Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the Ancient World ( PDFDrive ).pdf

 ENCYCLOPEDIA of Society and Culture in the Ancient World Volum e I (adornment to crime and punishment) Peter Bogucki, Editor in Chief  Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the Ancient World...

 ENCYCLOPEDIA of Society and Culture in the Ancient World Volum e I (adornment to crime and punishment) Peter Bogucki, Editor in Chief  Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the Ancient World Copyright © 2008 by Infobase Publishing All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, contact: Facts On File, Inc. An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of society and culture in the ancient world / Peter Bogucki, editor in chief p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8160-6941-5 (acid-free paper) 1. Civilization, Ancient—Encyclopedias. I. Bogucki, Peter I. CB311.E533 2007 930.103—dc22 2007000533 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by James Scotto-Lavino Cover design by Takeshi Takahashi Printed in the United States of America VB FOF 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is printed on acid-free paper.  Contents Advisers and Contributors v education 375 List of Illustrations xiii empires and dynasties 387 List of Maps and employment and labor 425 Primary Source Documents xx exploration 435 Preface xxiii family 447 Introduction xxv festivals 461 food and diet 472 Volume I foreigners and barbarians 483 adornment 3 gender structures and roles 493 agriculture 15 government organization 507 architecture 52 health and disease 545 art 87 household goods 560 astronomy 123 hunting, fishing, and gathering 571 borders and frontiers 139 illumination 583 building techniques and materials 150 inventions 592 calendars and clocks 163 ceramics and pottery 174 Volume III children 187 language 609 cities 201 laws and legal codes 621 climate and geography 234 literature 639 clothing and footwear 272 metallurgy 677 crafts 284 migration and population movements 688 crime and punishment 296 military 725 mining, quarrying, and salt making 741 Volume II money and coinage 751 death and burial practices 311 music and musical instruments 762 drama and theater 327 natural disasters 775 economy 341 nomadic and pastoral societies 786 numbers and counting 797 social organization 1010 occupations 807 sports and recreation 1047 pandemics and epidemics 819 storage and preservation 1061 religion and cosmology 831 textiles and needlework 1073 resistance and dissent 869 towns and villages 1085 roads and bridges 882 trade and exchange 1095 transportation 1110 Volume IV war and conquest 1121 sacred sites 897 weaponry and armor 1161 scandals and corruption 908 weights and measures 1172 science 921 writing 1183 seafaring and navigation 952 settlement patterns 961 Glossary 1195 ships and shipbuilding 974 Chronology by Region 1220 slaves and slavery 985 General Bibliography 1231 social collapse and abandonment 998 Index 1235  Advisers and Contributors EDITOR IN CHIEF CONTRIBUTORS Peter Bogucki Saheed Aderinto is a Ph.D. student at the Department of His- Associate Dean for Undergraduate Affairs, tory, University of Texas at Austin. Some of his most recent School of Engineering and Applied Science publications include “Prostitution and Urban Social Rela- Princeton University tions” and “Policing Urban Prostitution: Prostitutes, Crime, Law and Reformers in Colonial Nigeria” in Nigeria’s Urban History: Past and Present (2006) and “Discrimination in an ADVISORY BOARD Urban Setting: The Experience of Ijebu Settlers in Colonial Lisa R. Brody Ibadan, 1893–1960” in Inter-group Relations in Nigeria dur- Assistant Professor of Art ing the 19th & 20th Centuries (2006). His writings have also Queens College, City University of New York appeared in IFRA Special Research Issue, Ethnic and Third World Review of Books, African and Asian Studies Journal, R. Hunt Davis and The Encyclopedia of Prostitution and Sex Work (2006). Professor Emeritus of History and African Studies University of Florida Olutayo Charles Adesina, Ph.D., teaches at the Department of History, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. He is the author of Leo Depuydt “The Underground Foreign Exchange Market in Ibadan du- Associate Professor of Egyptology ring Devaluation” in Money Struggles and City Life: Devalua- Brown University tion in Ibadan and Other Urban Centres in Southern Nigeria, 1986–96 (2002) and “Teaching History in Twentieth Century Paul R. Goldin Nigeria: The Challenges of Change” in History in Africa: A Associate Professor of East Asian Languages Journal of Method, vol. 33 (2006). and Civilizations University of Pennsylvania David Otieno Akombo, Ph.D., teaches music education and world music at Wabash College of Indiana. He is the author Eloise Quiñones Keber of Music and Healing across Cultures (2006). Professor of Art History Baruch College, City University of New York Francis Allard, Ph.D., teaches in the Department of Anthro- pology at Indiana University of Pennsylvania. His research in- Amelie Kuhrt terests include the archaeology of early China and Mongolia. Professor of Ancient Near Eastern History He has contributed articles to Archaeology of Asia (2005) and University College, London Beyond the Steppe and the Sown: Proceedings of the 2002 Uni- versity of Chicago Conference on Eurasian Archaeology (2006). Daniel Potts Edwin Cuthbert Hall Professor of Miguel Arisa is finishing his doctoral studies in art history at Middle Eastern Archaeology the Graduate Center, City University of New York. He teaches University of Sydney at Technical Career Institutes and is a regular lecturer at the v  vi Advisers and Contributors Cloisters and a docent at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, versity of Virginia. Her books include Mythology for Dum- New York. mies (2002), LSAT for Dummies (2004), The Everything Irish History and Heritage Book (2004), and Essential Dictionary of Mariam F. Ayad, Ph.D., teaches graduate-level classes on Law (2004). She has contributed to the Encyclopedia of World Egyptian language and literature at the University of Mem- Nations and Cultures (2006), Alternative Energy (2006), and phis, where she is the assistant director of its Institute of Chemical Compounds (2006). Egyptian Art and Archaeology. Her main research interests focus on the role of women in ancient Egyptian temple ritual Christopher Blackwell, Ph.D., teaches classics at Furman and the selection and transmission of funerary texts in post– University. He is the author of In the Absence of Alexander: New Kingdom Egypt. Her book on the God’s Wife of Amun Harpalus and the Failure of Macedonian Hegemony (1999) is under contract with Routledge. and various protocols and soft ware applications for building digital libraries, and he serves as technical editor for the Cen- Heather D. Baker, D.Phil., is a researcher at the University of ter for Hellenic Studies of Harvard University. Vienna, Austria, specializing in Babylonian history, society, and culture. She has published widely on Babylonian and As- Amy Bogaard, Ph.D., teaches prehistory and archaeobotany syrian history and is writing a book to be titled The Urban at the Department of Archaeology, University of Notting- Landscape of First Millennium BC Babylonia. ham, United Kingdom. She is the author of Neolithic Farming in Central Europe (2004). Robin Barrow, Ph.D., FRSC, is professor of philosophy of education at Simon Fraser University, Canada. His most Peter Bogucki, Ph.D., is an archaeologist who is associate recent books include Plato (2007) and An Introduction to dean for undergraduate affairs of the School of Engineering Moral Philosophy and Moral Education (2007). He is the au- and Applied Science at Princeton University. He has studied thor of Athenian Democracy (2001) and Greek and Roman prehistoric settlements in Poland and has a particular interest Education (1996). in the spread of farming in Europe. He is the author of The Origins of Human Society (1999) and the editor (with Pam J. László Bartosiewicz, Ph.D., D.sc., teaches archaeozoology at Crabtree) of Ancient Europe 8000 b.c.–a.d. 1000: An Encyclo- the Loránd Eötvös University in Budapest (Hungary) and the pedia of the Barbarian World (2004). University of Edinburgh (United Kingdom). He is the author of Animals in the Urban Landscape in the Wake of the Middle Larissa Bonfante, Ph.D., professor of classics at New York Ages (1995) and principal author of Draught Cattle: Their Os- University, is the author of several books on Etruscan and teological Identification and History (1997) and has published early Roman culture as well as publications on ancient dress more than 200 scholarly articles. and nudity, including The World of Roman Costume, co- edited with Judith Sebesta (1994). Kirk H. Beetz, Ph.D., emeritus, has published over two dozen books and more than 900 articles. His books span topics from Charlotte Booth is a Ph.D. student at the University of Wales, endangered mammal species to children’s literature, includ- Swansea, and teaches Egyptology for Birkbeck College and ing Exploring C. S. Lewis’ “The Chronicles of Narnia” (2000). other institutions in the United Kingdom. She is the author His recent writings have focused on the history and culture of People of Ancient Egypt (2007), The Hyksos Period in Egypt of ancient Japan. (2005), and The Role of Foreigners in Ancient Egypt (2005). Craig G. R. Benjamin, Ph.D., teaches world and ancient Lisa R. Brody, Ph.D., teaches Greek and Roman art history at Eurasian history at Grand Valley State University. He is the Queens College, City University of New York. Her research coeditor of vols. 2 (1998), 4 (2000), and 6 (2002) in the Brepols interests include Greek iconography and cult, ancient lamps Silk Roads Studies series and the author of The Yuezhi: Ori- and their decoration, children in antiquity, and representa- gin, Migration and the Conquest of Northern Bactria (2007). tion of ethnicity in Greco-Roman art. She compiled the re- vised edition of David Sacks’s Encyclopedia of the Ancient Uffe Bergeton, Ph.D., is in the Ph.D. program in the Depart- Greek World (2005) and is author of Aphrodisias III: The Aph- ment of Asian Languages and Cultures at the University of rodite of Aphrodisias (2007). Michigan. He is the author of The Independence of Binding and Intensification (Ph.D. dissertation, University of South- David Brown, Ph.D., is researching the interactions of the ern California) and various articles on theoretical phonology pre-Islamic astral sciences of Mesopotamia, Greece, India, and syntax. Egypt, Iran, the western Semitic world, and China at the Free University of Berlin. He is the author of Mesopotamian Plan- Amy Hackney Blackwell has degrees in history from Duke etary Astronomy-Astrology (2000) and The Interactions of An- University and Vanderbilt University and a J.D. from the Uni- cient Astral Science (forthcoming).  Advisers and Contributors vii Deborah N. Carlson, Ph.D., teaches in the Nautical Archae- has written extensively on Asia, Australia, and European co- ology Program of the Department of Anthropology at Texas lonial history. A&M University. She also directs the Institute of Nautical Archaeology’s shipwreck excavation of a Roman marble James A. Corrick, Ph.D., is a full-time editor and writer with carrier off the Aegean coast of Turkey at Kizilburun and is 25 books to his credit. His most recent titles are The Early preparing the fi nal publication of the Classical Greek ship Middle Ages (2006), The Byzantine Empire (2006), and The excavated by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at nearby Renaissance (2007). Tektas Burnu. Arden Decker is a Ph.D. candidate in the history of art at the Jeffrey S. Carnes is associate professor of classics at Syracuse Graduate Center, City University of New York. Her research University. He is the author of The Uses of Aiakos: Pindar and interests include Mesoamerican art as well as modern and the Aiginetan Imaginary (forthcoming) as well as articles on contemporary art of Mexico. Greek lyric poetry, gender studies, literary theory, and Plato. Leo Depuydt, Ph.D., teaches Egyptology at Brown University Julia Marta Clapp is pursuing her doctorate in art history and is curious about everything relating to ancient Egypt in its at the Graduate Center, City University of New York. Her re- Near Eastern and Mediterranean context, especially the area’s search interests include modern and pre-Columbian Latin languages and history. He wrote Civil Calendar and Lunar American art. Calendar in Ancient Egypt (1997) and The Other Mathematics: Language and Logic in Egyptian and in General (2007). Wendy E. Closterman, Ph.D., teaches ancient history and Greek at Bryn Athyn College. Her research focuses on Athe- Haig Der-Houssikian, Ph.D., is professor emeritus (2003), nian burial and funerary ritual. She is the author of “Family linguistics, at the University of Florida, Gainesville. His re- Members and Citizens: Athenian Identity and the Peribolos search and publication interests are in morphology, Creoliza- Tomb Setting” in Antigone’s Answer: Essays on Death and tion, and sub-Saharan Africa. Burial, Family and State in Classical Athens, edited by C. Pat- terson (forthcoming). Christine End, M.A., works on the Giza Archives Project at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Her main interests of re- Leah A. J. Cohen is an independent writer and editorial con- search are Middle Kingdom funerary iconography, material sultant with a master’s degree in geography from the Univer- culture, burial practices, and mummification. As a researcher sity of Florida. She specializes in Africa area studies and food and illustrator, her work has appeared in Egyptological publi- security. She was a senior author for the Encyclopedia of Afri- cations and documentaries. can History and Culture, volumes 4 and 5 (2005). Linda Evans, Ph.D., specializes in ancient Egyptian art at John Collis is professor emeritus in the Department of Ar- Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia. She recently com- chaeology, University of Sheffield, where he taught for over pleted her doctoral dissertation on the representation of ani- 30 years. He has had a major role in the development of uni- mal behavior in Egyptian tomb paintings and has published versity and professional training in archaeology in Britain, several papers on the role and depiction of animals in the and is secretary of the European Association of Archaeolo- ancient world. She has also contributed chapters to Egyptian gists’ Committee on Training and Education. He is author of Art: Principles and Themes in Wall Scenes (2000), The Encyclo- several books and excavation monographs, including Digging pedia of Animal Behavior (2004), Egypt: The Land and Lives of Up the Past (2004) and The Celts: Origins, Myths and Inven- the Pharaohs Revealed (2005), and Historica (2006). tions (2004). Stephen M. Fabian, Ph.D., is an anthropologist and currently Constance A. Cook, Ph.D., directs the Asian Studies pro- teaches seminars on religion, myth, and ritual at Princeton gram and teaches Chinese language and literature courses University. He is the author of Space-Time of the Bororo of at Lehigh University. She is the author of Death in Ancient Brazil (1992), Clearing Away Clouds: Nine Lessons for Life China: The Tale of One Man’s Journey (2006) and coeditor of from the Martial Arts (1999), and Patterns in the Sky: An In- Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China (1999). troduction to Ethnoastronomy (2001). Susan Cooksey, Ph.D., is the curator of African art, Harn Erin Fairburn is a graduate student in the Department of Museum of Art, University of Florida. Egyptology and Western Asian Studies at Brown University. She has contributed to The City and Urban Life (forthcoming). Justin Corfield, Ph.D., teaches history and international relations at Geelong Grammar School, Australia. He is the Alessia Frassani is a Ph.D. candidate at the Graduate Center co-author of Historical Dictionary of Cambodia (2003) and of the City University of New York. Her research interests in-  viii Advisers and Contributors clude the art and civilizations of ancient Oaxaca and issues John W. Humphrey, Ph.D., is professor of Greek and Ro- surrounding the cultural interaction between the Old and man studies at the University of Calgary. A veteran of many New Worlds. seasons of archaeological excavation in Turkey and Greece, he is the author of Greek and Roman Technology: A Source- Markham J. Geller is professor of Semitic languages at Uni- book (1998, with J. P. Oleson and A. N. Sherwood) and versity College London, in the Department of Hebrew and Ancient Technology (2006). Jewish Studies. He has recently published a text edition of cu- neiform medical texts, Renal and Rectal Disease Texts, Baby- Keith Jordan, M.Phil., is a Ph.D. candidate in pre-Columbi- lonisch-assyrische Medizin VII (2005). an art history at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. He is currently finishing his doctoral dissertation, J. J. George is working on his Ph.D. at the Graduate Center, entitled “Stone Trees Transplanted? Central Mexican Stelae City University of New York. His research area is pre-Colum- of the Epiclassic and Early Postclassic and the Question of bian art and architecture. Maya ‘Influence.’” Wolfram Grajetzki, Ph.D., wrote his dissertation at the Amr Kamel is an Egyptologist in the Rare Books and Humboldt University of Berlin and has taught Egyptology Special Collections Library at the American University in there. He has excavated in Egypt and Pakistan and was Cairo, Egypt. principal archaeologist and author for the online learning project Digital Egypt for Universities (University College David Kelly is an instructor of English writing and literature London). He is preparing the catalogue of Egyptian coffins at Oakton Community College in Illinois. He has written in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. His publications over 100 published literary analyses and wrote the instruc- include Burial Customs in Ancient Egypt (2003) and The tor’s manual for the Exploring Poetry computer program. His Middle Kingdom in Ancient Egypt (2006). short fiction has been published in The Rockford Review, Grub Street, and The Iconoclast, among other places. Lyn Green, Ph.D., has taught at several Canadian universities and for the Royal Ontario Museum. She has contributed to Panagiotis I. M. Kousoulis, Ph.D., is a lecturer in Egyptology several encyclopedias, including The Oxford Encyclopedia of at the Department of Mediterranean Studies of the Univer- Ancient Egypt (2000) and the Encyclopedia of the Archaeology sity of the Aegean. He is the author of Moving across Borders: of Ancient Egypt (1999) as well as The Royal Women of Ama- Foreign Relations, Religion and Cultural Interactions in the rna (1996). Currently she is devoting her time to her duties as Ancient Mediterranean (2007) and Ancient Egyptian Demon- president of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities, ology: Studies on the Boundaries between the Demonic and the which has over 400 members and subscribers internationally, Divine in Egyptian Magic (2007). and to writing. Philippa Lang teaches ancient science and related subjects, Angela Herren, Ph.D., teaches pre-Columbian art and archi- with research interests in ancient medicine and philosophy, tecture as an assistant professor in the Department of Art and in the Classics Department of Emory University, Atlanta. She Latin American Studies at the University of North Carolina is the editor of Re-Inventions: Essays on Hellenistic and Early at Charlotte. A specialist on painted manuscripts from cen- Roman Science, Apeiron special issue vol. 37 (2004). tral Mexico, she completed a 2005 dissertation entitled “Por- traying the Mexica Past: A Comparative Study of Accounts Russell M. Lawson, Ph.D., is associate professor of history and of Origin in Codex Azcatitlan, Codex Boturni, and Codex chair of the Division of General Studies at Bacone College in Aubin.” Oklahoma. He is the author of Science in the Ancient World (2004), The Land between the Rivers: Thomas Nuttall’s Ascent David B. Hollander, Ph.D., teaches ancient history at Iowa of the Arkansas, 1819 (2004), and Passaconaway’s Realm: John State University. He is the author of Money in the Late Roman Evans and the Exploration of Mount Washington (2002, 2004). Republic (2007). Anne Mahoney, Ph.D., teaches Greek and Latin linguistics Brooke Holmes, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of classics at and literature at Tufts University. She is the author of Plau- the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. She is at work tus: Amphitryo (2004) and Roman Sports and Spectacles: A on a book about the symptom in early Greek medicine and Sourcebook (2001). She is also the editor of revised editions of classical Greek literature. Allen and Greenough’s New Latin Grammar (2001), Morice’s Stories in Attic Greek (2005), and Bennett’s Essentials (2007). Michael Allen Holmes is a freelance editor and writer who recently contributed to Shakespeare for Students, 2nd edition Susan Malin-Boyce, Ph.D., serves as deputy director of the (2007). He has also written an unpublished novel. Regime Crimes Liaison Office, Mass Graves Investigation  Advisers and Contributors ix Team, in Baghdad, Iraq. She has contributed to Ancient Eu- wrought Silver Jewelry and Metalwork (4th ed., 2007), Sil- rope 8000 b.c.–a.d. 1000: Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World ver Masters of Mexico: Héctor Aguilar and the Taller Borda (2004) and to publications addressing Early and Late La Tène (1996), and Maestros de Plata: William Spratling and the settlement in Bavaria, Germany. Mexican Silver Renaissance, a catalog for a traveling exhibit (2002–2004). Renee McGarry is a student in the Ph.D. program in art history at the City University of New York Graduate Cen- Julian M. Murchison, Ph.D., teaches in the Department of ter. Her research interests include Aztec sculpture of the Sociology and Anthropology at Millsaps College. His work in natural world and religious manuscripts from the post- cultural anthropology examines the intersections of medicine Conquest period. and religion in East Africa. He recently published a chapter examining stories about a cure for HIV/AIDS in Borders and Paul McKechnie, D.Phil., is a senior lecturer in classics and Healers (2005). ancient history at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. He is the author of First Christian Centuries: Perspectives on Caryn E. Neumann, Ph.D., teaches history in Ohio Wesleyan the Early Church (2002) and Outsiders in the Greek Cities in University’s Black World Studies Department. She is a former the Fourth Century b.c. (1989). managing editor of the Journal of Women’s History. John M. McMahon, Ph.D., teaches at Le Moyne College in Emily Jane O’Dell, is a Ph.D. candidate at Brown University Syracuse, New York, where he directs the classics program. and has taught at Brown University in both the Department He is author of Cave Paralysin: Impotence, Perception and of Egyptology and Ancient Western Asian Studies and the Text in the Satyrica of Petronius (1998) and numerous articles Department of Literary Arts. She has been the chief epig- on the intersection of ancient literature and natural history. rapher of the Cairo-Brown University Abu Bakr Epigraphic His most recent work includes nine entries in the forthcom- Survey in the western cemetery of the Great Pyramids in ing Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers (2006). Giza, Egypt, for the past five years. Jianjun Mei, Ph.D., teaches the history of science and tech- Simon O’Dwyer is founder and researcher for Prehistoric nology at the University of Science and Technology Beijing. Music Ireland, author of Prehistoric Music of Ireland and He is the author of Copper and Bronze Metallurgy in Late Pre- prehistoricmusic.com, and contributor to The Encyclopedia historic Xinjiang: Its Cultural Context and Relationship with of Music in Ireland and The Encyclopedia of Ireland. He has Neighbouring Regions (2000). published four papers for the International Study Group on Music Archaeology. James E. Meier, Ph.D., is assistant professor in the Depart- ment of Humanities and Social Sciences at Central Florida Penelope Ojeda de Huala is a Ph.D. candidate in art history Community College. He is a contributor to the Encyclopedia at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, of African History and Culture (2005). where she studies pre-Columbian to contemporary art of Lat- in America. Her research focus is Guatemala and Peru, par- Francesco Menotti, Ph.D., is a lecturer in European prehis- ticularly the enduring thoughts and practices of indigenous tory at the Institute of Prehistory and Archaeological Science, cultures as manifested in art. Basel University, Switzerland. He is the author of Living on the Lake in Prehistoric Europe (2004). Michael J. O’Neal, Ph.D., is a writer who lives in Moscow, Idaho. He is a frequent contributor to reference and educa- Melissa Moore Morison is associate professor of classics tional books, including Lives and Works: Young Adult Authors and classical archaeology at Grand Valley State University. (1999), The Crusades (2005), and America in the 1920s (2006). She has extensive experience in archaeological fieldwork in Greece, Turkey, and the United States. Her research interests Dianne White Oyler, Ph.D., teaches African history at Fay- include Roman provincial archaeology, Greek and Roman etteville State University. She is the author of The History pottery, and ceramic technology. of the N’ko Alphabet and Its Role in Mande Transnational Identity: Words as Weapons (2005) as well as articles in the Penny Morrill, Ph.D., teaches pre-Columbian and early co- refereed journals Research in African Literature, the Mande lonial Mesoamerican art at Hood College, Frederick, Mary- Studies Journal, and the International Journal of African His- land. She has an essay, “The Queen of Heaven Reigns in New torical Studies. Spain: The Triumph of Eternity in the Casa del Deán Mu- rals,” in a Brill anthology, Woman and Art in Early Modern Katie Parla is an art historian and archaeological speleolo- Latin America (2006). She has authored several books on gist working in Rome and Naples as a docent leading didactic modern Mexican silver: Mexican Silver: 20th Century Hand- seminars of archaeological sites. She consults for the History  x Advisers and Contributors Channel and will appear in their 2007 series Cities of the Un- of the former Yugoslavia) and focus on Neolithic and historic derworld as an expert on underground Rome and Naples. archaeology and ethnographic material culture. Marie Passanante is a doctoral candidate in the Department Kelly-Anne Diamond Reed, Ph.D., teaches ancient Egyptian of Egyptology and Ancient Western Asian Studies at Brown history and archaeology at Villanova University’s Depart- University. ment of History. She is investigating early Egyptian funerary rituals and burial customs. William H. Peck teaches at the College for Creative Studies, Detroit, and the University of Michigan, Dearborn. He was for Duane W. Roller is professor of Greek and Latin at Ohio State many years the curator of ancient art at the Detroit Institute University. Trained as an archaeologist, he has over 30 years’ of Arts and is at present a member of the Brooklyn Museum experience in field archaeology in numerous Mediterranean excavations in Egypt at Karnak. He is the author of Drawings countries. He is the author of The Building Program of Herod from Ancient Egypt (1987) and numerous contributions to ref- the Great (1998), The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene erence books and encyclopedias on the ancient world. (2003), and Through the Pillars of Herakles (2006) as well as many other publications in history, classics, and archaeology. David Petechuk is a freelance writer specializing in educa- tional texts focusing on the sciences, literature, and history. Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D., teaches philosophy at Los Angeles Val- The former director of publications for the health sciences at ley College. He specializes in Kantian epistemology, meta- the University of Pittsburgh, he is the author of The Respira- physics, and ethics, with emphasis on members of the Friesian tory System (2004), LSD (2005), and Health & Medical Issues tradition—Jakob Fries, Leonard Nelson, Rudolf Otto, Sir Karl Today: Organ Transplantation (2006). Popper, and others. Since 1996 he has been the publisher and editor of the online philosophy journal Proceedings of the Mark Anthony Phelps is taking a leave after teaching con- Friesian School, Fourth Series. tinuously since 1994 (primarily at Drury University, in five different departments) to finish his dissertation at the Uni- Edward M. W. A. Rowlands, M.Phil., has research interests versity of Arkansas entitled “Sewage from the Orontes: Ro- in Mycenaean political geography, trade, and religion. man Elite Attitudes toward Ecstatic Religion in the 3rd and 4th centuries c.e.” This degree in ancient Mediterranean his- Lucas G. Rubin, Ph.D., develops master of science programs tory augments his graduate degrees from Harvard and Johns for Columbia University. He was previously administrator of Hopkins in Hebrew Bible and ancient Near Eastern languages the university’s Center for Archaeology, where he managed and cultures. His research interests reflected in his writings multiple excavations and projects. His research and scholar- are widely eclectic, spanning Paleolithic to contemporary so- ship have focused on fires and firefighters in ancient Rome. ciety and including the disciplines of archaeology, linguistics, cultural anthropology, physical geography, historical geogra- Michael M. Sage, Ph.D., teaches classics and ancient history in phy, classical history, ancient Near Eastern history, medieval the Classics Department at the University of Cincinnati. His history, modern history, religion, and biblical history. main areas of study are historiography and military history. He is the author of Cyprian: A Biography (1975) and Warfare Jen Piro is a Ph.D. candidate in anthropological archaeology in Ancient Greece: A Sourcebook (1996). at New York University. Her dissertation research focuses on the development of pastoral economies in Early Bronze Age Rick Schulting, Ph.D., is a lecturer in scientific and pre- Transcaucasia. historic archaeology at the University of Oxford. His current research interests lie in understanding the Meso- Karen Radner, Ph.D., is lecturer in ancient Near Eastern lithic-Neolithic transition in western Europe, emphasizing history at University College, London. She specializes in the use of radiometric dating and stable isotope analysis, the Assyrian Empire and is the author of Die neuassyrisch- and in skeletal evidence for interpersonal violence in ear- en Texte aus Tall Seh Hamad (2002), Das mittelassyrische lier prehistoric Europe. Tontafelarchiv von Giricano/Dunnu-sa-Uzibi (2004) and Die Macht des Namens: Altorientalische Strategien zur Selbster- David R. Sear, a fellow of the Royal Numismatic Society haltung (2005). in London and the American Numismatic Society in New York, has authored an extensive range of numismatic books Judith A. Rasson, Ph.D., teaches in the Department of Me- over the past four decades, aimed at collectors and students dieval Studies, Central European University, Budapest (a of ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine coinage. He has post-graduate American-accredited university). Her research been a resident of Los Angeles for the past 25 years and op- interests lie in southeastern Europe (especially the countries erates a research service authenticating ancient coinage. His  Advisers and Contributors xi numerous publications include Roman Coins and Their Val- Tom Streissguth is a freelance author, editor, and journal- ues (1964; rev. ed., 2000–2005), Byzantine Coins and Their ist who has published more than 70 nonfiction and reference Values (1974, rev. ed., 1987), Greek Coins and Their Values books. His most recent titles include Clay v. United States, (1978–1979), and The History and Coinage of the Roman Im- Genghis Khan’s Mongol Empire, Library in a Book: Hate perators, 49–27 b.c. (1998). Crimes, Eyewitness History: The Roaring Twenties, and the Greenhaven Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. Robert Shanafelt, Ph.D., teaches courses in anthropology, re- ligion, and Africana studies at Georgia Southern University. Ananda Cohen Suarez is a Ph.D. student at the Graduate He has published a number of articles on different aspects of Center of the City University of New York, specializing in life in southern Africa, among them, “Crime, Power, and Po- pre-Columbian and colonial Latin American art history. She licing in South Africa” in Democratic Policing in Transitional is particularly interested in cross-cultural encounters, ver- and Developing Countries (2006). nacular religious art, and manuscript production in the early colonial Americas. Alison Sheridan, Ph.D., is head of early prehistory in the National Museums Scotland, Edinburgh, specializing in the Frank J. Swetz, D.Ed., is professor emeritus of mathematics British and Irish Neolithic and Bronze Age. Exhibition work and education, Pennsylvania State University. His research includes Heaven and Hell—and Other Worlds of the Dead interests focus on cultural and societal impact on mathemat- (2000), for which she was lead curator and book editor. Other ics learning and teaching. Among his recent books are Legacy books include From Sickles to Circles (with A. M. Gibson, 2004) of the Luoshu: The 4000 Year Search for the Meaning of the and Vessels for the Ancestors (with N. M. Sharples, 1992). Magic Square of Order Three (2002) and Teaching Mathemat- ics to Children (2003). Spyros Siropoulos is senior lecturer of Greek philology and history at the Department of Mediterranean Studies, Univer- John Thorburn, Ph.D., is associate professor of classics at sity of the Aegean, Greece. He has published various articles Baylor University, where he teaches a variety of subjects in three books: Unlike a Woman: Gender and the Social Func- dealing with the classical world. He has published on Greek tion of the Athenian Tragedy (2003), The Goat’s Skin: The Other tragedy, Greek comedy, Greek and Roman history, and a va- Side of Alexander the Great’s Power (2003; in Greek with Eng- riety of ancient subjects. He is the author of The Alcestis of lish summary), and The Things after Alexander: The Centrifu- Euripides (2002) and the Facts on File Companion to Classi- gal Potencies of the Hellenistic Kingdoms (2005, in Greek). cal Drama (2005). Bradley Skeen, M.A., has taught at the University of Minne- Alain Touwaide, Ph.D., is a historian of sciences in the sota, Webster University, and Washington University. He is a Department of Botany of the National Museum of Natural specialist in magic, religion, and philosophy in late antiquity History at the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, D.C.). and has contributed to research in that field in Die Zeitschrift He has extensively published on the history of medicine für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, among other journals. in the Mediterranean world from antiquity to the Renais- sance. Recently, he coedited the volume Visualizing Medieval Christopher Smith, D.Phil., is professor of ancient history at Medicine and Natural History, 1200–1550 (2006). the University of Saint Andrews in Scotland. He is the author of Early Rome and Latium: Economy and Society c 100–500 Francesca C. Tronchin, Ph.D., teaches Greek and Roman art b.c. (1996) and The Roman Clan: From Ancient Ideology to and archaeology at Ohio State University. Her primary area Modern Anthropology (2006) as well as editor of several col- of research is Roman domestic decor and issues of eclecticism lections of essays, including Trade, Traders and the Ancient in ancient sculptural displays. City (with Helen Parkins, 1998); Sicily from Aeneas to Au- gustus (with John Serrati, 2000), and Religion in Archaic and David K. Underwood, Ph.D., teaches Western humanities, Republican Rome and Italy: Evidence and Experience (with art history, philosophy, and Latin American studies at the Edward Bispham, 2000). He is engaged in work on Roman University of South Florida in Tampa and at Saint Petersburg historiography and oratory. College in Clearwater, Florida. He is the author of two books and several articles and essays on Iberian and Latin Ameri- Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt is professor of East Asian art can art and architecture. and curator of Chinese art at the University of Pennsylva- nia. She is author of Chinese Traditional Architecture (1984), David Vallilee is an independent scholar. Chinese Imperial City Planning (1990), Liao Architecture (1997), and Chinese Architecture (2002) and more than 60 Frans van Koppen, M.A., teaches Akkadian at the School of scholarly articles. Oriental and African Studies, London. He contributed to The  xii Advisers and Contributors Ancient Near East: Historical Sources in Translation (2006) Jacqui Wood is an archaeologist and authority on prehistoric and The Babylonian World (forthcoming). cooking and the lifestyles of prehistoric Europeans. She runs her own excavation in Cornwall, England. Lawrence Waldron, M.F.A., is an associate professor and doc- toral candidate at the City University of New York, specializing Ronald Young, Ph.D., teaches in the Social Sciences Depart- in non-Western fields of art history and culture. He has pre- ment at Canterbury School in Fort Myers, Florida. His teach- sented and published various articles on the art and culture of ing and research interests are in the area of Latin American the pre-Columbian Caribbean and Southeast Asia. Studies. In addition to numerous reference articles, he is presently working on a general history of Colombia to be Ezekiel A. Walker, Ph.D., teaches African and world history published by Greenwood Press. at the University of Central Florida. His forthcoming book is entitled Growth, Crisis and Transformation in the Cocoa- Katharina Zinn, M.A., is writing her Ph.D. dissertation on Farming Economy of Southwestern Nigeria (2007). ancient Egyptian libraries and archives at the University of Leipzig, Germany. She works in a project on scarabs in the Peter S. Wells is professor of anthropology at the University Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge (United Kingdom) and a of Minnesota. His publications include The Barbarians Speak: project on Middle Kingdom Reliefs from Lisht in the Prin- How the Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe (1999), Be- ceton University Art Museum. She has published articles on yond Celts, Germans and Scythians: Archaeology and Identity the organization of collective wisdom as well as multilingual- in Iron Age Europe (2001), and The Battle That Stopped Rome: ism in ancient Egypt. Emperor Augustus, Arminius, and the Slaughter of the Legions in the Teutoburg Forest (2003).  List of Illustrations VOLUME I Marble statue of the Greek goddess of Glass kohl tube in the form of a palm fertility, Demeter 37 column, from Egypt 5 Section of the facade of a Roman aisled, Gold lion, used as a fabric ornament and barnlike building on a villa estate found at Persepolis, Persia (modern- in the parish of Meonstoke, day Iran) 7 Hampshire, England 44 Jade ornament of four discs carved from Facade of the Great Temple of Abu a single jade pebble, from China 8 Simbel, Egypt 59 Toiletry implements from Roman Britain 10 The ruins of Persepolis (in modern-day Greek marble head, showing headdress Iran), the seat of the Achaemenian of snail-shell curls 11 Empire of Darius I 63 Gold coin of the Roman emperor Panoramic view of West Lake in Lin’an Marcus Aurelius, set in a gold ring 12 (modern Hangzhou), China 66 Jade pectoral of the Olmec culture The theater at Epidaurus, Greece 76 (Mexico), showing large holes in Engraving of the Roman Colosseum by the earlobes, where earplugs would Antoine Lafréry 80 be placed 13 Petroglyph of animals and people at View of rice fields in the Malagasy Republic Tassili, Algeria, in North Africa 90 of southern Africa 17 Banquet scene, fragment of wall Wooden model of a man plowing with painting from the tomb of Nebamun, oxen, from Egypt 21 Thebes, Egypt 95 Cuneiform tablet recording barley rations Human-headed winged bull from the given to workers and their families at palace of King Sargon II at the the temple of the goddess Bau, from Assyrian capital Dur-Sharrukin Tello (ancient Girsu), southern Iraq 25 (modern-day Khorsabad, Iraq) 99 Ritual spear blade from Japan 31 Schist head of the fasting Buddha, from Iron Age farming tools, from Stantonbury Rawalpindi District, Gandhara, Hill, Somerset, England 35 Pakistan 101 xiii  xiv List of Illustrations Bird bone engraved with animal heads from Terra-cotta statuette of a lady in a swing, the cave of Courbet, Penne-Tarn, France 106 from Agia Triada, Herakleion 182 Hermes with the Infant Dionysus, by Amphora from Pompeii, Italy 184 the Greek sculptor Praxiteles 111 Feline-head ceramic bottle from Peru 185 Roman terra-cotta relief showing an Boys kept in seclusion in an initiation Egyptian scene set on the Nile 117 camp in Angola, southern Africa 188 Inner coffin of the priest Hornedjitef, Game of Senet from Egypt 190 Thebes, Egypt 125 Terra-cotta figurine of a woman with a Cuneiform tablet with observations of child, Cyprus 191 Venus, Nineveh, northern Iraq 126 Profile of a Greek boy 195 Chinese covered jar 128 Roman rag doll made of linen, rags, The Semna dispatches, administrative and papyrus 196 documents from an Egyptian outpost, Olmec figure of a baby (ceramic, cinnabar, from Thebes, Egypt 141 and red ochre), Mexico 197 Babylonian boundary marker, Sippar, Ancient Egyptian city of Sesebi 206 southern Iraq 143 Panels with striding lions, Neo- Dedication by Alexander the Great to Babylonian, during the reign of Athena Polias, from Priene, Asia Minor 146 Nebuchadnezzar II 211 Wattle framework being filled with red Jade ritual reaping knife, from Henan, mud, a construction technique used northern China 215 in ancient times, from Zambia 151 Roman silver coins depicting the Clay foundation peg from Bad-tibira, founding twins of the city of Rome, southern Iraq 154 Romulus and Remus 227 Dolphin fresco in the queen’s megaron Pottery vessel of the storm god, (reception hall) at Knossos, the capital Teotihuacán, Mexico 232 of Minoan Crete 159 Grass, sand, and volcanic formation in Iron window grill, Roman Britain 160 the Sahara, southern Algeria 236 View of the royal tombs at Meroë, ancient The Great Temple at Abu Simbel on the city of northeastern Africa in present- banks of the Nile 243 day Sudan 164 Ax made from reindeer antler found at Earls Fragment of a basalt water clock, from Barton, Northamptonshire, England 254 Tell el-Yahudiya, Egypt 166 Petroglyph of a human figure wearing a Kerma ware pottery beaker, from loincloth, from the Sahara Desert at Kerma, Sudan 175 Tassili, Algeria, North Africa 273 Painted pottery group of cattle, from Pair of child’s leather sandals from el-Amra, Egypt 177 Thebes, Egypt 275 Ceramic bowl with abstract decoration, Two Assyrian court officials from the from Tall-i-Bakun in modern-day Iran 178 reign of Sargon II 276 Pottery jar with dragon handles, from China 180 Caryatids from the Porch of the Maidens Buccero ware water jug, from Chiusi, at Erechtheion, a temple on the north Tuscany, Italy 181 side of the Acropolis at Athens 280  List of Illustrations xv Pottery figures of a drummer and a Roman gold bars with assayers’ stamps 368 woman and child, Tala-Tonalá style, Granite statue of Senmut holding Jalisco, Mexico 283 Princess Neferure, the temple of Group of bronze tools for woodworking Amun, Karnak, Thebes, Egypt 378 from Thebes, Egypt 287 Cuneiform tablet with schoolwork, Stone bowl from Khafajeh, Iraq 288 probably from southern Iraq 379 Bird head made of stone, Papua, New Guinea 290 Yue ware water dropper in the shape of Steatite vase from Greece 293 a frog drinking from a cup, from Papyrus with part of the “Tale of the Zhejiang, southern China 381 Eloquent Peasant” from Egypt 298 Fragments of painted plaster, Roman Drawing by Michelangelo of the Crucifixion Britain, from Otford, Kent, England 385 of Christ and two thieves 304 Colossi of Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II and his wife at entrance to Karnak VOLUME II Temple 395 Pyramid of a king, thought to be Portion of a relief in the tomb of Darius I, Adikhalamani Tabirqa, in king of Persia, showing his throne Meroë, Sudan 312 bearers 400 A reconstructed Egyptian grave pit 314 Cowrie shells, the earliest form of money Jade eye plaques from China 316 in China 429 Iron Age pottery cinerary urn shaped like Roman marble relief of Jason, the physician a hut, from Italy 318 and patient 433 Stele of Aristion, a philosopher of Athens 319 Stucco head of a monk, said to be from Gold diadem, found in the Camaná Hadda, Gandhara 440 valley, Peru 321 The Dream of Scipio, by Raphael 444 Bronze figure of Isis and Horus, from Papyrus marriage contract between the North Saqqara, Egypt 329 priest Pagosh and Teteimhotep, from Babylonian lapis lazuli cylinder seal Assiut, Egypt 449 of Sin-ishmeanni 331 Scarab stamp seal and impressions, in A 19th-century Indian painting depicting lapis lazuli, depicting Ishtar, the the climax of the epic the Ramayana 332 Assyrian and Babylonian goddess of The figure of Silenus, the mentor of Dionysus, love, fertility, marriage, and childbirth 451 Greek god of plays 334 Fragment of an archaic Greek stele, with Marble relief with two Roman theater masks 337 the heads of a mother and child 455 The Great Harris Papyrus, from Thebes, Ethiopian Orthodox priests at festival probably Deir el-Medina, Egypt 347 of Timkat 463 Mesopotamian stone vase depicting animals Roman hand of Sabazius, found at of the first city dwellers of Mesopotamia 351 Tournai, Belgium 469 Indian bronze cast coin 355 Pottery dog, from Colima, Mexico 471 Mesolithic perforated part skull and antlers Fineware cup decorated with frogs and of red deer, from Star Carr, Vale of lotus flowers painted in black, from Pickering, North Yorkshire, England 359 Faras, Sudan 473  xvi List of Illustrations “Empress” pepper pot, from the Hoxne Stone weight carved in the form of the head hoard in Suffolk, Roman Britain 478 of an aquatic bird and thought to have Terra-cotta utensil with six receptacles, been used in fishing, from Orange thought to be an egg dish or cup holder 480 County, Florida 582 Detail of an Ethiopian tribute bearer, from A bronze lamp found at the palace of a relief in stairway of the palace at Persepolis, Persia 586 Persepolis, Persia (modern-day Iran) 486 Broken limestone lamp from the cave of Greek terra-cotta statuettes: woman holding Courbet, Penne-Tarn, France 589 pancake and woman kneading dough 500 Roman lamp showing a chariot race 591 Spout and bridge vessel in the shape of Paleolithic stone hand ax from Olduvai a woman, holding what is thought to be Gorge, Tanzania 593 a spindle wrapped in cloth, from the Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Nasca culture of Peru 503 Nakht with agricultural scenes, from Olmec jade perforator, from Mexico 536 Thebes, Egypt 595 Coffin with skeleton of a child, from Speos An administrative text in cuneiform Artemidos, Egypt 547 (the world’s earliest form of writing), Terra-cotta votive womb, Italy 551 recording food supplies, probably from Hellenistic ivory figure of a hunchback southern Iraq 597 thought to show signs of Pott’s disease 553 Pair of fragments of silk, from Cave 17, Altar from Roman Britain dedicated to Mogao, near Dunhuang, China 599 the goddess Fortuna, the healing Roman aqueduct in Tunis 602 god Aesculapius, and Salus, goddess of health 554 VOLUME III Paleolithic stone chopping tools from Sandstone offering table with Meroitic Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania 562 cursive inscription around the edges, A folding wooden headrest, from from Faras, Sudan 610 Akhmin, Egypt 563 Clay tablet with Elamite inscription found Stone bowl and pitcher from Greece 567 in the treasury of the palace at Roman jug, two-handled cup (the Persepolis, Persia (modern-day Iran) 613 handles now missing), strainer, ladle, Jade disc inscribed with a poem by the and stirrer, from Arcisate, near Como, Qianlong emperor, from China 614 northern Italy 569 Linear A tablets, from Agia Triada, Archery case painted with a hunting scene, Heraklion 617 from Thebes, Egypt 574 The Rosetta Stone, from Fort St. Julien, Impressions of cylinder seals on clay, el-Rashid (Rosetta), Egypt 623 depicting hunting scenes and found in Jade cicada, China 626 the treasury of the palace at Persepolis 575 Page from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer, Harpoon tips made of antler from the cave Thebes, Egypt 644 of Courbet, Penne-Tarn, France 578 Sculpted panel depicting Vishnu Fragments of a fresco from Tiryns, Greece, Trivikrama, eastern India 650 showing hunter and dog 579 Frieze of three Greek muses 657  List of Illustrations xvii Copper vessel with silver wire, from Ur, Whistling vessel in the form of a macaw, southern Iraq 680 Peru, Moche culture 773 Gold cup of the Bronze Age, beaten out of Rock inscription at Seheil, Egypt, recording a single lump of gold and found in a seven-year famine 777 Rillaton, Cornwall, England 683 Roman wall painting showing a coastal Gold mask from Mycenae 684 landscape, from Boscoreale, Campania, Hammered gold standing figure, Colombia Italy 782 or Ecuador 687 Petroglyph showing herders and cows, Granite statue of Senwosret III, from Deir from Sahara Desert at Tassili, Algeria, el-Bahari, Thebes, Egypt 694 North Africa 787 Albert Bierstadt, The Rocky Mountains, The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, showing Lander’s Peak 719 mathematical problems and solutions, Detail of a Persian soldier from the stairway from Thebes, Egypt 799 of the palace of Darius, king of Persia, at Painted Greek stele with metrical Persepolis (modern-day Iran) 728 inscription 804 The fortifications of Eleutherae, a city in the Granite statue of Ankhwa, the shipbuilder, northern part of Attica, bordering the possibly from Saqqara, Egypt 810 country of Boeotia 733 Spinning and weaving tools from Iron Age Roman marble statue of a youth on England 814 horseback and wearing a military cloak 735 Frieze of hydriaphoroi (water carriers) from Linen bag of salt for mummification, the Greek Parthenon 815 from Deir el-Bahari, Egypt, New Traditional healer in anti-smallpox costume, Kingdom 743 Nigeria, West Africa 820 Stone panel from the palace of Sennacherib, Mesopotamian terra-cotta figure of an Nineveh, northern Iraq 744 animal thought to be a dog 822 Lead pig (ingot), Roman Britain, from Hints Greek marble block from the frieze of the Common, Staffordshire 749 Temple of Apollo Epikourio (Apollo, the The el-Amarna Hoard, from el-Amarna, Helper), Bassae, Arcadia 826 Egypt 754 Limestone stela with images of the goddess Silver coins of various cultures found at Tanit, from Carthage (modern-day Persepolis, Persia (modern-day Iran) 756 Tunisia) 834 Fragments of a stone mould and bronze Limestone relief panel depicting the knife money, from northeastern China 757 departure of Prince Siddhartha from his Cast ingots of bronze used as money in palace, to start on the spiritual journey Rome before the invention of silver that brings him to Buddhahood 846 coinage 761 Iron Age horned helmet, from the River Babylonian relief plaque of harpist 766 Thames at Waterloo Bridge, London, Red sandstone railing pillar in the form of England 851 a flute player, Mathura, northern India 767 Frieze of the gods Greek gods Poseidon and The Greek god Apollo with kithara, a Apollo and the goddess Artemis from stringed instrument similar to a lyre 770 the Parthenon 854  xviii List of Illustrations Jade votive ax of a figure combining human Painted wooden model of a boat, from Meir, and animal traits and thought to Egypt 977 represent a supernatural being, Olmec, Terra-cotta model of a merchant ship, from Mexico 863 Amathus, Cyprus 978 Head of the Greek philosopher Socrates 878 Wall painting of Ulysses and the Sirens, Ivory panel commemorating Quintus Roman, from Pompeii 983 Aurelius Symmachus, an orator and A Scythian slave and the satyr Marsyas 992 figure in Roman government and a Image of Psyche on a lead coffin lid, Roman, prominent pagan 881 made in Lebanon 994 Section of the Neolithic Sweet Track, the Sarcophagus of Nectanebo II, the last oldest prehistoric timber trackway in native ruler of Egypt, from Alexandria 1001 Britain, from Somerset, England 888 Basalt relief of a gazelle, Neo-Hittite, from Iron hipposandal, Roman Britain, found in Carchemish, southeastern Anatolia London 891 (modern Turkey) 1002 A Neolithic burial jade carved with faces, VOLUME IV from southern China, Liangzhu culture 1004 Deep gorge in the Atlas Mountains of Africa 898 Coins from the Hoxne hoard, Roman Limestone stela of Heqaib, from Abydos, Britain, found in Hoxne, Suffolk 1007 Egypt 900 Servants carrying food for the king’s tables, Iron Age Lindow Man, found in Lindow palace of Xerxes, Persepolis, Persia Moss, Cheshire, England 903 (modern-day Iran) 1019 View of Mount Olympus, in Attica 905 Pottery, Japan 1026 Gold ring bought by a pilgrim and showing Double spout and bridge vessel with pelican the Roman Temple of Aphrodite at and fish, Nasca culture of Peru 1041 Palaepaphos 906 Game of 58 Holes, made of ivory inlaid Neo-Assyrian stone panel from the palace with gold and blue paste, from Megiddo, of Sennacherib, Nineveh, northern Iraq 912 Palestine 1050 Base-silver radiate of Carausius, with the Ceramic Liubo players, from China 1052 emperors Diocletian and Maximian, Bronze group of a bull and acrobat, Roman Britain 914 Minoan, from Crete 1053 Unwrapped mummy of a woman, perhaps Hockey game, found in the Themistoclean from Thebes, Egypt, Late Period 926 wall, Athens 1054 Bust of Pseudo-Seneca by Peter Paul Rubens 942 Roman terra-cotta sculpture of two Altar to the sea god Neptune, an offering gladiators fighting 1056 from the Roman admiral of the British Stone hacha (ax), Veracruz, Mexico 1057 fleet, from Lympne, Kent, England 959 Painted wooden model of a granary, from Aerial view of the Niger River and Aswan, Egypt 1063 surrounding savanna during the rainy Amphora, a ceramic vessel used for storing season 963 and carrying oil and wine and other Relief fragment showing Assyrian soldiers commodities, from Athens 1068 towing a boat through shallow water 967 Ugandan woman wearing a bark cloth dress 1074  List of Illustrations xix Tapestry made of multicolored wool on linen Bust of a Greek warrior known as Leonidas 1145 showing Artemis and Actaeon, Egypt 1076 Bronze statuette of the Mars, Roman god of Wool textile fragment from Persepolis, war, Earith, Cambridgeshire, England 1151 Persia (modern-day Iran) 1078 Stone ball found in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania 1162 Bone needles from the cave of Courbet, Short sword of steel, bronze, and gold from Penne-Tarn, France 1081 eastern Central Asia 1165 Greek utensil used for unwinding balls of Spear thrower carved in the shape of a wool, called Ariadne’s clew box 1081 mammoth, from the rock shelter of Mantle border fragment made of cotton and Montastruc, Tarn-et-Garonne, France 1167 camelid hair, Peru 1084 Vase from Mycenae portraying warriors in Site of ancient walled town, Cameroon, battle gear 1168 Central Africa 1087 Sixteenth-century shield depicting Roman Gold bracelet or diadem, from the battle scene 1170 Phoenician trading center of Tharros, Bronze duck weight, found in the treasury Sardinia 1099 at Persepolis, Persia (modern-day Iran) 1175 Steatite seals from the Indus Valley 1100 Bronze steelyard with lead weights from Iron Age luxury imports from Italy, Rome, Roman Britain 1178 and the Near East, found at Hertfordshire, Red porphyry one talent weight, from England 1102 Knossos 1179 The Crawford Cup, Roman, found on the Roman cup or bowl depicting a man border between Syria and Turkey 1105 carving the number 7 on a nilometer, a Petroglyph of camel and horse, from the device used to measure the water level Sahara Desert at Tassili, Algeria, North of the Nile’s annual flood 1181 Africa 1111 Abu Simbel—hymn in praise of the Achaemenid Persian gold model chariot Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II 1185 from the region of Takht-i Kuwad, Clay tablet with Babylonian inscription, Tadjikistan 1114 found in the treasury of Persepolis, Horse harness fittings from Iron Age Britain 1116 Persia (modern-day Iran) 1186 Chariot with horse and rider, from a Pillar edict of the emperor Asoka from sarcophagus at Heraklion 1119 Uttar Pradesh, India 1188 Frieze in the temple of the Egyptian Painted pebbles from cave of Mas d’Azil, pharaoh Ramses II, showing a listing of Ariége, France 1188 captured cities in Nubia 1127 Bilingual milestone marker 1190 Clay prism of King Sennacherib 1132 Pottery inkwell from Roman Britain, Stone figure of the war god Skanda, from inscribed with its owner’s name, eastern India 1139 Iucundus 1191  List of Maps and Primary Source Documents MAPS Cultivated and Pastoral Land of Ancient Egypt 965 VOLUME I Early Mediterranean Trade Routes 1104 Ranges of the Wild Ancestors of Parthian Invasion Routes into Roman Early Livestock 27 Territory 1135 Ancient Mesoamerica 84 Athens and Its Monuments 224 Nubian Settlements along the Nile River 241 PRIMARY SOURCE DOCUMENTS VOLUME I VOLUME II Hymn to the Nile, ca. 2100 b.c.e. 49 Theaters in the Roman Empire outside Italy 336 Hymn to Goddess Earth, ca. 600 b.c.e. 50 Roman Empire at Its Greatest Extent 371 Cato: On Agriculture, excerpt, ca. 150 b.c.e. 51 The Shang Dynasty, 1500–1045 b.c.e. 404 “The Reports of the Magicians and Ancient Mesopotamia 516 Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon,” excerpts, ca. 2500–670 b.c.e. 135 VOLUME III Ptolemy: Tetrabiblos, excerpt, second Early Societies of Oceania, century c.e. 136 1500 b.c.e.–1000 c.e. 706 Petronius: “The Banquet of Trimalchio,” Scythia 792 excerpt from The Satyricon, 60 c.e. 137 Ancient Egypt 839 The Advice of an Akkadian Father to His Caesar’s Movements in the Civil War, Son, ca. 2200 b.c.e. 198 49–44 b.c.e. 880 Confucius: Analects, excerpt, ca. 479–221 b.c.e. 199 VOLUME IV Herodas: The Third Mime, excerpt, Mainland Greece and the Aegean Sea 958 ca. third century b.c.e. 199 xx  List of Maps and Primary Source Documents xxi Plutarch: “The Training of Children,” Semonides of Amorgos: “The Types of ca. 110 c.e. 200 Women,” ca. 550 b.c.e. 506 Strabo: Geography, excerpt on Africa, Xenophon: “The Polity of the Spartans,” ca. 22 c.e. 269 ca. 375 b.c.e. 539 Pliny: Natural History, excerpt on India, Plutarch: The Life of Theseus, excerpt, ca. 77 c.e. 270 ca. 110 c.e. 540 Pausanius: Description of Greece, Polybius: “Rome at the End of the Punic Wars,” Book I: Attica, second century c.e. 271 from The Histories, ca. 200–after 118 b.c.e. 541 The Code of the Assura, excerpt, Tabu-utul-Bêl: “Ludlul Bêl Nimeqi,” ca. 1075 b.c.e. 305 ca.1700 b.c.e. 556 The Arthashastra, excerpt, ca. 250 b.c.e. 306 The Yin Fu Ching, or Clue to the Unseen, The Twelve Tables, excerpt, ca. 450 b.c.e. 307 excerpt, ca. 1200 b.c.e. 557 Galen: Medicine, excerpt, ca. mid-second VOLUME II century c.e. 559 Herodotus: “Mummification,” from Hippocrates: Aphorisms, excerpt, The Histories, fifth century b.c.e. 323 ca. fifth century b.c.e. 559 Descent of the Goddess Ishtar into the Lower World, from the Epic of VOLUME III Gilgamesh, ca. seventh century b.c.e. 324 The Precepts of the Vizier Ptah-hotep, A Vedic Funerary Hymn, from the ca. 2350 b.c.e. 631 Rig-Veda, ca. 1700–1100 b.c.e. 325 The Code of Hammurabi, ca. 1780 b.c.e. 633 Homer: The Odyssey, excerpt, The Law Code of Gortyn (Crete), ca. 800–600 b.c.e. 326 ca. 450 b.c.e. 635 The Selection of Aspalta as King of Kush, The Twelve Tables, excerpt, ca. 450 b.c.e. 636 ca. 600 b.c.e. 422 Saint Augustine: The City of God, excerpt, The Legend of Sargon of Akkad, 410–426 c.e. 667 ca. 2300 b.c.e. 423 “The Tale of The Eloquent Peasant,” Herodotus: “On the Kings of Sparta,” from ca. 1800 b.c.e. 668 The History of the Persian Wars, Enûma Elish: The Epic of Creation, excerpt, ca. 430 b.c.e. 424 eighth century b.c.e. 669 A Collection of Contracts from Bhagavad Gita (from the Mahabharata), Mesopotamia, ca. 2300–428 b.c.e. 458 excerpt, ca. 400 b.c.e. 671 Herodotus: The History of the Persian Wars, Plato: “The Allegory of the Cave,” from the excerpt, ca. 430 b.c.e. 459 Republic, ca. 360 b.c.e. 672 Kautilya: The Arthashastra, excerpt, Horace: “The Secular Hymn,” ca. 17 b.c.e., ca. 250 b.c.e. 460 and Virgil: Aeneid, excerpt, 30–19 b.c.e. 673 Tacitus: Germania, excerpt, ca. 98 c.e. 461 Virgil: Exerpt from the Aeneid 674 Herodotus: The History of the Persian Wars, Tacitus: Germania, excerpt, 98 c.e. 723 excerpt, ca. 430 b.c.e. 504 Herodotus: Excerpt on the founding of Ban Zhao: Lessons for a Woman, excerpt, Cyrene from The Histories, fifth ca. 80 c.e. 505 century b.c.e. 723  xxii List of Maps and Primary Source Documents Sun Tzu: The Art of War, excerpt, sixth Herodotus: The Histories, excerpt, fifth century b.c.e. 737 century b.c.e. 1043 Xenophon: “The Spartan War Machine,” Arrian: Anabasis Alexandri (Campaigns of ca. 375 b.c.e. 738 Alexander), excerpt, second century c.e. 1045 Josephus: “The Roman Army in the First Julius Caesar: “The Germans,” excerpt from Century c.e.,” first century c.e. 739 De bello Gallico (The Gallic Wars), “The Shipwrecked Sailor,” ca. 2200 b.c.e. 784 ca. 51 b.c.e. 1046 The Bible, excerpt from Exodus, fifth to Pindar: Olympian Odes, ca. 470 b.c.e. 1058 seventh centuries b.c.e. 785 Suetonius: The Divine Augustus, excerpt, The Egyptian Legend of the Creation, ca. 120 c.e. 1059 excerpt, ca. 311 b.c.e. 866 The Popol Vuh, excerpt, oral tradition, Enûma Elish: The Epic of Creation, excerpt, unknown date 1060 eighth century b.c.e. 867 The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, excerpt, The Rig-Veda, excerpt, ca. 1700–1100 b.c.e. 868 first to third centuries c.e. 1108 VOLUME IV Petronius Arbiter: “The Banquet of Aeschines: “On the Embassy,” excerpt, Trimalchio,” excerpt from the Satynicon, 343 b.c.e. 919 first century c.e. 1109 Appian: “The Civil Wars—On the Gracchi,” Herodotus: “The Carthaginian Attack on from Roman History, before 162 c.e. 920 Sicily,” excerpt from The Histories, fifth Herodotus, “Mummification,” from The century b.c.e. 1156 Histories, fifth century b.c.e. 950 Pen-ta-ur: “The Victory of Ramses II Archimedes: Letter to Dositheus, over the Khita,” inscription on the wall ca. 220 b.c.e. 950 of five temples, one at Karnak, The Code of the Nesilim, excerpt, ca. 1326 b.c.e. 1156 1650–1500 b.c.e. 995 Excerpts from Accounts of the Campaign Kautilya: The Arthashastra, excerpt, of Sennacherib, ca. 701 b.c.e. 1158 ca. 250 b.c.e. 996 Polybius: “The Roman Maniple vs. the Aristotle: “On Slavery,” from the Politics, Macedonian Phalanx,” excerpt from ca. 330 b.c.e. 997 The Histories, ca. second century b.c.e. 1159  Preface Welcome to the Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the An- In addition, we understand that the term Middle East cient World, a four-volume set that provides comprehensive has not traditionally been used to refer to the ancient regions coverage of the ancient world from prehistory through the of the Levant (Israel, Jordan, parts of Syria, the Palestin- fall of Rome in 476 c.e. For coverage after that point, readers ian Authority, and Lebanon), Anatolia (Turkey), Armenia, are urged to consult our companion set, the Encyclopedia of Persia (Iran), and Mesopotamia (Iraq and parts of Syria). Society and Culture in the Medieval World, which covers the However, some educators and scholars, especially those period from the fall of Rome to the start of the Renaissance. involved in comparative history, are beginning to adopt the term when discussing this region. We decided to use SCOPE AND ARRANGEMENT the term Middle East for this encyclopedia in light of that increasing usage. OF THE SET The Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the Ancient World contains 69 separate entries, each devoted to a specific cultur- ENTRY DETAILS al or societal topic. Of these 69 entries, 14 comprise “major” Each entry begins with an introductory essay that outlines topics with longer, more in-depth coverage than the standard the major developments on a given topic in the ancient world. entries. The entries are arranged in alphabetical order by Following that introduction are separate essays on the topic topic; readers may consult the Contents page for a listing of from the perspective of the named centers of civilization. At these topics. the end of the main text of each entry is a list of “see also” Each entry includes a discussion of the topic from the references to related entries, followed by a further reading list perspective of the following centers of civilization: of books, articles, and Web sites on the topic. Africa OTHER ELEMENTS Egypt In addition to the main text, the encyclopedia incorporates The Middle East sidebars on topics that do not fit neatly into the central Asia and the Pacific discussion as well key primary source excerpts scattered Europe throughout the set. These primary source documents ap- Greece pear at the end of many entries. Our goal in identifying and Rome including these primary sources is to facilitate additional The Americas comparative study between cultures on a given topic. Read- ers may consult the List of Primary Source Documents in Readers will note that there is some overlap in this list: the front matter for a guide to the individual sources found Egypt is part of Africa, of course, just as Greece and Rome are in the encyclopedia. The set also features more than 250 part of Europe. However, because the civilizations of ancient maps and illustrations. The front matter lists these maps Egypt, Rome, and Greece are so often studied separately, we and illustrations. decided to treat them as such in this encyclopedia. Entries de- Aside from detailing the maps, illustrations, and primary voted to Europe will thus not discuss Rome and Greece, while source documents, the front matter includes a section about those devoted to Africa will not discuss Egypt. the set’s advisers and contributors and a general introduction xxiii  xxiv Preface to the ancient world by Dr. Peter Bogucki of Princeton Uni- journalists, and writers who contributed to this work. At versity, who served as the editor in chief of the encyclope- Facts On File, Claudia Schaab provided essential guidance dia. At the back of the set, readers will find a glossary of key throughout the project. A special note of thanks is due to Paul terms, a general bibliography, a chronology by region, and a Halsall, who operates the Internet History Sourcebooks. This general subject index. Web site supplied many of the primary source documents in- cluded in the encyclopedia. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS —NEIL SCHLAGER AND In addition to Dr. Peter Bogucki and the members of the ad- MARCIA MERRYMAN MEANS, visory board, we wish to thank the more than 100 scholars, PROJECT MANAGERS  Introduction The story of the ancient world spans the globe and covers vast people. Many other fields of research also contribute to our amounts of time. It is the largely overlooked story of the tre- understanding of how people lived in the past. mendous diversity in human experience, ranging from the ice age societies whose way of life is so remote from ours to the SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT citizens of Greece and Rome whom we easily recognize from history books. During the 2 million years since we became THE ANCIENT WORLD human, members of our species have settled every corner Scholars who study the ancient world have many sources of of the earth and organized their lives in countless different information to reconstruct life in the past. The most impor- ways. The articles in this encyclopedia will provide you with tant categories are ancient sites, ancient artifacts, and ancient an overview of the various ways in which people lived in the texts, supplemented by information on the ancient environ- past and point to sources where you can find more informa- ment and climate. These are the pieces in the jigsaw puzzle tion about the topics that interest you. that researchers must fit together. To learn about the modern world, all we have to do is look around, travel, read, or watch a video about what we cannot SITES see. But we cannot travel back in time to see what life was Ancient sites are the locations where human activity took like several thousand or several hundred thousand years ago. place in the past. Since there are many different types of hu- We cannot hear an ancient Roman speak, nor can we meet man activities, there are diverse types of sites. The most im- a Stone Age hunter in Siberia. We have to rely on research- portant are settlements, burials, and ceremonial sites, but any ers to piece together many different bits of evidence to come location where ancient people performed some activity and up with a picture of past life. A lot of the pieces are missing. left traces behind can be considered an archaeological site. Many people say that it is like putting together a jigsaw puz- Settlement sites are probably the most common form zle, but it is a puzzle in which most of the pieces are missing of ancient site, for they are the locations where people lived. and, worse, there is no picture on the box. These can range from Stone Age caves to the residential parts The people who study the humans of the past call them- of cities such as Athens and Rome. All settlement sites have selves various names. Archaeologists excavate and study the characteristics in common that are of special interest to ar- physical traces of past societies, called sites and artifacts, chaeologists. The first special characteristic of most settle- while physical anthropologists study the remains of ancient ment sites is that people built structures of various types. In humans to learn about their evolution, health, and genetics. the Stone Age cave they might have built a hearth by digging Researchers who study both the archaeology and the physi- a pit and lining it with stones, while in larger settlements they cal anthropology of the earliest humans are called paleoan- built houses and other domestic buildings, along with storage thropologists. Historians and epigraphers study the texts and pits, barns, and other necessary structures. The other impor- monuments of ancient civilizations, while historical geogra- tant feature of settlement sites is that people create a tremen- phers examine the ways in which past societies interacted dous amount of rubbish, and this rubbish contains a lot of through exploration and trade. Paleobotanists and archaeo- information for archaeologists. In addition to the broken zoologists study the remains of the plants and animals that tools, pots, and other equipment of daily life, it also contains were used by ancient people, while geologists study events in animal bones and charred seeds that provide information on the earth’s history that may have affected the lives of nearby the ancient diet. xxv  xxvi Introduction Burials and cemeteries are another important category of still need to be measured and mapped as a way to understand ancient site. The skeletons of ancient people impart informa- their original size and their position in the landscape. tion about their diet and health, and the ways in which they Archaeologists use many different techniques to deter- were buried can tell a lot about how the society was organized. mine the age of the remains that they find on sites. The most Sometimes burials are found within settlements, while at other important scientific technique is carbon-14, or radiocarbon, times they are located in separate cemeteries. The corpses may dating, which is based on the decay of a radioactive isotope of have been buried intact, or they may have been cremated. Some carbon that is absorbed by living plants and animals and its burials are in simple pits, while others are in elaborate tombs. In measurement in charcoal, bones, and other organic remains. many societies it was traditional to bury objects with the corpse Carbon-14 dating is effective for artifacts between about 1,000 that reflected the individual’s status in life, while in other societ- and 60,000 years old. For artifacts dating to before that time ies little or nothing is found in the tomb other than bones. other methods are employed, depending on the circumstanc- Another important type of site is the ritual or ceremonial es. A very precise method of dating involves the counting of site, sometimes called a “monument.” Stonehenge in England tree rings on sites where wood is preserved, and tree-ring is perhaps the most famous, but other examples include the chronologies that cover the last several thousand years have mounds in Ohio that are shaped like animals when viewed been established in many parts of the world. Archaeologists from the air, the Nazca Lines in Peru, and the Sphinx in and ancient historians also can use artifact styles to date sites, Egypt. While we do not know the exact purpose such monu- especially when these styles can be correlated with historical ments served, it is clear that they were not primarily the lo- events for which dates are known. cations of settlements or cemeteries, though these sites may have been located nearby. ARTIFACTS Finally, any location of ancient human activity quali- Archaeological sites generally contain the objects made by fies as an archaeological site. These might include roads, boat ancient people and left behind as rubbish or as deliberate landings, or even the boats themselves, buried in the mud. In deposits in burials or simply lost. Researchers call these ob- Boston subway construction found the remains of an ancient jects “artifacts,” which refers to any portable object made by fence that was used for catching fish by Native Americans humans. If you look around