invention ENIAC. Another important advancement in computers came in 1947, when John von Newmann developed the idea of keeping instructions inside the computer’s memory. 5. The first general of computers, which used vacuum tubes, came out in 1950. Univac I is an example of these computers which could perform thousands of calculations per second. In 1960, the second generation of computers was developed and these could work ten times faster than their predecessors. The reason for this extra speed was the use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes. Second generation computers were smaller, faster and more dependable than the first- generation computers. The third generation computers appeared in the market in 1965. These computers could do a million calculations in a second, which is 1000 times as many as first- generation computers. Unlike second-generation computers, these are controlled by tiny integrated circuits and are consequently smaller and more dependable. Fourth-generation computers have now arrived, and the integrated circuits that are being developed have been greatly reduced in size. This is due to microminiaturization, which means that the circuits now fit onto a single chip. A chip is a square or rectangular piece of silicon, usually from 1/10 to 1/4 inch, upon which several layers of an integrated circuit are etched or imprinted, after which the circuit is encapsulated in plastic, ceramic or metal. Fourth generation computers are 50 times faster than third-generation computers and can complete approximately 1,000,000 instructions per second. 6. The rate at which computer technology is growing; today’s computers might be obsolete by 1985 and most certainly by 1990. It has been said that if transport technology had developed as rapidly as computer technology, a trip across the Atlantic Ocean today would take a few seconds. EXERCISES: 1. Main Idea 32 VU Which statement best expresses the main idea of the text? Why did you eliminate the other choices? 1. Computers, as we know them today, have gone through many changes. 2. Today’s computer probably won’t be around for long. 3. Computers have had a very short history. Answer: Main Idea: 1 and 3. Choice 2 is a prediction not a fact. It is not the main point in the description of the history of computers. 2. Understanding the Passage: Decide whether the following statements are true or false (T/F) by referring to the information given in the text. Then make the necessary changes so that the false statements become true. T F 1. The abacus and the fingers are two calculating devices still in use today. 2. The slide rule was invented hundreds of years ago. 3. During the early 1880s, many people worked on inventing a mechanical calculating machine. 4. Charles Babbage, an Englishman, could well be called the father of computers. 5. The first computer was invented and built in the USA. 6. Instructions used by computers has always been kept inside the computer’s memory. 7. Using transistors instead of vacuum tubes did nothing to increase the speed at which calculations were done. 8. As computers were evolved, their size decreased and their dependability increased. 9. Today’s computers have more circuits than previous computers. 10. Computer technology has developed to a point from which new developments in the field will take a long time to come. Answers: 1. T 2. F - The slide rule is a modern invention 3. T 4. T © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 33 VU 5. T 6. F- Instructions which are not being executed are usually kept in secondary memory. 7. F- The use of transistors increased the speed at which calculations were done. 8. T 9. T 10. F- Computer technology is constantly developing and at a very fast rate. 3. Locating Information: Find the passages in the text where the following ideas are expressed. Give the line references. ……..1. During the same period of history, logarithm tables and calculus were developed. ……..2. It wasn’t until the 19th century that a calculating machine was invented which tried to reduce manpower. ……..3. Integrated circuitry has changed the computers further. ……..4. People used their fingers to count. ……..5. The computers of the future may be quite different from those in use today. ……..6. Today’s computer circuits can be put on a chip. ……..7. Then an instrument with beads was invented for counting before a mechanical way for multiplying and dividing was devised. ……..8. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes. Answers: 1. Paragraph 2 2. Paragraph 3 3. Paragraph 5 4. Paragraph 1 5. Paragraph 6 6. Paragraph 5 7. Paragraph 1 8. Paragraph 5 4. Understanding Words Refer back to the text and find synonyms (i.e. words with a similar meaning) for the following words. 1. machine (I. 2) ……………………… 2. designed (I. 9) ……………………… 3. a lot (I. 16) ……………………… 4. errors (I. 17) ……………………… 5. solve (I. 30) ……………………… 34 VU Answers: Refer back to the text and find synonyms (i.e. words with a similar meaning) for the following words. 1. machine (paragraph1) device 2. designed ( paragraph 2) devised 3. a lot (paragraph 3) a great deal 4. errors ( paragraph 3) mistakes 5. solve ( paragraph 4) figure out Now refer back to the text and find antonyms (i.e. words with an opposite meaning) for the following words. 6. old (p 2) ………………… 7. a few (p-3) ………………… 8. to include (p-3) ………………….. 9. contemporaries (p-5) ………………….. 10. still in use (p-6) …………………. Answers: Now refer back to the text and find antonyms (i.e. words with an opposite meaning) for the following words. 6. old (l. 10) modern 7. a few (l. 16) several 8. to include (l. 21) cut out 9. contemporaries (l. 41) predecessors 10. still in use (l. 60) obsolete 5a. Content Review: Match the words in column A with the statements in column B. A B 1. Abacus a. instrument used for doing 2. calculus multiplication and division 3. analog computer b. used in the first digital computers 4. digital computer c. an instrument used for counting 5. vacuum tubes d. used in mathematics 6. transistors e. circuitry of fourth- generation computers 7. chip f. Invented by Americans in 1944 © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 35 VU 8. microminiaturization g. made computers smaller and faster 9. slide rule h. used to help aim guns 10. logarithm tables i. the reduction of circuitry onto a chip j. a branch of mathematics Answers: 1. c 2. j 3. h 4. f 5. b 6. g 7. e 8. I 9. a 10. d 5b. Content Review Use the information in the text on ‘History of Computers’ to complete the following table. TIME EVENT Primitive Times Abacus invented 17th and 18th centuries Henry Briggs produced Logarithm tables 1930 Charles Babbage designed 1947 First use of in New Future Second-generation computers using 6. Focus Review: New look back at the text ‘History of Computers’ and find out what the words in bold typeface refer to. 1. that we know today 2. and it is still being used 3. which all mathematicians use today 4. which saves a great deal of time 5. that was called ‘The analytical Engine’ 6. that could figure out long lists 36 VU 7. They named their new invention 8. which could perform 9. And these could perform 10.that are being developed Answers: Now look back at the text ‘History of Computers’ and find out what the words in italics refer to. 1. that we know today (history) 2. and it is still being used (abacus) 3. which all mathematicians use today (logarithm tables) 4. which saves a great deal of time (machine) 5. that was called ‘The analytical Engine’ (machine) 6. that could figure out long lists (machine) 7. they named their new invention (2 engineers) 8. which could perform (computers) 9. and these could perform (computers) 10.that are being developed (circuits) Lesson -07 Word Formation When you are reading, you will come across unfamiliar words. It is often possible to guess the meanings of these words if you understand the way words are generally formed in English. Learning the use and meaning of words in English can be made easier, and even enjoyable, if you understand something about the way in which many English words are formed. An English word can be divided into three parts:  Prefix  Stem  Suffix. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 37 VU Prefix Pre-means ‘before’ and therefore, is what comes before the stem. Example Consider as an example, the prefix de-(meaning ‘reduce’ or ‘reverse’) in a word like demagnetize (‘to deprive of magnetism’). Suffix A suffix is what is attached to the end of the stem. Example Consider as an example the suffix -er (meaning (‘someone who’) in programmer (‘the person who programs’). Both prefixes and suffixes are referred to as affixes. Stem The stem of a word is its basic form, the fundamental element which is common to all the other forms of the word. A prefix is a form which is fixed to the beginning of a stem; a suffix is a form which is fixed to the end of a stem. Example Stem = measure Suffix= measurable Prefix =immeasurable A prefix usually changes the meaning of a word while a suffix usually changes its part of speech. E.g. the suffix -able changes verbs into adjectives (breakable, enjoyable). The prefix im- changes the meaning to the opposite: measurable means capable of being measured; immeasurable means “not capable of being measured.” By learning only a few prefixes and suffixes, you will be able to recognise or guess the meaning of hundreds of English words. The English language makes frequent use of this method of word formation. Notice the numerous words formed on the stem act. Prefix+ act act+ suffix prefix+ act +suffix re+act act+ion re+act+ion enact active enactment reenact actively reenactment interact actionless reactor 38 VU transact actable reactive activity reactivate activate reactivation activation interaction actor transaction actress inactive inaction AFFIXES PREFIXES (STEM) SUFFIXES Both prefixes and suffixes are referred to as Affixes Suffixes and their meanings : Let us now consider some suffixes and their usual meanings. Suffixes Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverb -ance -ize -able -ly -ence -ate -ible -or -fy -less -er -en -ic -ist -ify -ical -ness -ish Study these tables and try to find additional examples. Use your dictionary if necessary. Noun-forming suffixes: Suffix Meaning Examples -ance state performance ence quality of independence -er, -or a person who programmer, operator a thing which compiler, accumulator -ation the act of execution -tion -ist a person who analyst, typist -yst © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 39 VU -ness condition of cleanliness -ion action/state conversion -ing activity multiplexing -ment state, action measurement -ity state, quality electricity -ian pertaining to electrician -ism condition/state magnetism -dom domain/condition freedom -ship condition/state relationship, partnership -ary binary Verb-forming suffixes: Suffix Meaning Examples -ize computerize ate automate, activate, calculate -fy to make simplify -en harden, widen Adverb-forming suffixes: Suffix Meaning Examples -ly in the manner of electronically, logically comparably, helpfully Adjective-forming suffixes: Suffix Meaning Examples -al computational, logical -ar have the quality of circular -ic magnetic, automatic -ical electrical -able capable of being comparable -ible divisible -ous like, full of dangerous -ious religious -ful characterized by helpful -less without careless -ish like yellowish -ed having computed, punched -ive quality of interactive -ing to make or do programming, coding 40 VU processing, multiplexing Locating Base Words It is sometimes difficult to locate base word, because their spellings frequently change when suffixes are added to them. 1. If a base word ends in e, the e may be dropped when a suffix is added to it. Mature +it y=maturity 2. If a base word ends in y, the y may be changed to i ,when a suffix is added to it: harmony +ous=harmonious 3. Base words may undergo other spelling changes when suffixes are added to them: reclaim+ation=reclamation (the I in reclaim is dropped) Exercise1 Locate the base words in the boldface words and write them on the given lines. 1. We established the authenticity of our antique chair. We have an ------------ antique chair. 2. We enjoy the collegiate athletic games. We enjoy the athletic games at --------------. 3. The automobile left her comatose. The accident left her in a --------------. 4. We had comparative good luck If you ----------- our luck with that of others, our luck was good. 5. Can you differentiate between them? Can you see how they -------------? 6. His knowledge of China is not experiential. His knowledge of China is not based on actual ------------------------? 7. She has expertise in mathematics. She is an --------- in mathematics. 8. She gave her answer with finality. We knew her answer was ----------. 9. They have servile attitudes. They have attitudes of those who -------. 10. The numbers are in tabular form. The numbers are in a ---------------. 11. We enjoyed her commentary on the news. We enjoyed her ----------s about the news. 12. Who were the disputants? Who engaged in the -----------? 13. This machine has a multiplicity of parts. It has ------- parts. Exercise 2 © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 41  VU Read the following sentences and underline all the suffixes. Then try to find out what parts of speech the words are. 1. The systems analyst provides the programmer with the details of the data processing problems. 2. CRT terminals are very useful interactive devices for use in offices because of their speed and quietness. 3. The new microcomputer we purchased does not have a Fortran compiler. It is programmable in Basic only. 4. A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits that operate switches or magnetize tiny metal cores. 5. In very large and modern installations, the computer operator sits in front of a screen that shows an up-to-date summary of the computer jobs as they are being processed. 6. The introduction of terminals and screens has partly replaced the use of punched cards. 7. Binary arithmetic is based on two digits: 0 and 1. 8. Multiplexing is when many electrical signals are combined and carried on only one optical link. 9. Computers are machines designed to process electronically specially prepared pieces of information. 10. The computed results were printed in tables. Exercise 3 Fill in each blank with the appropriate form of the words. 1. operation, operate, operator, operational, operationally, operating a. A computer can perform mathematical operations very quickly. b. One of the first persons to note that the computer is malfunctioning is the computer operator. c. The job of a computer operator is to operate the various machines in a computer installation. d. The new machines in the computer installation are not yet operating/operational. 2. acceptance, accept, accepted, acceptable, acceptably a. A computer is a device which accepts processes and gives out information. b. The students are still waiting for their acceptance into the Computer Sciences program. c. It is acceptable to work without a template if the flowcharts are not kept on the file. 3. solution, solve, solvable, solver a. It may take a lot of time to find a solution to a complex problem in programming. b. A computer can solve a problem faster than any human being. c. A computer has often been referred to as a problem solver. 4. remark, remarkable, remarkably, remarked 42 VU a. Today’s computers are remarkably faster than their predecessors. b. System analysts will often make remarks about existing programs so as to help make the operations more efficient. c. There have been remarkable developments in the field of computer science in the last decade. 5. communication, communicate, communicable, communicative, communicably a. A computer must be able to communicate with the user. b. Fiber optics is a new development in the field of communication. c. Some people working in computer installations aren’t very communicative because they are shy. 6. calculation, calculate, calculating, calculated, calculator, calculable, calculus a. A computer can do many kinds of calculations quickly and accurately. b. Calculus is a branch of mathematics for making calculations without the use of a calculating machine. c. A computer can calculate numbers much faster than a manual calculator. d. Some problems aren’t calculable without logarithm tables. 7. mechanic, mechanism, mechanize, mechanical, mechanically, mechanistic, mechanics, mechanization, mechanized a. Today’s computers are less mechanized than they used. b. The mechanical devices in a computer system operate more slowly than the electromagnetic devices. c. The mechanism of the brain is very complicated but unlike a computer it isn’t mechanical. 8. necessity, necessitate, necessary, necessarily, necessities, need, needed a. Because it is expensive to set up a computer department it is necessary to budge well for the basic necessities of the installations. b. A good programmer isn’t necessarily going to be a good systems analyst. c. Students’ lack of understanding of the basic concepts in computer science may necessitate the instructor to restructure the course. 9. dependence, depend on, dependable, dependably, dependent, dependency, depending a. The length of time a programmer takes to make a program will vary depending on the complexity of the problem and his ability and experience. b. One can always depend on a computer to obtain accurate answers because it’s probably the most dependable machine in the world today. 10. technology, technological, technologically, technologist a. Computer technology is a fast growing discipline. b. The technological improvements of computers are reducing man’s workload. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 43 VU Let us recap: An English word can be divided into three parts: a prefix, a stem and a suffix. Prefix is what comes before the stem. A suffix is what is attached to the end of the stem. A stem is the root of the word. Both prefixes and suffixes are referred to as Affixes.n Esh word can be divided into three parts: Lesson -08 Word Formation- Prefixes We have already learned how words can be formed by looking at suffixes. In this lesson, we will look at some other ways, beginning with prefixes and stem words, followed by synonyms and antonyms as a means of enhancing your vocabulary. 44 VU A prefix is a letter or group of letters that is added to the beginning of a stem/ base word e.g. in untrue the prefix is un- and the stem/base word is true. Words that are unfamiliar to you may sometimes consist of a stem word you know and an added prefix, for instance: We were shocked to learn of the illimitability of the dictator’s power. Illimitability is a word that does not often appear in print. It may be unfamiliar to you. However, you can locate its stem word, limit, which means ‘to restrict’. If you also know that the prefix il- (as in illegal) means ‘not’, you should be able to determine that illimitability refers to which has no limits or restriction. The sentence means ‘we were shocked to learn that there is no limit to the dictator's power. Now you will look at a list of words in which adapt is the stem/ base word. If this word is preceded by a prefix you can make twenty -four additional words. Ptation nonadaptational readaptation pted nonadaptive readaptive ptive nonadapter readaptiveness ptation preadapt unadaptable ptability preadaptable unadaptableness ptable preadaptation unadaptive ptation readaptable unadaptiveness pting readaptability unadaptively 7 Prefix Meaning Example 1. un- not; no unhappy means not happy 2. non- not; no nonliving means not living 3. dis- not; no to distrust is not to trust 4. in- not; no indirect means not direct 5. Im- Not; no imperfect means not perfect 6. Ir- not; no irrational means not rational 7. Il- not; no illegal means not legal 8. a- not; without atypical means not typical 9. pre- before prewar means before a war 10. post- after postwar means after a war 11. anti- oppos(ing) antiwar means opposing war 12. pro- favour(ing) prowar means favoring war 13. inter- between interstate means between states 14. hyper- excessive(ly) hyperactive mean excessively active 15. mal- bad(ly) malnutrition is bad nutrition 16. mis- incorrect(ly) to misspell is to spell incorrectly 17. pseudo- false (ly) a pseudoscience is a false science 18. semi- partly semipublic means partly © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 45 VU Defining Words with Prefixes Make sentences by writing the base/stem words and the meanings of the prefixes in the boldface words on the lines provided. 1. Hermits are asocial people They are ___________________ people. 2. The child’s hyperactivity is alarming. The child is _______________________ 3. Outer space is illimitable There is _________________ to outer space. 4. The castle was Impenetrable to ancient armies. Ancient armies could ___________________the castle. 5. We took an intercontinental flight. We took a flight _____________________. 6. The fire did irreparable damage to the house. They could __________________________the damage to the house. 7. Did he make maladjustment to marriage? Did he ______________________ to marriage? 14 8. The story is pseudo biographical. It is a ______________________________. 9. The patient is semiconscious. The patient is _______________________. 10. Some thoughts are unutterable. Some thoughts one can __________________. 15 If you know that adapt means ‘to make suitable’ and you also know the meanings of the prefixes mal-, non-, pre-, re-, and un- you know the essential meanings of these twenty four words, even if you have not seen them in the print before. You will now look at nineteen prefixes and by understanding the most useful meanings of these common English prefixes you will increase your vocabulary by hundreds or even thousands of words in a very short time. Word Formation - Prefixes Let us now consider some more prefixes, their usual meanings, and how they change the meanings of English words. These prefixes will make words related to computers. PREFIXES NEGATIVE/ SIZE LOCATION TIME AND NUMBER POSITIVE ORDER 46 VU un- semi- inter- pre- mono- non- mini- super- ante- bi- in- micro- trans- fore- hex- dis- ex- post- oct- re- extra- multi- mid- Study these tables and try to find additional examples. Use your dictionary if necessary. Negative and positive prefixes PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES un- unmagnetized, unpunched im- not good enough impossible il- illegal non- not connected with non-programmable, non-impact mis- bad, wrong mispronounce dis- opposite feeling disagree opposite action disconnect anti- against antisocial de- reduce, reverse demagnetize, decode under- too little underestimate Positive prefixes re- do again reorganize over- too much overheat Prefixes of Size PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES semi- half, partly semiconductor equi- equal equidistant maxi- big maxicomputer micro- small microcomputer mini- little minicomputer macro- large macroeconomics mega- megabyte Prefixes of Location PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 47 VU inter- between/among, interface, interactive super- over supersonic trans across transmit, transfer ex- out exclude, extrinsic extra- beyond extraordinary sub- under subschema infra- below infra-red peri- around peripheral Prefixes of Time and Order PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES ante- before antecedent pre- prefix prime- first primary, primitive post- after postdated retro- backward retroactive Prefixes of Numbers PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES semi- half semicircle mono- one monochromatic bi- two binary tri- three triangle quad- four quadruple penta- five pentagon hex- six hexadecimal septem- seven september oct- eight octal dec- ten decimal multi- many multiprogramming, multiplexor Other Prefixes PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES pro- for program auto- self automatic co- together coordinate neo- new neoclassical 48 VU pan- all pan-Islamic Exercise 2 Read the following sentences and underline all the prefixes. Then try to find out what the prefixes mean by referring back to the tables you have just completed. 1. Non-impact printers are inexpensive and silent. 2. Tape-marks are unmagnetized reflective strips stuck onto the tape. 3. The octal and the hexadecimal systems are number systems used as a form of shorthand in reading groups of four binary digits. 4. The internal shortage locations of a computer are called its primary memory. 28 5. Multiprogramming is when more than one program can be present at different storage locations of the memory at the same time. 6. Peripheral devices can be either input devices (such as card readers) or output devices (such as printers). 7. The decoder (a component of the control unit) takes the coded instruction and breaks it down into the individual commands necessary to carry it out. 8. Microcomputers are becoming very important in small business applications. 9. A tape drive transmits the electromagnetic impulses to the memory of the computer. 10. Semiconductor materials are used in the making of transistors. Exercise 3 Fill in the blanks with the correct prefix from the following list. Use the glossary at the end of the reading package. multi deci- sub- inter semi- mono- mega- auto mini- de- inter- prim – 1. …Mega… byte means one million bytes. 2. …Multi… plexing is when many electrical signals are combined and carried on only one optical link. 34 3. Blocks are separated from each other by marks called …inter…. block gaps. 4. The number system we use in everyday life is the deci….mal system which has a base of 10. 5. CRT terminals are very useful…inter..active devices for use in airline reservations. 6. Some screens are …mono... chromatic whereas others produce multicolor pictorial graphics. 7. The complete description of the logical structure of data is called the schema and the description of the parts, the …sub…… schema. 8. The main storage locations of a computer are called its …prim…. ary storage. 9. The small ferrite rings called cores have two states: they can be either magnetized or… de….magnetized. 10. The introduction of chips or …semi….. conductor memories made it possible to reduce the size of the computer. © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 49 VU Exercise 4 Read the following paragraph and underline the prefixes then complete the table that follows it. Computers may have a short history but prior to their development, there were many other ways of doing calculations. These calculations were done using devices that are still used today; the slide rule being a perfect example, not to mention the ten fingers of the hands. These machines, unlike computers, were not electronic and were replaced by faster calculating devices. It wasn’t until the mid-1940s that the first digital computer was built. The post-war industrial boom saw the development of computers take shape. By the 1960s, computers were faster than their predecessors and semiconductors had replaced vacuum tubes by tiny integrated circuit boards. Due to microminiaturization in the 1970s, these circuits were etched onto wafer thin rectangular pieces of silicon. This integrated circuitry is known as a chip and is used in microcomputers of all kinds. It has been forecasted, by the end of this decade, exceptionally faster and smaller computers will replace those in use today. and complete the table Exercise 5: Review of Suffixes Read the following paragraph and underline the suffixes. A computer can solve a series of problems and make hundreds, even thousands, of logical decisions without becoming tired or bored. It can find the solution of a problem in a fraction of time than it takes a human being to do the job. A computer can replace people in dull, routine tasks, but it has no originality; it works according to the instructions given to it and cannot exercise any valuable judgment. There are times when a computer seems to operate like a mechanical ‘brain’, but its achievements are limited by the minds of human beings. A computer cannot do anything unless a person tells it what to do and gives it the appropriate information; but as electric pulses can move at the speed of light, a computer can carry out vast numbers of arithmetic-logical operations almost instantaneously. A person can do everything a computer can do, but in many cases that person would be dead long before the job was finished.beings. A computer cannot do anything unless Having dealt with the roots of words and how suffixes and prefixes work, let us look at another way of enhancing your vocabulary: Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the same meaning. For example, big large, huge, enormous monumental, gigantic, immense, and colossal are synonyms. Synonyms have two characteristics that you must understand in order to use them appropriately. First Characteristic: Most synonyms have similar meanings in only one of their senses.e.g appropriate and apt are synonyms when they are used to indicate that something is ‘fit’ for a specific purpose. 50 VU He made an appropriate remark He made an apt remark Appropriate and apt may be used interchangeably to mean “fit” but they have other meanings that they do not share. For instance apt may mean “likely”, but appropriate does not have this meaning. When he is nervous he is apt to laugh. Here appropriate may not be used interchangeably with apt. Second Characteristic: Synonyms often have shades of meaning in addition to the meaning they share. For instance blame and denounce are synonyms that refer to the act of making an unfavourable judgement. However, to blame is to fix the responsibility for an error whereas to denounce is to state intense disapproval in public. If you receive a letter in your letterbox that should have been delivered to a neighbour, you may blame your postman, but you are not likely to publicly denounce the postal employee for such a trivial mistake. On the other hand, if elected officials are found guilty of stealing taxpayers’ money, they are denounced; they are severely criticised in public, and in some cases thrown out of the office. Blame does not convey the kind of unfavourable judgement that elected officials receive when they betray the trust of those who elected them. Final Mastery Selecting Word Meanings In each of the following groups, encircle the word or expression that is most nearly the same in meaning as the word in boldface type in the introductory phrase. 1. Admonish the child a. dress b. teach c. praise d. warn 2. Efface a wrong a. discover b. wipe out c. hide d. apologize for 3. A perennial favorite a. old-fashioned b. recent c. temporary d. enduring 4. Subjugate the enemy a. torture b. release c. kill d. defeat 56 5. Dissolute behavior a. unsuccessful b. stylish c. immoral d. modest 6. Jeer at our efforts a. examine b. reject c. criticize d. ridicule 7. A firm adherent a. enemy b. outside c. supporter d. student © Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 51 VU 8. A semblance of order a. appearance b. lack c. result d. opposite 9. An irate guest a. sociable b. welcome c. talkative d. angry 10. A brief altercation a. shower b. argument c. relief d. statement 11. An intrepid camper a. tireless b. strong c.fearless d. skilled 12. Revile the driver a. adore b. train c. pay d. abuse 13. Made a trite remark a. stale b. witty c. original d. in bad taste 14. Rectify an impression a. explain b. make c. correct d. confirm 15. Daunted by their treats a. encouraged b. ri