BA Program History Sem 1st Ancient Society Unit 1-4 PDF

Department of Distance and Continuing Education University of Delhi nwjLFk ,oa lrr~ f'k{kk foHkkx fnYyh fo'ofo|ky; B.A.(Programme) Major Paper-I DSC-1 (A/B) Semester-I Course...

Department of Distance and Continuing Education University of Delhi nwjLFk ,oa lrr~ f'k{kk foHkkx fnYyh fo'ofo|ky; B.A.(Programme) Major Paper-I DSC-1 (A/B) Semester-I Course Credit - 4 ANCIENT SOCIETIES (Department of History) As per the UGCF - 2022 and National Education Policy 2020 Ancient Societies Editorial Board Dr. Rajni Nanda Mathew, Dr. Srimanjari, Dr. Shobhika Mukul, Sh. Prabhat Kumar Content Writers Dr. Shobhika Mukul, Dr. Aradhana Singh Academic Coordinator Deekshant Awasthi © Department of Distance and Continuing Education ISBN : 978-93-95774-37-6 1st edition: 2022 E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Published by: Department of Distance and Continuing Education under the aegis of Campus of Open Learning/School of Open Learning, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007 Printed by: School of Open Learning, University of Delhi © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies  Corrections/Modifications/Suggestions proposed by Statutory Body, DU/Stakeholder/s in the Self Learning Material (SLM) will be incorporated in the next edition. However, these corrections/modifications/suggestions will be uploaded on the website https://sol.du.ac.in. Any feedback or suggestions can be sent to the email- [email protected] © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Ancient Societies Major Paper-I DSC-1 (A/B) ANCIENT SOCIETIES Study Material: Unit (I-IV) CONTENTS UNIT I : 1. Defining Civilizations, Dr. Aradhana Singh 1-12 Historiography, Urban Revolution and Bronze Age, Debating Metal Technology 2. Bronze Age and Debating Metal Dr. Aradhana Singh 13-23 Technology UNIT II : Bronze Age Civilizations: India and Dr. Aradhana Singh 24-35 China UNIT III : Bronze Age Civilizations- Dr. Shobhika Mukul 36-61 Mesopotamia (Sumerian and Akkadian Period)/Egypt (Old Kingdom) Ecological Context, Kingship and State, Social Pattern and Economy. Art, Religion and Culture UNIT IV : Ancient Greece: Minoan and Dr. Shobhika Mukul 62-77 Mycenaean © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies UNIT I 1. DEFINING CIVILIZATIONS, HISTORIOGRAPHY, URBAN REVOLUTION AND BRONZE AGE, DEBATING METAL TECHNOLOGY STRUCTURE 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Civilization 1.2.1 Civilization and Culture 1.2.2 Emergence of Civilization 1.2.3 Conclusion 1.3 Urban Revolution 1.3.1 Introduction 1.3.2 Neolithic Revolution 1.3.3 Ten Characteristics of a City 1.3.4 The response to Gordon Childe’s Model 1.3.5 Conclusion 1.4 Let us Sum up 1.5 Answers to In-Text Questions 1.6 References and Suggested Readings 1.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you should be able to: Define Civilization Trace the development in the understanding of civilization by scholars Understand the concept of Urban Revolution 1|Page © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) Identify the characteristics of an urban society 1.1 INTRODUCTION The question of civilization has been a subject of intense debate and discussion among scholars for a very long period of time. Here we intend to go into the depths of their reasoning and arrive at a consensus on the question of civilization and its definition. Since city life time and again appears as an important indicator of a civilized society, we also go on to identify and account for the characteristics of a city. 1.2 CIVILIZATION There are no two similar opinions among scholars on the question of what constitutes a civilization and what are its main characteristics? A vast scholarly literature surrounds this complex subject. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, “to civilize” is “to bring out of a state of barbarism, to instruct in the arts of life; to enlighten and refine”. The root of the English word can be traced to the 16th century French term ‘civilisé’, meaning “civilized”. While the Latin civilis, civis, and civitas convey the meaning of “living in a city”. Civilizations are therefore strongly connected with the characteristics of city life, which will be discussed in detail below. The complexity associated with a civilized society is generally defined or portrayed in opposition to a simple, primitive one. First used in the Romance languages during the Renaissance period, the term imparted meanings like improvement, refined manners and urbanization, all seen as diametrically opposite to savagery. In this regard, anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan (1878) was one of the first to classify modern non-Western cultures into savagery, barbarism and civilization, based upon the increasing levels of social complexity. The same logic was applied by the early evolutionists to ancient societies. A particular society is categorised as ‘complex’ when it accommodates individuals living in groups of settled communities, in a city and engaging in specialized activities. A complex society is further believed to deeply imbibe the following elements within its structure, a surplus production of food to sustain the increasing population; advanced technological improvements to increase production and communication between different groups; some form of legal and moral authority; a governing body to protect individual rights and render justice; and cultural developments. The term civilization was in vogue during the French Revolution, where it was used in the singular and referred to the progress of humanity. In his 1923 book, The Philosophy of Civilization, Albert Schweitzer defines civilization as “the sum total of all progress made by man in every sphere of action and from every point of view in so far as the progress helps towards the spiritual perfecting of individuals as the progress of all progress.” Lamenting upon the idea of humanity losing the ethical aspirations of civilization, he combines the material and ethical in this definition of the term. In the traditional sense, civilization is a set 2|Page © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies of beliefs, way of thinking or a way of life altogether. It is seen as a new stage in human development, closely connected with the emergence of cities and urban life ways. Moreover, it was around 1819 that ‘civilizations’ in the plural came to be used, which marked a major semantic shift. Civilizations in the plural refers to the specific way of life of a nation at a particular point in time, and it is in this sense that scholars like Fernand Braudel, Oswald Spengler, Samuel Huntington, Arnold Toynbee and others developed theories on it and used the term to refer to some of the major civilizations of the world like the Mesopotamian, Chinese, Indian and Egyptian. Nineteenth-century anthropologists and archaeologists were heavily influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of biological and social evolution. Social Scientist Herbert Spencer applied Darwin’s theory to human societies and presented this as proof that in an evolutionary sense civilizations were superior than the less-complex societies that they were displacing. In his Ancient Society (1877), Lewis Henry Morgan put forward a theory of seven distinct periods of human development, from savagery to a state of civilization. The Marxists equate the development of urban civilization with the emergence of a class structure. Marx conceptualized the development of prehistoric society in three stages, nomadic hunter- gatherers, permanent farming settlements which were economically self-sufficient and the primary State with growing class differentiation. In the 1930s and 1940s, V. Gordon Childe further refined this approach by equating savagery with hunter-gatherer societies of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, barbarism with the Neolithic farmers and Copper Age and finally, civilization with the Bronze Age communities. But these terms are no longer used in modern archaeological thinking. As civilization is now used to refer to urbanized, state-level societies. But for the prehistorian it is very difficult to recognize the socio-economic institutions signifying the presence of a civilized society from the archaeological record. Therefore, a number of definitions have been proposed which are applicable to the archaeological data. Claude Kluckhohn has argued that a civilized society must possess two of the following three criterias, towns of more than 5,000 people, monumental ceremonial centres and a written language. It must be stressed here though that the choice of these particular features by Kluckhohn is purely based on their accessibility to the archaeologist, rather than on their importance within the civilized set-up. 1.2.1 Civilization and Culture The term civilization and its attributes also share a unique relationship with the word ‘culture’, with the two displaying characteristics of distinction as well as overlap. Several interweaving cultures which are in constant interaction with one another and with the outside world form the major constituents of a civilization. It is these very elements which bring large groups of people together in a civilization as they identify through a common, shared set of values and institutions. But ethnographers and anthropologists prefer to maintain a distinction 3|Page © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) between the two. This trend began with the publication of anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor’s Primitive Cultures in 1874 where he defined civilization not in terms of a progressive development from simple beginnings to more complex forms of development. According to Tylor, civilization implies a developed stage of human society, and therefore he and his colleagues in the field prefer to use the term ‘culture’ instead when they study and discuss primitive societies. It would be more appropriate to look at culture as one of the important attributes of a civilization or a civilization as the sum total of cultures that it contains. Fernand Braudel calls culture a ‘semi-civilization’ as it is a stage in the overall development of mankind, and therefore something which stands on a lower pedestal than civilization. This conceptual hierarchy is further elaborated upon by Christopher Dawson, a British sociologist, who takes civilization to be the largest socio-historical phenomenon, a lofty status to which culture can lay no claim. On the other hand, Immanuel Wallerstein refutes the conceptual hierarchy approach, giving examples from non-English, specifically German usages where civilization refers to common everyday affairs, whereas culture indicates much refined things. American anthropologist Philip Bagby adopts an etymological approach and argues that civilization is the kind of culture found in cities, specifically. This definition has been very useful in civilizational studies, but it proposes its own unique challenges, defining a city being the foremost among them. Bagby on his part considers the division of labour and craft specialization to be the primary elements in a city. Fernand Braudel echoes Bagby’s approach by arguing that unlike culture, towns and cities don’t just exist but they would prosper in a civilization. Therefore, a civilization is now most commonly understood as a complex state with some degree of social stratification, specialization of labour and centralized power. 1.2.2 Emergence of Civilization V. Gordon Childe was one of the earliest theorists who saw the emergence of civilization as a result of two successive revolutions, namely the Neolithic Revolution and the Urban Revolution. Being a social evolutionist, Childe argued that agriculture and surplus production were the basis of civilizations which developed on the pedestal created by the Neolithic revolution. For him, these revolutions were marked by agrarian surplus, which led to the development of technological forces and the accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few, resulting in turn in rising class stratification. The first and earliest civilizations are believed to have developed with the invention of farming. It is seen as the basis of the emergence of early civilizations in Mesopotamia and then in Egypt, and some time later in India and China. With irrigation being an important basis of farming in general, it is interesting to note that all these civilizations developed alongside river valleys, i.e., areas rich in irrigated land to sustain farming. These major rivers also enabled long distance transportation of goods, promoting trade with far off regions, which further resulted in connecting different civilizations. The early settlers practicing farming in these regions also felt a need to invent wooden, metal or stone tools required 4|Page © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies specifically for cultivation purposes. This gave a boost to metal technology and production, and the need for a specialized group of people involved in artisanship. Secondly, farming was essential for people to settle down or establish permanent settlements, for population growth and the development of cities and villages. These changes created a scenario where an increasing need was felt for the establishment of such social, political and economic systems which can provide a solution to the grievances of people living as part of large communities. Thirdly, stability in the agricultural sphere led to the rise of specialized, non-agricultural activities like craft specialization, artisans, merchants, priests, administrators, etc. This craft specialization is still considered to be one of the most important features of civilization. Fourthly, as discussed above, the term civilization conveys the meaning of “living in the city”. The foundational civilizations are therefore believed to have begun in cities, which are large, and more densely populated, in comparison to the villages. Fifthly, the invention of writing ensured record keeping, and transmission of culture from one generation or time period to the next. Writing also improved communication between different people and helped in administrative tasks. Sixthly, civilization encompasses a multicultural society, where people belonging to different cultures and classes live together with a mutual understanding. Seventhly, the introduction of a religious system which reinforces social solidarity by bringing people together. Eighthly, it resulted in the development of economic and political institutions which played a crucial role in the progress and development of civilization. Here the political institutions created and enforced rules and regulations, the economic ones institutions focussed on the production and distribution of material goods and services. Finally, all these elements culminated in the formation of a ‘state’, based on centralization of political power and authority. The development of this kind of a centralised set-up further necessitated the construction of cities to function as administrative centres of the ruling authority. However, it is now increasingly argued that agricultural intensification cannot by itself explain the rise and development of the foundational civilizations as agriculture had witnessed progress for thousands of years before this phenomenon first appeared. 1.2.3 Conclusion Thus, scholars have provided multiple explanations as to what constitutes a civilization. The emergence of a complex, civilized society is also attributed to several factors. These factors had far reaching implications on the social, political and economic settings in different parts of the world. 5|Page © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) IN-TEXT QUESTIONS-1 A. State True or False: 1. The Latin words civilis, civis and civitas convey the meaning of “living in a city”. 2. Lewis Henry Morgan applied Darwin’s theory of biological and social evolution to human societies. 3. Ethnographers and anthropologists maintain a distinction between civilization and culture. 4. Christopher Dawson argues that civilization is the kind of culture found in cities. 5. V. Gordon Childe has argued that agriculture and surplus production was the basis of civilizations. B. Short question: Discuss the conceptual hierarchy approach with respect to the relationship between civilization and culture. C. Long question: What are the factors responsible for the emergence of civilization? 1.3 URBAN REVOLUTION 1.3.1 Introduction A social evolutionist and archaeologist, V. Gordon Childe is one of the pioneers and most influential theorists on the major transformations in the development of human society. One of his significant contribution is the introduction of the concepts of the Neolithic Revolution and the Urban Revolution to understand and conceptualize urbanism. He first introduced his path breaking ideas to the larger academic community with the publication of the paper titled, ‘The Urban Revolution’, in the Town Planning Review in 1950. The choice of the word ‘revolution’ was a deliberate one as he wanted to see these major social transformations of prehistory in comparison with the Industrial Revolution. Since these changes affected all aspects of human life, they needed to be understood and received that way. 6|Page © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies 1.3.2 Neolithic Revolution Childe’s concept of the Neolithic Revolution denotes the transition from hunting and gathering for subsistence to farming. This phenomenon can be seen as developing together in some parts of the world, but all independently of each other. This shift from the accumulation of wild resources to the production and consumption of domesticated foods resulted in a number of significant changes and developments. A combination of technological breakthroughs and social transformations can be witnessed here as has already been discussed earlier. The Urban Revolution, on the other hand, completely transformed social institutions and practices. The first cities came into being during this phase, alongside an expansion in economic activities, growing social stratification and coming up of new institutions of governance and rule. For Childe, cities were not the only component due to which these complex societies came into existence. However, they were definitely the most important one. The earliest cities and states arose in the regions of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, India, Mesoamerica and the Andes. Interestingly, they evolved out of much simpler societies, with little or no external influence. For his writing on the Urban Revolution, Childe employed the data found during the excavations at Ur in the 1920s, which gave evidence of the earliest urban society in Mesopotamia. His theorization therefore heavily relied on evidence and facts, something that was missing in the works of his predecessors. Childe believed that the Urban Revolution witnessed the development of metallurgy and the emergence of a new social class of artisans and specialists who lived in cities. In fact, his article in Town Planning Review introduces a wider audience to the intricacies of archaeological fieldwork and the evidence collected therein. Although he had incorporated his insights on Urban Revolutions in his previous works, in this article Childe presented the model in a more synthesised and organized manner by neatly placing the developments in the form of ten characteristics. 1.3.3 Ten Characteristics of a City Our use of the term ‘city’ signifies a social organization such as a unit of settlement which is large in size and complex in organization. City and civilization share the same Latin root and cities are generally believed to have achieved the degree of organization equated with civilization. In his much acclaimed article in the Town Planning Review, the very first question Childe tackles is the notion of ‘city’, which he himself acknowledges as something extremely hard to define. He presents the city historically as the symbol and outcome of a revolution with which began a new economic stage altogether. The “ten rather abstract criteria” propounded by Childe are as follows: 1. In terms of size, the first cities must have been more extensive and densely populated than the previous settlements. 7|Page © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) 2. The urban population differed from any village or town in composition and function, as here we find full-time specialist craftsmen, merchants, officials, traders and priests. 3. Every producer, even the most primary ones, had to pay tax on the small surplus that was obtained with limited technical equipment. This tax was paid to a divine king or an imaginary deity who collected all the surplus. 4. Monumental architecture distinguishes cities from villages and also fulfills the symbolic role of the concentration of social surplus. 5. A major share of the concentrated surplus was retained by a few who formed the “ruling class”. This group included priests, administrative officials and civil and military leaders. 6. The invention and use of writing for administrative and communication purposes. 7. The elaboration of sciences like geometry, arithmetic and astronomy. 8. Production of sophisticated styles of art. 9. Foreign trade over long distances. 10. And finally, a state organization which was now based on residence and not kinship. These ten characteristics clearly indicate that Childe’s model was based on a series of interrelated social, political, cultural and economic changes that resulted in the formation of the earliest cities and states. The very first point in Childe’s model, where he argues that early states were urban in nature, and they comprised large, densely populated settlements or cities, has been a constant theme of research into early complex societies. And so has been craft specialization. In 1954, Sir Leonard Woolley uncovered considerable evidence of craft specialists living in residential neighbourhoods at Ur. Division of labour and the production of social surplus by primary producers to pay their taxes are considered to be the most significant political and economic transformations. The question of monumental public architecture is a tricky one as nearly all ancient complex societies developed some form of it, but we also come across evidence for the same in much earlier Neolithic groups, like the megalithic communities. But, having said that, Childe was still correct in pointing out that these buildings served as symbols of wealth and power accumulated in the hands of early rulers. The origins of inequality and social stratification can no doubt be attributed to the Urban Revolution, as evidence from a lot of archaeological sites depicts. The invention of writing is generally dismissed as a universal criteria to label complex societies, as the Inca and Andean states of South America are characterized by an absence of writing. The next and obvious stage of writing, i.e., record- keeping was definitely a universal characteristic of early states. Major advances in the field of practical sciences and mathematics also coincided with the development of early states. 8|Page © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies On the question of conceptualised and sophisticated art styles, while there is no doubt that all early states had distinctive art styles, it will be incorrect to say that these were more sophisticated than the art of the preceding Neolithic groups. The employment of art for ideological purposes by the most ancient rulers was however a major transformation witnessed in this stage. Although the beginnings of trade can be traced back to the Paleolithic societies, it expanded a great deal with the first states. And lastly, on the question of the State, power became more centralized in the hands of the ruler and other governing institutions rather than being distributed among people and families, as was the case earlier. 1.3.4 The response to Childe’s Model The model has been extensively discussed by archaeologists and other scholars engaged in evolutionary studies. The most prominent criticism of Childe’s theory is that he did little to relate the several processes and institutions with one another. This point was first raised by Robert McC. Adams, followed by Paul Wheatley and James F. Osborne. Colin Renfrew, on the other hand, defends Childe on the point of functional relationship between the different characteristics, which according to him are implicit in his model. Moreover, we need to keep in mind that not all cities attest to Childe’s ten point characteristics as they display a rich diversity in socio-cultural and geographic contexts. R. McC. Adams argues that there is no evidence of vast surpluses in the early cities. While Jane Jacobs points out that farming is not alone crucial to the growth of cities as there has to be a large-scale demand first for there to be a surplus. Levant and Anatolia give evidence of cities originating due to long-distance trade, rather than farming. All these arguments offer a different understanding of the nature of urbanization. But not all of his arguments were refuted by a lot of scholars, including McC. Adams, who actively engaged with Childe’s model and further incorporated it in mainstream anthropological archaeology and cultural evolution. In his book, The Evolution of Urban Society, Adams begins his discussion with the ten-point characteristics, and then goes on to extend and modify it to lay great emphasis on social practices and institutions. Another proponent of the archaeological survey method, Pedro Armillas played a key role in spreading Childe’s ideas in the Americas. William Sanders’ model of cultural evolution derived upon Childe’s analysis, and all these scholars played their parts in further extending Childe’s model and introducing it to new parts of the world. Even today, Urban Revolution remains a major topic in research and publications undertaken by archaeologists. Having said that, there have also been some significant methodological innovations since Childe’s time in the studies of early states and cities. Among which, the expansion of the archaeological survey method is commendable. These methods helped archaeologists in reconstructing changes in settlement patterns and agricultural practices through time. Survey methods have proved to be of tremendous consequence in investigating the patterns of political and economic dynamics on a regional level and have been further refined these days with the use of satellite imagery and advances in geomorphology. Childe’s 9|Page © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) traits and materialist perspective retain significance in the conceptual and functionalist approaches employed by archaeologists to explain Urban Revolution. Although not primarily about cities, Childe’s concept of Urban Revolution did focus on city planning and is in tune with present understandings of planning in ancient cities. Moreover, his observation that ‘no specific elements of town planning can be proved characteristic of all cities’ is significant because it brings out the specific elements in urban planning which were unique in each case. Contemporary approaches further highlight this uniqueness by embracing the concept of variation in form, both within and between cultural traditions. 1.3.5 Conclusion Thus, Childe’s model of Urban Revolution was the first substantial synthesis of archaeological evidence on the early states and cities and made a significant advance in evolutionary scholarship of the twentieth century. It also forms the basis of subsequent studies and theorization on the theme. Studies on ancient complex societies are still dominated by the themes of agricultural expansion, surplus production, urbanism, craft specialization, social inequality and the emergence of state. IN-TEXT QUESTIONS-2 A. Fill in the blanks 1. Neolithic Revolution denotes the transition from hunting and gathering for subsistence to ………….. 2. The evidence of the earliest urban society comes from Ur in …………... 3. Every producer had to pay ………. over the small surplus obtained with limited technical equipment. 4. ……………… fulfills the symbolic role of the concentration of social surplus. 5. ……………. is the author of the book The Evolution of Urban Society. B. Short Notes: (i) Define Urban Revolution. (ii) Discuss the significance of Childe’s model of Urban Revolution. C. Long Question: What are the ten characteristics of a city? 10 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies 1.4 LET US SUM UP In the traditional sense, civilization is a set of beliefs, way of thinking or a way of life altogether. It is seen as a new stage in human development, closely connected with the emergence of cities and urban life ways. The term civilization and its attributes also share a unique relationship with the word ‘culture’, with the two displaying characteristics of distinction as well as overlap. The first and earliest civilizations are believed to have developed with the invention of farming. It is seen as the basis of the emergence of early civilizations in Mesopotamia and then in Egypt, and some time later in India and China. Childe’s ten characteristics of a city were based on a series of interrelated social, political, cultural and economic changes that resulted in the formation of the earliest cities and states. Childe’s model of Urban Revolution was the first substantial synthesis of archaeological evidence on the early states and cities and made a significant advance in evolutionary scholarship of the twentieth century. It also forms the basis of subsequent studies and theorization on the theme. 1.5 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Answers to In-Text Questions-1 A. 1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True B. See section 1.2.1 C. See section 1.2.2 Answers to In-Text Questions-2 A. 1. Farming 2. Mesopotamia 3. Tax 4. Monumental architecture 5. Robert McC. Adams B. (i) See section 1.3.2 (ii) See section 1.3.4 C. Long Question: See section 1.3.3 11 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) 1.6 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Childe, G. (1950). The Urban Revolution, The Town Planning Review, Vol. 21, No. 1, April 1950, pp. 3-17. Redman, C.L. (1978). The Rise of Civilizations: From Early Farmers to Urban Society in the Ancient Near East. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. Scarre, Christopher and Brian M. Fagan. (2008). Ancient Civilizations (3rd edn.), New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall. Whitehouse, R. (1977). The First Cities. Oxford: Phaidon. 12 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies 2. BRONZE AGE AND DEBATING METAL TECHNOLOGY STRUCTURE 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Bronze Age 2.2.1 Background and Meaning 2.2.2 Sources 2.2.3 Significance of the Bronze Age 2.2.4 Variety of Bronze tools, weapons and ornaments 2.2.5 Conclusion 2.3 Debating Metal Technology 2.3.1 Introduction 2.3.2 What do we understand by technological change? 2.3.3 Bronze Metallurgy 2.3.4 Impact of Bronze Metallurgy 2.3.5 Conclusion 2.4 Let us Sum up 2.5 Answers to In-Text Questions 2.6 References and Suggested Readings 2.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you should be able to: define the Bronze Age understand the significance of the development and use of metal understand the debate around metal technology 13 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) 2.1 INTRODUCTION The Bronze Age was the period characterized by the predominant use of bronze metal for the making of tools and implements. This was a significant improvement over the preceding Stone Age, as metal tools turned out to be more durable and effective. Moreover, the impact of this discovery was not just restricted to the technological sphere, but instead percolated into the social, political, economic and cultural sphere as well. 2.2 THE BRONZE AGE The history of human societies is traditionally divided into three periods, based on the material used for making tools and implements. The three periods have been generally referred to as the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. As the name clearly suggests, the first period was marked by the use of knives and axes made by grinding or chipping stone, bone or ivory, with stone being used as the predominant material. The second period begins when humans gained the knowledge that certain kinds of stone under suitable conditions can yield a substance which can be shaped as per requirement when hot, and on cooling retains the very shape, resulting in a much harder and durable tool or implement. This stage is known as the Bronze Age, for copper, the first metal to have been used industrially, was found mixed with tin in the majority of the early metal tools, as they came to be known as bronze tools. The third stage in this progressive use of technology starts with the replacement of bronze on a large scale with a much commonly occurring metal, known as iron. Our focus here lies upon the middle epoch in this series, which occupied a disproportionately short, but significant phase in the development of human culture. 2.2.1 Background and Meaning Although copper was known in some regions as early as 6500 BCE, bronze (an alloy of copper and tin) came into use around the second millennium BCE. Interestingly, the bronze age coincided with all factors associated with civilizations, i.e., the foundation of first cities, the invention of writing, the beginnings and development of science, the establishment of organized political authority, and the beginning of long distance trade and resultant cultural exchange, discussed in detail in the previous lesson. Alongside being a stage of social development, the Bronze Age is also a period when civilization flourished simultaneously in Mesopotamia, South Asia, Egypt and Central Asia (you will read about these civilizations in more detail in the coming units). Peter Northover (1988) argues that, “Bronze Age is a loaded terminology with a conventional meaning that varies from region to region. Here it defines that period when copper and copper alloys were predominant for all metal products save those of precious metals.” This is too broad a definition, as in archaeological usage the term bronze age is mostly reserved for intentional alloy of copper with tin. Thus, the bronze age 14 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies can simply be defined as the period characterized by the predominant use of bronze in the production of functional parts of major categories of cutting and piercing implements which turned out to be fundamental for the development of early technology. But, unlike the transition to iron-based technology, which was sudden or abrupt, the adoption of bronze was both abrupt and gradual, depending on the region we are looking at. This difference in the very use of these technologies can be partly explained by the availability of the metals used to produce iron or bronze implements. In most parts of the ancient world, bronze is not found naturally. Tin deposits are quite rare, and although copper is available in many parts, the ores are unevenly distributed and varied. While, on the other hand, iron is much easily found and possesses technological qualities distinct from bronze. Nevertheless, these adverse factors could not stop the adoption of bronze as a dominant metal for the making of weapons, tools, vessels and ornaments. The conventional meaning associated with the Bronze Age is therefore employed for chronological or classificatory purposes, but there are other more interesting uses of the term, especially as a stage in technological evolution. However, archaeologists are doing away with the evolutionary schemes and adopting what is referred to as the ‘Bronze Age Hypothesis’, which is characterized by the following features: The fundamental use of bronze in both social reproduction and economic production. This rendered it crucial for these societies to obtain copper and tin. Since a vast majority of them did not have local supplies of copper and tin, they had to participate in exchange networks, which brought them in close contact with distant sources of these metals. As a consequence to this, the Bronze Age witnessed a significant increase in exchange between different cultures. The exchange system was controlled by the emerging elites, who were becoming more prominent as compared to the previous age. Thus, the bronze age was marked by significant differences from anything which came before or after. Shereen Ratnagar terms the Bronze Age as unique for the earliest river valley civilizations that relied on metal for production and the metal in this case, whether copper, tin, lead, was scarce and had to be brought in from far and less developed regions. These societies which were surviving on contrasting levels of technology interacted to carry out trade, not just in luxury items but even for basic requirements. 2.2.2 Sources for the Bronze Age The Bronze Age civilizations around the world offer both written records and the material remains of those societies. Writing, during this time, was used for a number of purposes, 15 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) from the Mesopotamian cuneiform to the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Other forms of archaeological evidence consists of a range of everyday objects like tools, weapons, pottery and ornaments; monumental architecture and art forms. All this evidence is available at our disposal, while many organic materials were also produced and used by these people which have not survived the ravages of time, like cloth, wood, reeds, etc. A lot of information about the earliest civilizations like Mesopotamia and Egypt has also been derived from the texts produced during this time, as unlike the Harappan civilization, scholars have been able to decipher their writings. The burial styles and patterns also reveal a lot about the life-ways of the people, especially the elite section of society. 2.2.3 Significance of the Bronze Age We come across the major Bronze Age civilizations in the river valleys, like Mesopotamia in the Tigris-Euphrates region, Egyptian in the Nile, Harappan in the Indus river valley and Shang in the Yellow river. Most of the important elements of modern material culture are traced back to the Bronze Age. This is more so because it was the first time when early humans attempted the transformation of the physical properties of a substance (metals, in this case) by heating it. This was a radical breakthrough as copper was superior over stone or bone, on account of being malleable and fusible. It can also be cast into different shapes and forms with absolutely no limit to the size of the object that is being created. The most commonly used technique was metal casting, wherein the material was heated and liquefied, it was then poured in a cast shaped as per the requirement. On cooling, the liquid metal took the shape of the receptacle, which was then broken and removed, giving in hand the desired tool or weapon. Thus, the first smiths were involved in further developing a highly complicated technique by the effective utilization of the discoveries of the time. To fruitfully focus on their work they had to spend long hours practicing and producing the required goods and therefore those engaged in the production of food as their primary activity needed to provide for the metalsmiths as well. Since both copper and tin were not so easily available in many parts of the world, the Bronze Age communities had to undertake both internal and external trade. According to Childe, this is also one of the prominent differences between the Neolithic and Bronze Ages, as the former was relatively self-sufficient. To carry out short and long distance trade successfully, as the Bronze Age communities did, a significant degree of political stability is one of the necessary preconditions. Early studies of the use of bronze were dominated by the diffusionist approach, which took into consideration the agency of ‘prospectors’ travelling from the Near East in search of tin and copper. Gordon Childe too supported the diffusionist assumption based on the uniformity witnessed throughout Europe and the Ancient East. He prefers to call it “the diffusion of metallurgical knowledge”, which played a crucial role in the advent of the Bronze Age. 16 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies 2.2.4 Variety of Bronze tools, weapons and ornaments The Bronze Age people had an immense variety of tools, weapons, vessels and ornaments at their disposal. As a metal, bronze was tough and malleable and therefore provided strong tools with a range of tool types and sharp cutting edges. This enormous wealth of objects makes it possible to recreate a picture of that period in history. It must be kept in mind however, that the very materials used for the production of these tools and weapons, like copper and its alloys, were scarce everywhere, especially in regions where Bronze Age first emerged. One of the most common and important family of tools is referred to as ‘celt’, which includes axe-heads, adzes and chisels. The celt was a composite tool, as it was mounted on a wooden staff or shaft before use, and could be made into a variety of tools. Daggers and swords mostly served as knives during this time. Since metal was scarce and not available locally, an attempt was made to use it judiciously by tipping the missile weapons with bone, flint or horn points. Alongside these tools and weapons, people during the Bronze Age also wore ornaments made of metal, like pins, finger-rings, pendants and necklaces, etc. Metal was also used to manufacture dishes, cups and cauldrons. Bronze provided significant advantages over previously used materials for tool-making, like stone, bone or wood, and it made possible to make composite instruments like ploughs as well as sailing boats with wooden planks. But the scarcity of copper and tin meant that only the elites could organize long-distance transactions of bronze. With organization, they naturally controlled the production processes as well, especially those craft activities which depended on metal tools. The focussed zones where the Bronze Age cultures developed were therefore the areas of the great river valleys, which supported abundant agricultural produce. It was no coincidence for the cities to develop as centres of the development and production of technical skills. Cities were the locus of the most elaborate architecture and rituals, including the king’s palace and the temple of gods. According to experts, the king’s palace was the seat of various trades and crafts and therefore the most skilled craftsmen were attached to these elite establishments. The major consumer group of the Bronze Age also consisted of these elites. This further meant that the producers had very limited outlets available at their disposal, with internal economic expansion not being possible. That’s exactly the reason as to why Bronze Age economies are defined as ‘outward-looking’ and ‘elite-centred’. An item linked directly to royalty imbibed a symbolic value and special social status, in turn establishing political affiliation of that person to the king. The state also ensured that the long-distance exchanges happened smoothly. The use of standardized weights and measures in these civilizations is an important indicator of this. Unlike a set of repeated and continuous actions performed by a dedicated mercantile community, trade during the bronze age was characterized by individual expeditions carried out by officials (messengers in most cases) to procure some specific commodity. A system of tribute payment also existed, and most of the times these tributes were given as gifts. The tributes were a combination of things special or particular to a region. The Mesopotamian 17 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) civilization also gives epigraphic evidence of war booty.Although bronze tools and weapons display a great degree of similarity, we come across a wide range of differences in the pottery, burial rites and other characteristic features, which will be discussed in greater detail in the coming units. 2.2.5 Conclusion The Bronze Age signifies the beginning of the time period when people started using metal (in this case copper and its alloys) for making tools and weapons. A major advantage of using bronze over stone was the ability to fashion more complex shapes and sizes from the material, using the technique called casting. The very process of alloying or mixing two or more metals was a breakthrough, as it indicates that the metallurgical skills had advanced to an extent when two metals could be combined to produce a new one. This required a deep knowledge of the transformation of physical properties of a material upon heating and cooling. Further, the dependence on copper and tin as raw materials enabled long-distance exchanges between communities, leading to other socio-economic and political transformations. IN-TEXT QUESTIONS-1 A. State True or False: 1. The history of human societies is divided into Stone Age, Iron Age and Bronze Age, respectively. 2. Bronze came to be used around the second millennium BCE. 3. The Bronze Age civilizations around the world offer no written records. 4. Celt is one of the most common stone tool. 5. The method of casting was employed to produce bronze tools and weapons. B. Short question: Define the Bronze Age Civilization. C. Long question: Discuss in detail the significance of the discovery and use of bronze for tool making. 18 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies 2.3 DEBATING METAL TECHNOLOGY 2.3.1 Introduction The invention and development witnessed in the metallurgical sphere during the Bronze Age had far-reaching consequences for contemporary societies. Technically, a new set of skills became necessary and the knowledge of these skills was passed on from one region to the other. 2.3.2 What do we understand by technological change? Shereen Ratnagar defines technology as a cultural constituent which brings about the interaction between a group and the surrounding environment through the requirement for shelter, clothing and food, transportation of people and goods, recording of information, ornamental and aesthetic needs, etc. As per Marx’s “ideas of progress” hypothesis, later- developing forms of technology are as a rule superior to the previous ones and the replacement of old objects with new ones is the result of a linear process. This deterministic understanding of technological change and its impact has faced criticism over the period of time, with the effectiveness of technological alternatives usually being propounded as the main criteria for technological change. But, having said that, we do have some instances when sequences of technological changes are not so obvious. Nevertheless, the topic that concerns us here is the usefulness of the production and use of metal objects during the Bronze Age,. These metal objects definitely turned out to be superior and more effective than the preceding stone objects. Technology acted as a catalyst in this case, but the contemporary social and historical contingencies also played a major role in the retention of these objects. Therefore, here we will focus on two important aspects, firstly, the developmental focus on the technology itself, and secondly, the conditions favourable to the discovery, spread, and continuation of bronze. 2.3.3 Bronze Metallurgy As is evident from the use of bronze for making tools, weapons and ornaments, discovery of metal technology did play a crucial role in leading to long-term social and economic changes witnessed by early civilizations. Metallurgy denotes a series of complex operations, from finding and extracting the metal ore to smelting and processing it with the help of heat and specialized tools. The invention of metal technology considerably impacted the time required for producing tools and weapons and rendered it possible to mass produce similar artifacts. But this is not such a simple process. It requires mastering several physical and chemical processes and reactions, as well as to follow a sequence of operations, keeping a track of the time duration. The evidence in support of the Bronze Age indicates that people possessing a knowledge of working with this metal had moved around, transferring the knowledge and expertise to other 19 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) parts of the world. There are also instances of copper and bronze metallurgy being invented independently in some parts like the Near East and the Mediterranean region. Metallurgy also signifies a long process of learning and specialization. Therefore, the people involved in the task need to dedicate a lot of time and effort to gain expertise and then pass it on to another person. Thus, the entire process impacted social organization by creating a new class of specialists dedicated to the task. Copper artifacts were in use as early as the 7th millennium BCE as evidence from the site of Çatalhöyük in Turkey suggests. This was extracted from copper ore using the extraction process called smelting. These earliest metal artefacts did not always have an economic role, as they were sometimes used as dress accessories or ritual objects. Alloying of copper or the introduction of impurities in the copper increases its strength and hardness. Bronze is formed by this very process of alloying copper, on introducing tin, arsenic or lead to the metal. To extract copper the process of smelting was used. Smelting means to bring the ore to a sufficiently high temperature for it to melt. The ore gets decomposed in the process (charcoal is used as the most common reducing agent in case of copper ore), resulting in the separation of gases or other elements leaving the base metal behind. It is believed that the technique of smelting was a chance discovery during pottery firing sessions as copper smelting too requires high temperatures and a reducing environment, two preconditions of pottery kilns. Although the Neolithic Age also witnessed a long-distance exchange of goods, the intensity of commercial exchanges considerably increased during the Bronze Age. An increase in trade led to the establishment of “fixed routes”. Like in other phases of history, the exchange of goods in the Bronze Age also led to an exchange of ideas, ornamental patterns and technologies. Copper and tin were exchanged for other goods like pendants, beads, etc. The exchange of metals along these long-distance trade routes resulted in the emergence of metallurgical centres in regions earlier devoid of local resources. 2.3.4 Impact of Bronze Metallurgy The invention and development witnessed in the metallurgical sphere during the Bronze Age had far-reaching consequences for contemporary societies. Technically, a new set of skills became necessary and the knowledge of these skills was passed on from one region to the other. Since these skills required long-term learning it resulted in the creation of a new social category, consisting of people who specialized in it. Economically, the raw materials used to make bronze and the tools and weapons produced therein became more abundant. The rise of metallurgical activities also led to the rise and development of trade routes. From the social point of view, apart from creating a class of specialists, the new artefacts also introduced new scales of value and unique ways to demonstrate divisions within the society. The socially distinct and economically privileged category of elites accumulated artefacts made of bronze, and other metals like gold and silver. Thus, these were used as symbols of social status and power and disparity. 20 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies A reading of the Bronze Age also brings forth the question as to whether development in metallurgy was one of the causes for the establishment of states and cities? Since copper could be given shape when in liquid form, this technological innovation rendered it possible to mass produce tools and weapons using identical clay moulds. The long-distance trade required for the procurement of copper and its alloys, as the metal was not available locally, would have needed a sophisticated level of political and elite organization. A cluster of craft workshops also came to be established in cities and nearby towns. Thus, a connection between the development of metal technology, long-distance exchange of goods and the coming up of state hierarchies responsible for production and transportation can definitely be established. Naturally, with the collapse of the state structures, the technological advancements achieved during the bronze age declined as well. 2.3.5 Conclusion Thus, the transition from stone to metal objects is one of the major technological changes in the history of humankind. Although a lot of major studies focus on the new materials and technologies, what more needs to be done is to study the late lithic industries in order to make sense and understand the significance of the shift from stone to metal. IN-TEXT QUESTIONS-2 A. Fill in the blanks 1. According to Marx’s “ideas of progress” hypothesis, later-developing forms of technology are as a rule …………………. to the previous ones. 2. ………………… denotes a series of complex operations, from finding and extracting the metal ore to smelting and processing it with the help of heat and specialized tools. 3. Copper artifacts were in use as early as the 7th millennium BCE at the site of ………… in Turkey. 4. …………… process was used for copper extraction. 5. The intensity of commercial exchanges considerably ………… during the Bronze Age. B. Short Notes : (i) Define Technology. (ii) Discuss the smelting process. C. Long Questions : What impact did metal technology have on contemporary societies? 21 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) 2.4 LET US SUM UP The bronze age was a period characterized by the predominant use of bronze in the production of functional parts of major categories of cutting and piercing implements which turned out to be fundamental for the development of early technology. Interestingly, the bronze age coincided with all factors associated with civilizations, i.e., the foundation of first cities, the invention of writing, the beginnings and development of science, the establishment of organized political authority, and the beginning of long-distance trade and resultant cultural exchange, discussed in detail in the previous lesson. The Bronze Age civilizations around the world offer both written records and the material remains of those societies. As a metal, bronze was tough and malleable and therefore provided strong tools with a range of tool types and sharp cutting edges. For the invention and development of metal technology a new set of skills became necessary and the knowledge of these skills was passed on from one region to the other by specialists. The rise of metallurgical activities also led to the rise and development of trade routes. Alongside a class of specialists, the new artefacts also introduced new scales of value and unique ways to demonstrate divisions within the society. 2.5 ANSWERS TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Answers to In-Text Questions-1 A. 1. False 2. True 3. False 4. False 5. True B. See section 1.2.1 C. See section 1.2.3 Answers to In-Text Questions-2 A. 1. Superior 2. Metallurgy 3. Çatalhöyük 22 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies 4. Smelting 5. Increased B. (i) See section 1.3.2 (ii) See section 1.3.3 C. See section 1.3.4 2.6 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Childe, G. (1930). The Bronze Age. Cambridge: University Press. Ratnagar, S. (2011). Approaches to the Study of Ancient Technology. Essays in Indian Historiography, ed. by S Bhattacharya. Delhi: ICHR and Primus Books. Manclossi, F, Rosen, S and Boeda, E. (2019). From Stone to Metal: the Dynamics of Technological Change in the Decline of Chipped Stone Tool Production. A Case Study from the Southern Levant (5th– 1st Millennia BCE), Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, December 2019, DOI: 10.1007/s10816-019-09412-2. Pare, C. F. E. (2000). Metals Make the World Go Round: The Supply and Circulation of Metals in Bronze Age Europe. Oxford: Oxford Books. Ratnagar, S. (2001). The Bronze Age: Unique Instance of a Pre‐Industrial World System?,Current Anthropology, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 351-379 http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/320473PaPre,. 23 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) UNIT II BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATIONS: INDIA AND CHINA STRUCTURE 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Indus Valley Civilization 2.2.1 Harappan Cities 2.2.2 Harappan Artefacts 2.2.3 Trade and Exchange 2.2.4 Religion 2.3 The Chinese Civilization 2.3.1 City Planning 2.3.2 The Erlitou Economy 2.3.3 Bronze Production 2.4 Let us Sum up 2.5 Answer To In-Text Questions 2.6 References and Suggested Readings 2.0 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit you should be able to: understand the idea of civilization understand the evolution of complex societies associated with the Bronze Age Civilizations in India and China delve into factors leading to the use of metallurgy 24 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies 2.1 INTRODUCTION The Bronze Age began almost simultaneously across the three continents of Asia, Africa and Europe around 3300 BCE, when different cultures learned that mixing copper with tin led to much better tensile strength as compared to their usein isolation. While iron is generally abundant, its smelting was not possible until much later. The Bronze Age preceded the Iron Age simply because the smelting of tin and copper was relatively easier than that of iron: tin melts at 232°C, copper at 1085°C, while iron requires a high temperature of 1250°C. Western Asia and Near East are commonly held to have entered the Bronze Age first. Different cultures either learned it at around the same time or the knowledge spread from one region to another. In India and China, the Bronze Age began at nearly the same time. While in China the early Bronze Age is synonymous with Shang Dynasty, in India the Bronze Age is almost coterminous with the Indus Valley civilization, though not confined to it. Long-distance travel became imperative to obtain raw material and it was even encouraged to some degree because of the high stakes attached with the production of metal tools and implements. This resulted in the widening of trade and exchange networks among the Chalcolithic or the Copper Age cultures. Moreover, the knowledge of metal technology did not lead to the total abandonment of stone tools and weapons, as parallel-sided blades, or other microlithic tools continued to be employed as essential items of use. The major benefit of using copper and bronze was that improved technology and skills gave a further boost to craft specialization, particularly in areas replete with raw materials and a group of people ready to learn and improve upon the metal technology. The production and use of metals also introduced socio- economic complexities into contemporary structure as the ones producing artefacts were different from those in authority. The distinction between culture and civilization has already been discussed in the previous unit. In archaeological parlance, culture signifies the life-pattern of a particular society, and so there can be multiple cultures existing simultaneously. Life-pattern here is inclusive of the social relations, language, habitual environment and rituals performed by a society. Cultures were generally named after the tool types used by the human groups. Since the earliest tools were made using stone as the chief material, different cultures were characterized by differences in the size of the tools, i.e., from the larger and older tools of the palaeolithic cultures, to the smaller ones produced during the Mesolithic, and ultimately, the sharpened and polished stone tools of the Neolithic cultures. In addition to the tool typology, cultures were also labelled based on the types of pottery or characteristic settlements. Pottery-types generally help in identifying the people who produced these wares. We also describe cultures using labels like hunter-gatherers, cattle keepers and farming communities. These labels are more descriptive than the previous ones, and give us a glimpse of the socio-economic organisation of the times. Furthermore, cultural similarities do not always indicate evolution 25 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) from the same group. Artefacts and lifestyles can sometimes take similar forms, even when the ones producing them belong to different cultural groups. And in case of evidence favouring connections, a demarcation needs to be maintained between similarities and imitations. On the other hand, Civilization refers to a more complex and sophisticated pattern of life, characterized by urban living, the development of writing, aesthetic advancements and religious beliefs and practices. These urban societies display signs of deeper stratifications and unequal distribution of resources, with a lot of authority accumulated in the institution of the State. A civilization usually covers a wide geographical region, displaying a similarity of artefacts as a result of interdependence of people affected by it in various ways. The key feature that is almost synonymous with the Chalcolithic is the emergence of the city. Urbanization refers to the new complexity in social life which arose with the growth of agriculture. Irfan Habib identifies two critical inventions pertaining to this: (1) additions to the inventory of crops cultivated, making it possible to obtain both food and 'industrial' crops; and (2) the use of castration (the first step in bio-engineering), which enabled oxen to be yoked to the plough and to the cart, thereby helping to till a much larger area with the same amount of manual labour and to transport by cart the surplus grain to the towns. With these developments and the discovery of Bronze, it became possible for cities to emerge under the supervision of a state. Hence, this period is also referred to as the first urbanization in India. 2.2 THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION The earliest excavations related to the Indus Valley Civilization were conducted at Harappa (Punjab) and Mohenjodaro (Sind). These excavations have yielded evidence of the most extensive and important urban complexes found anywhere in the Indian subcontinent. It was the most widespread ancient river valley civilization, extending from Shortughai (northern Afghanistan) in the north to Oman in the Arabian peninsula, and incorporating the north- western mountains to as far east as the Upper Doab region. Some other large and small sites have been excavated later, like Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi andMitathal in Haryana, KotDiji in Sind, and the port cities of Dholavira, Lothal and Surkotada in Gujarat. While a few others like Ganweriwala (southern Punjab, Pakistan) still await excavation. Most of the Harappan cities are large in size, approximating a hundred hectares, with the smaller towns close to fifty hectares. The largest among them is Mohenjodaro, with a total area of two hundred hectares. The Harappan civilization is generally divided into three phases: the pre-Harappan phase (from the late fourth millennium BCE to 2600 BCE); the Mature Harappan phase (from c. 2600-1900 BCE) and the Late Harappan phase (extending upto 1750 BCE). The pre- Harappan phase is often referred to as the Early Harappan, to suggest a continuity of sorts into the Mature phase. A cluster of sites in the Bolan region, including Mehrgarh, Nowshehra 26 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies and Pirak, depict cultural continuity from the early to the mature phase, also furnishing evidence on the decline of the civilization. 2.2.1 Harappan Cities The large Harappan cities were sustained from the surplus produced in the countryside, alongside other resources collected from neighbouring regions. This became possible in the first place because of interaction between these cultures in obtaining raw materials, making artefacts out of them and then trading them off in an organized manner. Harappan cities functioned as centres for specialized craft production, which were then traded both within and outside the civilization. This required considerable skill and organization of dedicated craftsmen. The Harappan cities also display a sophisticated level of town planning and civic organization. The city was generally divided into a smaller citadel area, situated in the west, where institutions of power and civic life were located, alongwith places used for rituals, public gatherings; and a larger residential area to the east, which contained houses, streets, etc. This division or arrangement is unique to the Harappan set-up, and was discontinued in the later historical periods. The one thing which remained common between the Harappan urbanization and later ones was the tendency to concentrate professional groups in particular locations. Thus, the Harappan cities appear to maintain an organized urban order, to effectively enhance the economy managing land, water and labour. For the structures of the citadel, large man-made brick platforms were used to prepare the foundation, in order to protect them from floods and other damages as mostly the cities were located on the river banks. The Harappan cities followed a grid-pattern, with roads oriented to the cardinal directions, and cutting each other at right angles. This well planned layout assisted civic facilities like the drainage system, with house drains linked to the main one on the street. Houses generally had a courtyard, with rooms opening on to it. Individual wells, bathing spaces and drains have been found in most Harappan houses. Drains were constructed using kiln-fired brick, while the houses were made of mud-bricks. In some regions like Dholavira, stone was used more extensively for making these structures. As compared to the bricks, the quarrying, dressing and transportation of stone was much more labour-intensive and would therefore have required a lot of planning and management. This renders the city-plan of Dholavira unique. Here, much elaborate arrangements could be seen for the storage of water, rather than food. And these large water reservoirs were located within the fortification walls of the city. Thus, the construction of Harappan cities included knowledge of geometry and survey. 2.2.2 Harappan Artefacts Harappan style goods and artefacts have been discovered over an extensive area. But this does not necessarily imply cultural uniformity over the entire region. A lot of variations have 27 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) been discovered indicating that local cultures functioned underlining the Harappan system. This interaction between a well-established civilization and local cultures is one of the unique aspects of the subcontinent. To achieve a certain degree of craft specialization, the Harappans collected raw and processed materials from a number of nearby sites and locations. So, while copper was mined in Baluchistan and Rajasthan; semi-precious stones were collected from western India; lapis lazuli from the Pamirs or the Chagai Hills (Baluchistan)was made into beads, with some even traded as raw material in exchange for something else. The region of Gujarat mainly fulfilled the requirement of timber, such as teak; while shell, used to make ornaments, came from the coast. Bead-making was an extensive and thriving industry during the Harappan times, with a range of items like, gold, shell, steatite, copper and semi-precious stones, ivory and faience used to make beads. The workshops for bead-making and other craft activities were located in the cities and the etched carnelian bead is one of the characteristic features of Harappan civilization. The discovery of large quantities of unfinished items from a particular location acts as the identifying factor for these workshops. The Harappans produced and used a distinctive ware, with designs of birds, plants and abstract geometric forms, painted in black colour on a red surface. Special care was taken to produce graded weights with chert being used as the chief material, as well as measuring rods. The presence of these again establishes evidence of Harappan links of exchange with distant lands. A dockyard has been found in the port city of Lothal in Gujarat. There is also what has been identified as a warehouse in the vicinity, which has been described by scholars as a hub of exchange and the zone where products from the several craft workshops were collected, stored and then transported further. The profits coming in from such thriving exchange must have played a huge part in keeping the cities economically viable. Seals are one of the most puzzling remains of the Harappan culture. These are generally small and flat, square shaped or rectangular, made of steatite, and contain a pictorial motif depicting humans or animals or a combination of the two. The seals sometimes bear inscriptions too, but these remain undeciphered till date. The Harappan script is generally described as pictographic or logographic, which could point towards the use of more than one languages. The possible list of languages include Indo-Sumerian, Proto-Dravidian, Indo- Aryan and Austro-Asiatic. However, it has not been possible to establish links with any one of them yet. Nonetheless, the fact that Harappan signs developed indigenously and are a lineal ancestor to subsequent cultures remains undisputed. 2.2.3 Trade and Exchange As entrepreneurs in trade, the Harappans were in constant search of valuable raw materials. This resulted in intense activity in present-day Gujarat and norther Maharashtra. Lapis lazuli from Pamirs and Chagai Hills of Baluchistan in Pakistan was in demand in Mesopotamia. The Harappans were also attracted towards the copper deposits in Oman in Arabia, as copper was in demand further west. We do find ample evidence on Harappan trade with 28 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies Mesopotamia in the form of Harappan beads, weights and seals at Mesopotamian sites, and also Harappan objects as far as sites in the Persian Gulf. The Mesopotamian texts also contain references to the land of Meluhha (which is identified as the Indus valley) and its people, alongside a list of exchange items like carnelian, lapis lazuli, ivory, wood and gold, all things familiar to this region. India has also been involved in exchange with the Persian Gulf by means of coastal shipping from western India to the Tigris-Euphrates delta. Passes in the north-west mountains, particularly the Bolan valley, enabled the Harappans to maintain trading links with Iran and Afghanistan. The Harappan cities were situated close to the availability of resources and means of transportation by river or sea. Within India, the Sothi-Siswal cultures in Rajasthan and Haryana flourished simultaneously with the Harappan civilization. 2.2.4 Religion One major difference between the Harappan and other ancient river valley civilizations was the absence of any religious buildings and evidence of elaborate burials. We do not come across any magnificent icons or elaborately adorned structures. Therefore, there were no temples to play the usual role of social bonding amongst the population. People did not practice the tradition of ancestral rituals as well, for they tended to migrate away from the cities as decline set in. The female figurines found at Harappan sites are connected to the prevalence of goddess worship. This conclusion is reached based on the continuity witnessed in the worship of various goddesses throughout Indian history. The Harappans also laid some emphasis on fertility rituals, but how elaborate these ceremonies tended to be remains uncertain till date. Fertility rituals were also visible in contemporary Chalcolithic cultures within the Indian subcontinent, and therefore the probability of the Harappans practicing the same increases manifold. The evidence of small, oval-shaped structures containing traces of ash and burnt grains has been identified as fire altars by scholars. However, they could be hearths as well. Some even suggest the presence of shamanistic religion, but this does not fit in well with the urban character of the Harappan civilization. Another major difference is the simplicity of the burials excavated in Harappan cities as compared to the much elaborate tombs of rulers further west. In case of the former, grave goods generally consist of pottery of daily use, with a few other small items. Clearly, unlike their contemporaries, the Harappans did not consider burials as occasions to demonstrate status. Some post-Harappan burials belonging to the late second millennium BC have also been found in Harappa and the Punjab plains. Labelled as Cemetery H culture, these burials were accompanied by pottery which was different from the Harappan wares. Thus, the burial ritual displays a continuity, even with the emergence of new traits in the culture of the region. 29 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) IN-TEXT QUESTIONS-1 A. State True or False: 1. In India, the Bronze Age is identified with the Indus Valley Civilization. 2. The Indus Valley Civlization has yielded evidence of a rural society. 3. The largest excavated site is Mohenjodaro, with a total area approximating 200 hectares. 4. A dockyard had been excavated in the Harappan city of Kalibangan in Rajasthan. 5. Mesopotamian texts refer to the Indus Valley and its people as the land of Meluhha. B. Short question: Prepare a list of the Harappan goods and artefacts. C. Long question: Discuss the distinctive features of the Indus Valley Civilization, with a special focus on town planning. 2.3 BRONZE AGE CHINA The Bronze Age in China began at Erlitou in the central valley of the Yellow River, to the southeast of modern Luoyang City in Henan Province, near where the Luo River meets the Yellow River. This is downstream from the “Three Gates Gorges,” where the Yellow River makes a dramatic bend from a north–south orientation to run west–east. From there, the river and all the people traveling along or near it have easy access to the vast Central Plains (Zhongyuan), the heartland of Chinese civilization. The Erlitou Culture inherited, extended, and built upon the cultures of the late Longshan era, such as Taosi and Dawenkou. It seems to have evolved most directly from the Taosi Culture, and the people who elevated Erlitou from a town to a metropolis likely migrated to the area from the north. The city at Erlitou represented the center of a cultural base that influenced a broad area of the middle Yellow River Valley, with links to more distant areas. Beginning with the Chinese peoples’ earliest attempts in the mid- to late first millennium BCE to record their own history, and continuing throughout the imperial period, the Bronze Age was known as the era of “The Three Dynasties” (sandai), a term derived from tales of 30 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies mythic dynastic founders with sage-like and even magical powers. These Three Dynasties are individually known by the names Xia, Shang, and Zhou. Previous to the twentieth century CE, the only dynasty with known archaeological evidence was the Zhou. But after the discovery of inscribed oracle bones and a massive urban and mortuary site, known as “the Ruins of Yin” (Yinxu), near present-day Anyang, the Shang is now fully attested as a historical reality. Both the Shang and Zhou have traceable patriarchal royal lineages and hence qualify, albeit roughly, as “dynasties,”—although many questions remain, such as about the exact genealogy of the early Shang kings and how long the reigns of each of them might have been. 2.3.1 City Planning Archaeologists divide the Erlitou era into four phases. At the end of the third millennium BCE Erlitou was a town nestled into the valley of the Yi River, a tributary of the Luo River. The town evidently was located so as to take advantage of the easily defended terrain of a fertile valley. In the second and third Erlitou phases the town grew into a city that, at its height, around 1800 BCE, measured approximately 1.3 × 1.5 miles (1.9 × 2.4 kilometers) in area and supported a population of up to 30,000 residents. The city contained a number of large buildings built on pounded-earth platforms; some of these buildings were palaces inhabited by the city’s rulers, while others may have been used for the performance of rituals. The city was surrounded by a defensive wall, two meters thick, which is rather small compared with the massive defenses of cities of the late Longshan era. The reason for that remains unclear. It may be that the city’s rulers felt secure within the natural defenses provided by the city’s location. Possibly the city commanded such a large hinterland that its rulers felt no threat from neighbouring people. Unlike earlier cities, Erlitou was laid out as a square, with important streets intersecting at right angles, a pattern seen in the design of later capital cities throughout Chinese history. Within the city walls were a number of neighbourhoods devoted to the production of artisanal goods, including jade, ceramics, and bronze; these workshops apparently operated under the sponsorship and control of the city’s rulers. The strong evidence of deliberate urban planning, with the prominent presence of platforms for palaces and ritual structures, represents a clear shift from the less regularized layout of pre-Bronze Age cities and seems to mark Erlitou as the capital of a substantial state. 2.3.2 The Erlitou Economy The basis of Erlitou’s economy was agriculture. Farmers in the extensive hinterland of the city of Erlitou grew staple grains such as wheat, various types of millet, and rice (in southerly areas), as well as vegetable crops, and raised domestic animals such as chickens, pigs, and silkworms. Their farming methods were inherited from the mixed cultures of their Neolithic ancestors, but perhaps with greater reliance on irrigation and flood control works, as erosion and silting would have posed constant problems for these early farmers. A fairly extensive 31 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) and well-organized bureaucratic apparatus must have existed to force these farmers to turn over a portion of their crops to support the administrative, military, ritual, artisanal, and other functions of the urban political center. We can safely infer that the urban elites, comprising one or more ruling lineages, exerted control over wealth production and craft specialization, just as such control was a key to the political and economic success of the later Shang and Zhou societies. Trade clearly made an important contribution to the wealth of Erlitou Culture. Salt, copper, jade, cowries, turquoise, kaolin clay, precious stones, timber, animals, foods, and fine crafted goods were imported into Erlitou both from nearby towns, which may have been directly or indirectly under the control of Erlitou itself, and over long distances, from the old Taosi economic zone in the north, to the Middle Yangzi River Valley in the south. Near Erlitou, the mountains provided metal, salt, and game, as well as agricultural products. The river valleys provided easy communication channels with more distant towns and their hinterlands, leading to the development of stable long-distance networks of trade. The infrastructure required to mine, transport, and process metals and other precious minerals from far distances for the bronze, jade, and other craft industries required secure relations with sources in the north and south. Imports to Erlitou would have included both raw materials and finished products; exports would have featured high-quality processed goods, especially bronzes. The discovery by archaeologists of Erlitou-style bronzes in the Wei River Valley, the Yangzi River Valley, and elsewhere in the Heartland Region suggests both long-distance trade and some measure of dominance over the natural resources essential to the Erlitou way of life and large-scale bronze production. 2.3.3 Bronze Production The primary trait that separates the Xia culture from its Longshan Period Taosi cultural base is the development of a system to produce cast bronze vessels and other bronze products. The large-scale production of bronze goods was fostered and supervised by an administrative structure that could control resources, transportation, working populations, and a staff of craftsmen. In contrast to the opportunistic working of native metallic copper, bronze production requires significant technical expertise in several areas. First is mining, including the identification of ores of copper, tin, and lead and the harvesting of those ores from the earth. Pyrotechnical expertise was needed to achieve sufficiently high temperatures, probably using charcoal rather than wood, for smelting the ores to extract their metal content. Alloying the metals in different proportions (spearheads and ritual ale vessels had different requirements of hardness and malleability, calling for different alloy recipes) also required control of high-temperature procedures. Additional expertise was required to make ceramic moulds, pour the molten bronze into the moulds, and provide the finishing touches to the castings. Administrative skill was needed to train, feed, and house these workers, and to supervise their work. In order to maintain a high level of production, it would be necessary to secure steady supplies of ores or 32 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Ancient Societies refined metals, whether by territorial control or trade, and that, too, drew on the administrative and financial skills of government personnel. Once these technical details had been worked out, the craftsmen of Erlitou were able to produce larger and more ornate bronze vessels, as well as bronze weapons, more quickly and in greater quantity than ever before. Large-scale bronze production also assumed a large elite market for these ritual objects, both in this world and in the hereafter; indeed, the majority of known Erlitou-era bronzes have been found buried in tombs over a large and varied region in the middle Yellow River Valley. IN-TEXT QUESTIONS-2 A. Fill in the blanks: 1. The Bronze Age in China began at ………………. in central valley of the Yellow River. 2. The …………… was known as the era of “The Three Dynasties”. 3. Erlitou was laid out as a square, with important streets intersecting at ………… angles. 4. The basis of Erlitou’s economy was ………………. 5. …………….. was neede to achieve sufficiently high temperatures for smelting the ores to extract their metal content. B. Short Notes: (i) The region where Bronze Age Chinese Civilization emerged. (ii) City planning in Bronze Age China. C. Long Question: Describe in detail the basis of the Erlitou Economy. 2.4 LET US SUM UP The Bronze Age began almost simultaneously across the three continents of Asia, Africa and Europe around 3300 BCE, when different cultures learned that mixing copper with tin led to much better tensile strength as compared to their use in isolation. While in China the early Bronze Age is synonymous with Shang Dynasty, in India the Bronze Age is almost coterminous with the Indus Valley civilization. 33 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) The earliest excavations related to the Indus Valley Civilization were conducted at Harappa (Punjab) and Mohenjodaro (Sind). These excavations have yielded evidence of the most extensive and important urban complexes found anywhere in the Indian subcontinent. The Harappan cities also display a sophisticated level of town planning and civic organization. The Bronze Age in China began at Erlitou in the central valley of the Yellow River, to the southeast of modern Luoyang City in Henan Province, near where the Luo River meets the Yellow River. Erlitou was laid out as a square, with important streets intersecting at right angles, a pattern seen in the design of later capital cities throughout Chinese history. The basis of Erlitou’s economy was agriculture. Farmers in the extensive hinterland of the city of Erlitou grew staple grains such as wheat, various types of millet, and rice (in southerly areas), as well as vegetable crops, and raised domestic animals such as chickens, pigs, and silkworms. 2.5 ANSWER TO IN-TEXT QUESTIONS Answers to In-Text Questions-1 A. 1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True B. See section 1.2.2 C. See section 1.2.1 Answers to In-Text Questions-2 A. 1. Erlitou 2. Bronze Age 3. Right 4. Agriculture 5. Pyrotechnical Expertise B. (i) See section 1.3 (ii) See section 1.3.1 C. See section 1.3.2 34 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Ancient Societies 2.6 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Allchin, B., and R. Allchin. (1997). Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia. New Delhi: Viking, pp. 113-222. Chakrabarti, D.K. (1999). India: An Archaeological History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 151-261. Ratnagar, Shereen. (2001). Understanding Harappa: Civilization in the Greater Indus Valley. Delhi: Tulika. Ratnagar, Shereen. Approaches to the Study of Ancient Technology. Ratnagar, Shereen. (2007). Makers and Shapers: Early Indian Technology in the Homes, Village and Urban Workshop. Delhi. Singh, Upinder. (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Delhi: Pearson Longman. Chang, K. C. (1987). Shang Civilization. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. Feng, Li. (2013). Early China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Keightly, D. N. (1999). “The Shang China’s First Historical Dynasty” in Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessey (ed.). The Cambridge History of Ancient China. From the origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Thorp, R. L. (2006). China in the Early Bronze Age: Shang Civilization. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press. 35 | P a g e © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  B.A.(Programme) UNIT III BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATIONS-MESOPOTAMIA (SUMERIAN AND AKKADIAN PERIOD) / EGYPT (OLD KINGDOM) ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT, KINGSHIP AND STATE, SOCIAL PATTERN AND ECONOMY. ART, RELIGION AND CULTURE STRUCTURE 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Civilization and Urbanization 3.3 Mesopotamia (Sumerian and Akkadian period): 3.3.1 Geography 3.3.2 North and South Mesopotamia 3.3.3 Al-Ubaid Culture 3.3.4 Uruk Culture 3.3.5 Jamdat Nasr Culture 3.4 Civilization in Mesopotamia 3.4.1 Urbanization 3.4.2 Metallurgy 3.4.3 State organization 3.4.4 Writing 3.4.5 Social Stratification 3.4.6 Temple and