9.3.pdf

www.tntextbooks.in UNIT Early Tamil Society and Culture 3 Learning Objectives The...

www.tntextbooks.in UNIT Early Tamil Society and Culture 3 Learning Objectives The objectives of this lesson are to familiarize yourself with „„Tamil literary, archaeological, epigraphic and non-Tamil text sources for the study of the early Tamil society „„Thinai-based life in the society „„Literature, polity, society, economy and urbanization during the period Introduction The Classical Sangam Tamil Literature Tamil civilization, as we have seen, begins The Classical Sangam corpus (collection) atleast three centuries before the Common Era consists of the Tholkappiyam, the Pathinen (AD (CE)). As seafaring people, Tamil traders Melkanakku (18 Major works) and the and sailors established commercial and cultural Pathinen Kilkanakku (18 minor works) and links across the seas and merchants from foreign the five epics. territories also visited the Tamil region. The resulting cultural and mercantile activities and Tholkappiyam internal developments led to urbanization in Tholkappiyam, attributed to Tholkappiyar, this region. Towns and ports emerged. Coins is the earliest written work on Tamil grammar. and currency came into circulation. Written Apart from elaborating the rules of grammar, documents were produced. The Tamil-Brahmi the third section of Tholkappiyam also script was adopted to write the Tamil language. describes poetic conventions that provide Classical Tamil poems were composed. information on Tamil social life. The texts of Pathinen Melkanakku include  Sources for the study 3.1 of early Tamil society Pathupaattu (ten Idylls) and Ettuthogai (the eight anthologies). These texts are the oldest among The sources for reconstructing the the classical Tamil texts. The texts of Pathinen history of the ancient Tamils are: Kilkanakku belong to a later date. 1. Classical Tamil literature The Ettuthogai or the eight anthologies are 2. Epigraphy (inscriptions) (1) Nattrinai (2) Kurunthogai (3) Paripaadal  (4) Pathittrupathu 3. Archaeological excavations and material (5) Aingurunuru  (6) Kalithogai culture (7) Akanaanuru  (8) Puranaanuru 4. Non-Tamil and Foreign Literature 33 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 33 08-04-2022 10:34:52  www.tntextbooks.in Pathupattu or ten Idylls collection includes renounced worldly life. Mangulam, Muttupatti, ten long songs Pugalur, Arachalur and Kongarpuliyankulam (1) Thirumurugatrupadai and Jambai are some of the major sites of such (2) Porunaratrupadai caves with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. Around (3) Perumpanatruppadai Madurai many (4) Sirupanatrupadai such caves with (5) Mullaipaattu Ta m i l - B r a h m i (6) Nedunalvaadai inscriptions can (7) Maduraikanchi still be seen. Many (8) Kurinjipaattu of them are located (9) Pattinappaalai along ancient A drip-line at a rock cave with (10) Malaipadukadam trade routes. Tamil-Brahmi inscription Pathinen Kilkanakku (18 minor works) Note: You will notice that among the old The Pathinen Kilkanakku comprises inscriptions, people (both local and tourists) eighteen texts elaborating on ethics and morals. have marked their names thereby destroying The pre-eminent work among these is the some of the ancient inscriptions. Such acts of Thirukkural composed by Thiruvalluvar. In 1330 destruction of heritage property or property couplets Thirukkural considers questions of belonging to others are called vandalism. morality, statecraft and love. The Five Epics The epics or Kappiyams are long narrative poem of very high quality. They are, (1) Silappathikaaram (2) Manimekalai The Tamil-Brahmi inscription at (3) Seevaka Chinthamani Arachalur (4) Valaiyapathi (5) Kundalakesi Epigraphy Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions. Inscriptions are documents scripted on stone, copper plates, and other media such as coins, rings, etc. The development of script marks the beginning of the historical period. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions Estampage copy of the above inscription Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions have been found in more than 30 sites in Tamil Nadu mostly on cave surfaces and rock shelters. These caves were the abodes of monks, mostly Jaina monks. The natural caves were converted into residence by cutting a drip-line to keep rain water away from the cave. Inscriptions often occur below such drip-lines. The sites have smooth stone beds carved on rock surface for monks who led a simple life and lived in these shelters. Merchants and kings converted these natural A rock bed at K. Puliankulam formations as habitation for monks, who had 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 34 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 34 08-04-2022 10:34:54  www.tntextbooks.in Hero Stones Hero stones of the post-Sangam Age and the Hero stones are Pallava period occur in large numbers in pastoral memorials erected for those regions especially around the Chengam region who lost their lives in the near Thiruvannamalai district. These hero stones battles and in cattle raids. have inscriptions and the images of warriors and As cattle were considered an names of heroes. important source of wealth, Inscriptions on Pottery raiding cattle owned by adjoining tribes and clans was common practice in a pastoral Pottery vessels from the Early Historic society. During the Sangam Age, the Mullai Period have names of people engraved on them landscape followed the pastoral way of life. in Tamil-Brahmi script. Potsherds have been Tribal chieftains plundered the cattle wealth of discovered in Arikkamedu, Azhagankulam, enemies whose warriors fought to protect their Kodumanal, Keezhadi, and many other sites in cattle. Many warriors died in such battles and Tamil Nadu. Pottery inscribed with names in were remembered as martyrs. Memorial stones Tamil-Brahmi script have also been found in were erected in their honour. Sangam literature Berenike and Quseir al Qadhim in Egypt and in vividly portrays these battles and clashes, and Khor Rori in Oman indicating that early Tamils describes such hero stones as objects of worship. had trade contacts with West Asia and along Tholkappiyam describes the procedures for the Red Sea coast. People etched their names erecting hero stones. on pottery to indicate ownership. Many of the Hero stones of the Sangam Age with names are in Tamil while some are in Prakrit. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions can be found at Pulimankombai and Thathapatti in Theni district and Porpanaikottai in Pudukkottai district. Those of the Sangam Age discovered till now do not have images or sculptures. Pulimankombai Hero stone Pulimankomba is a village in the Vaigai river valley in Theni district. In 2006, rare hero A motif of a ship on pottery from Azhagankulam stone inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi script were discovered in this village. One of the inscriptions from Prakrit was the language used by the common Pulimankombai reads people in the Northern part of India during the Mauryan period. “Kudalur Akol pedu tiyan antavan kal” It means "The stone of Tiyan Antavan Archaeological Sites who was killed in a cattle raid at the village of Kudalur". Archaeological excavation refers to systematically digging a site to recover material evidence for exploring and interpreting societies of the past. Archaeological excavations at the early historic sites are the source of evidence of the activities of the Sangam Age people. Excavations at Arikkamedu, Azhagankulam, Uraiyur, Hero stone-Pulimankombai Kanchipuram, Kaveripoompattinam, Korkai, 35 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 35 08-04-2022 10:34:54  www.tntextbooks.in Va s a v a s a m u d r a m , Cameo – an ornament made in precious stone Keezhadi, Kodumanal where images are carved on the surface. in Tamil Nadu, and Intaglio – an ornament in which images are Pattanam in Kerala carved as recess, below the surface. provide the evidence we have of this period. Coins Arikkamedu, Coins as a medium of exchange were near Puducherry, is introduced for the first time in the Sangam a Sangam Age port, A ring well at Age. The coins of the Cheras, the Cholas excavated by the Arikkamedu and the Pandyas, punch-marked coins, and Archaeological Survey of Roman coins form another important source India (ASI). British archaeologist, Robert Eric of evidence from the Sangam Age. Punch- Mortimer Wheeler, French Archaeologist, J.M. marked coins have been found at Kodumanal Casal, and Indian archaeologists, A. Ghosh and and Bodinayakkanur. Roman coins are Krishna Deva, excavated this site. They found concentrated in the Coimbatore region, and are evidence of a planned town, warehouse, streets, found at Azhagankulam, Karur, and Madurai. tanks and ring wells They were used as bullion for their metal value and as ornaments. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is a Central government agency that manages archaeological sites and monuments in India. The Government of Tamil Nadu has its own department for archaeology called the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology. The Indian Treasure Trove Act (1878), the Roman Coins - Pudukkottai Antiquities and Art Treasures Act (1972), the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites Bullion means precious metal available in the and Remains Act (1958) are legislation related form of ingots. to the preservation of archaeological remains in Punch-marked coins are the earliest coins used India. in India. They are mostly made of silver and have Material Culture numerous symbols punched on them. Hence, Archaeologists they are known as punch-marked coins have found evidence of brick structures and industrial activities, as well as artefacts such as beads, bangles, cameos, intaglios, and An intaglio-Pattanam, other materials in these Kerala Punch-marked coins  sites. Tamil-Brahmi Non-Tamil Sources (Foreign inscriptions on pottery and coins have also been unearthed. Evidences of the various arts, crafts Accounts) and industries together help us reconstruct the Non-Tamil literary sources also offer way of life of the people of those times. From information on early Tamil society. The this we learn and understand how they might presence of the non-Tamil sources reveals have lived. the extensive contacts and interactions of the early Tamil society with the outside world. 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 36 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 36 08-04-2022 10:34:54  www.tntextbooks.in Arthasastra (Komaria), and Muciri (Muziris) are some of Arthasastra, the classic work on economy the places mentioned in his Geography. and statecraft authored by Kautilya during the Peutingerian table Mauryan period, refers to Pandya kavataka. It may mean the pearl and shells from the Pandyan country. Mahavamsa Mahavamsa, the Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicle, composed in the Pali language, mentions merchants and horse traders from Tamil Nadu and South India. Chronicle is a narrative text presenting the important historical events in chronological Map of Peutingerian table order. Periplus of Erythrean Sea Peutingerian table is an illustrated map Periplus of Erythrean Sea is an ancient of the Roman roads. It shows the areas of Greek text whose author is not known. The ancient Tamilagam and the port of Muziris. term Periplus means navigational guide used Note: Taprobane refers to Sri Lanka as by sailors. Erythrean Sea refers to the waters Island. Muziris refers to the port of Muchiri. around the Red Sea. It makes references to the Vienna Papyrus Sangam Age ports of Muciri, Thondi, Korkai and Kumari, as well as the Cheras and the Vienna papyrus, a Greek document datable Pandyas. to the second century AD (CE), mentions Muciri’s trade of olden days. It is in the Papyrus Pliny’s Natural History Museum attached to the Austrian National Pliny the Elder, was a Roman who wrote Library, Vienna (Austria). It contains a written Natural History. Written in Latin, it is a text agreement between traders and mentions the on the natural wealth of the Roman Empire. name of a ship, Hermapollon, and lists articles Pliny speaks about the pepper trade with of export such as pepper and ivory that were India. He states that it took 40 days to reach shipped from India to the Roman Empire. India, from Ocealis near North East Africa, if the south west monsoon wind was favourable. Papyrus, a paper produced out of the papyrus He also mentions that the Pandyas of plant used extensively for writing purposes in Madurai controlled the port of Bacare on the ancient Egypt. Kerala coast. The current name of Bacare is not known. Pliny laments the loss of Roman 3.2 The Sangam Age wealth due to Rome’s pepper trade with India indication of the huge volume useful of the The Sangam Age or the Early Historic pepper that was traded. period is an important phase in the history of South India. This period is marked out from Ptolemy’s Geography prehistory, because of the availability of textual Ptolemy’s Geography is a gazetteer and atlas sources, namely Sangam literature and Tamil- of Roman times providing geographical details Brahmi inscriptions. Sangam text is a vast of the Roman Empire in the second century corpus of literature that serves as an important AD (CE). Kaveripoompattinam (Khaberis source for the study of the people and society of Emporium), Korkai (Kolkoi), Kanniyakumari the relevant period. 37 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 37 08-04-2022 10:34:55  www.tntextbooks.in Chronology „„Mullai is forested and pastoral region. There is considerable debate among „„Marutham is the fertile riverine valley. scholars about the age and chronology of „„Neythal is coastal region. Sangam society. The Sangam texts are generally „„Paalai is sandy desert region. dated to between third century BC (BC (BCE)) and the third century AD (CE). The references in  Sangam Age Polity: Greco-Roman texts, Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions and the references to the Cheras, Cholas 3.3 Political Powers of and the Pandyas in the Ashokan inscription Tamilagam corroborate this date. It is generally agreed that The Sangam Age has its roots in the Iron Age. the Sangam poems were composed in the early In the Iron Age people were organised into part of the historical period, but were compiled chiefdoms. From such communities of Iron into anthologies in the later period. Age emerged the Vendhars of the early historic Ashokan Brahmi - the Brahmi script used in period and the Velirs of the Sangam Age were Ashokan edicts or inscriptions. chieftains. The Mauryan emperor, Asoka, conquered The Thinai Kalinga (Odisha) and parts of Andhra and The concept of Thinai is presented in the Karnataka regions. Tamil Grammar work of Tholkappiyam and this The Muvendhar concept is essential to understand the classical Tamil poems. Thinai is a poetic theme, which Among the political powers of the Sangam means a class or category and refers to a habitat Age, the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas or eco-zone with specific physiographical occupied pre-eminent positions. They were characteristics. Sangam poems are set in these known as Muvendhar (the three kings). The specific eco-zones and reveal that human life muvendhar controlled the major towns and has deep relationships with nature. ports of the Sangam period. The themes of the poems are broadly The Cheras defined as akam (interior) and puram (exterior). The Cheras, referred to as Keralaputras in Akathinai refers to various situations of love the Ashokan inscriptions, controlled the region of and family life, while Purathinai is concerned present-day Kerala and also the western parts of with all others aspects of life and deals Tamil Nadu. Vanci was the capital of the Cheras particularly with war and heroism. while Muciri and Thondi were their port towns. Ainthinai: The Five Thinais or landscapes. Vanci is identified with Karur in Tamil Nadu while some others identify it with Thiruvanchaikkalam Tamilagam was divided into five in Kerala. Pathirtruppathu speaks about the landscapes. Each region had distinct Chera kings and their territory. The Cheras wore characteristics – a presiding deity, occupation, people and cultural life according to its specific environmental conditions. This classification has been interpreted by scholars to reflect real life situations in these landscapes. The five landscapes are Kurunji, Mullai, Marutham, Neythal and Paalai. „„Kurunji refers to the hilly and mountainous A Chera coin with bow and arrow, and an elephant region. goad on the obverse and elephant on the reverse 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 38 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 38 08-04-2022 10:34:55  www.tntextbooks.in Not to Scale A map of major Sangam Age sites garlands made from the flowers of the palm tree. was Kaveripoompattinam or Pumpuhar, The inscriptions of Pugalur near Karur mention where the river Kaveri drains into the Bay the Chera kings of three generations. Coins of of Bengal. Pattinappaalai is a long poem Chera kings have been found in Karur. about Kaveripoompattinam composed by The Silappathikaram speaks about Cheran the poet Kadiyalur Uruthirankannanar. Senguttuvan, who built a temple for Kannagi, Silappathikaram describes the trading activities at the protagonist of the epic. Legend has it that Kaveripoompattinam. Karikalan is notable among Ilango who composed the Silappathikaram, was the Chola kings and is credited with bringing the brother of Cheran Senguttuvan. The bow forestlands under the plough and developing and arrow was the symbol of the Cheras. irrigation facilities by effectively utilising the water from the river Kaveri. The Cholas The foundation for the extensive harnessing The Cholas ruled of water for irrigation purposes, which reached over the Kaveri delta and its zenith in later Chola times (10th to 13th northern parts of Tamil centuries) was laid in his time. Karikalan fought Nadu. Their capital was battles with the Pandyas, the Cheras and other Uraiyur and their port town 39 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 39 08-04-2022 10:34:55  www.tntextbooks.in chieftains. The Chola emblem was tiger and they their large-heartedness. These chieftains had issued square copper coins with images of a tiger alliance with one or other of the muvendhar on the obverse, elephant and the sacred symbols and helped them in their battles against the on the reverse. other Vendhars. 3.4 Society in Sangam Age Many of the communities of the Iron Age society were organised as tribes, and some of them were Chiefdoms. The Sangam Age society was a society in transition from a tribal community ruled by a chief to a larger kingdom ruled by a king Chola Coins with a tiger on the obverse, elephant and the sacred symbols on the reverse Composition of the Society Social stratification had begun to take root The Pandyas in Tamil society by the Sangam times. There The Pandyas who ruled the southern part were several clan-based communities including of Tamil Nadu are referred in the Ashokan groups such as Panar, Paratavar, Eyinar, Uzhavar, inscriptions. Madurai was the Pandya’s capital. Kanavar, Vettuvar and Maravar. The Vendhars, Tamil literary tradition credits Pandyan rulers chiefs, and their associates formed the higher with patronizing Tamil Sangams (academies) social groups. There were priests who were and supporting the compilations of poems. known as Antanars. There were artisan groups The Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi inscription specialising in pottery and blacksmithy. The mentions the king Nedunchezhiyan. caste system we find in northern India did not Nediyon, Mudathirumaran, Palayagasalai take root in Tamil country as social groups Mudukudumipperuvazhuti were some of were divided in to five situational types (tamil) the important rulers of the dynasty. The and related occupational patterns. Pandyan symbol was the fish. The development of agriculture and pastoral ways of life might have harmed the eco-system and the naturally available forest and wild animals. It is possible that some of the hunter-gatherers might have been pushed to the forest areas and a few might have taken up the occupation of manual labourers. The development of agriculture in the wet-land Sangam Age Pandya coin with fish symbol region depended on the use of certain groups of people as labourers. Velirs / Chieftains Women Apart from the Vendhars, there were Women are frequently referred to in Tamil Velirs and numerous chieftains who occupied texts as mothers, heroines, and foster-mothers. territories on the margins of the muvendhar. friendly Women from Panar families, dancers, The velirs were the seven chiefs Pari, Kari, Ori, poets, and royal women were all portrayed Nalli, Pegan, Ai and Athiyaman. Sangam poems in Sangam literature. There are references to write extensively about the generosity of these women from all five eco-zones. For example, velirs. These chiefs had intimate relations with Vennikkuyathiyar is identified as a poetess from the poets of their time and were known for the village of Venni. There are references to 3. 3. Early Early Tamil Tamil Society Society and and Culture Culture 40 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 40 08-04-2022 10:34:55  www.tntextbooks.in women protecting Thinai fields from birds and Umanar kula women selling salt showing that women were involved in primary production. Instances where women preferred to die along with their husbands also occur in the literature of the times. 3.5 Economy Different types of pottery from Porunthal The economy was mixed as elaborated in excavations. the Thinai concept. People practiced agriculture, pastoralism, trade and money exchange, hunting-gathering, and fishing depending upon the eco-zones in which they lived. Agricultural Production Agriculture was one of the main sources Russet coated painted pottery with wavy line of subsistence. Crops like paddy, sugarcane, decoration millets were cultivated. Both wet and dry land farming were practiced. In the riverine and Iron Smelting Industry tank-irrigated areas, paddy was cultivated. Iron manufacturing was an important Millets were cultivated in dry lands. Varieties of artisanal activity. Iron smelting was undertaken rice such as sennel (red rice), vennel (white rice), in traditional furnaces and such furnaces, with and aivananel (a type of rice) are mentioned terracotta pipes and raw ore have been found in the literature. Rice grains were found in in many archaeological sites. For instance burial urns at excavations in Adichanallur and evidence of iron smelting has been found in Porunthal. People in the forest adopted punam Kodumanal and Guttur. Sangam literature or shifting cultivation. speaks of blacksmiths, and their tools and Pastoralism – nomadic people earning activities. Iron implements were required for livelihood by rearing cattle, sheep, and goat. agriculture and warfare (swords, daggers, and spears).  ndustries and Crafts of the I Sangam Age Craft production and craft specialization were important aspects of urbanization. In the Sangam Age there were professional groups that produced various commodities. The system of production of commodities is called industry. Pottery Pottery was practised in many settlements. People used pottery produced by Kalamceyko Iron Swords from Puducherry (potters) in their daily activities and so they were made in large numbers. Black ware, Stone Ornaments russet-coated painted ware, black and red ware Sangam Age people adorned themselves potteries were the different types of pottery with a variety of ornaments. While the poor used. wore ornaments made of clay, terracotta, iron, 41 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 41 08-04-2022 10:34:55  www.tntextbooks.in and leaves and flowers, the rich wore jewellery Pearl Fishery and Shell Bangle made of precious stones, copper, and gold. The Pamban coast is famous for pearl fishery. A pearl has been discovered in recently excavated Keezhadi site. Shell bangles were very common in the Sangam Age. The Parathavars collected conch shells from the Pamban Island, which were cut and crafted into bangles by artisans. Whole shells as well as fragments of bangles have been found at many sites. Sangam Carnelian Beads of Carnelian beads with Sangam Age etched designs of literature describes women wearing shell Sangam Age bangles. Gold pendant, Porunthal Gold ornament axe A terracotta seal with rice husk impression, Keezhadi Gold ornaments, Pattanam Gold jewellery Textiles Gold ornaments were well known in this Textile production was another important period. Gold coins from Roman was used to make occupation. Evidence of spindle whorls and jewellery. Evidence of gold smelting has been pieces of cloth have been found at Kodumanal. found at Pattanam in Kerala. Gold ornaments Literature too refers to clothes called kalingam have been unearthed at the megalithic sites of and other fine varieties of textiles. Periplus also Suttukeni, Adichanallur and Kodumanal, mentions the fine variety of textiles produced in and towns of Arikkamedu, Keezhadi and the Tamil region. Pattanam. Spindle whorls were used for making thread Glass Beads from cotton. The presence of glass beads at the sites reveals that people of the Sangam Age knew Exchange, Trade, Merchants, and how to make glass beads. Glass material Trade Routes (silica) was melted in a furnace and drawn We saw the primary production of grains, into long tubes which were then cut into small cattle wealth, and various commodities. These beads. Glass beads came in various shapes goods were not produced by everybody and were and colour. Arikkamedu and Kudikkadu, not produced in all settlements. Resources and near Cuddalore show evidence of glass beads commodities were not available in all regions. industry. It is possible that people who could For example, the hill region did not have fish or not afford precious stones used glass beads salt and the coastal regions could not produce instead. paddy. Therefore trade and exchange was 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 42 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 42 08-04-2022 10:34:56  www.tntextbooks.in important for people to have access to different commodities. This system was known as barter system. Traders The terms vanikan and nigama (guild) appear in Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. There were different types of merchants: gold A bronze tiger with carnelian merchants, cloth merchants, and salt merchants. stones, Kodumanal Salt merchants were called Umanars and they A bronze travelled in bullock carts along with their family. vessel from a megalithic Means of Transport burial Auroville, Puducherry Bullock carts and animals were used to transport goods by land. Trade routes linked the various towns of Tamilagam. Various types of water crafts and sea-going vessels such as Kalam, Pahri, Odam, Toni, Teppam, and Navai Glass beads from Porunthal excavations are also mentioned in Tamil literature. Barter and Coins Barter was the primary mode of exchange. For instance, rice was exchanged for fish. Salt was precious and a handful of it would fetch an equal amount of rice. The extensive availability of coin hoards of the Sangam Age of the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, and Malayaman Textile and spindle indicates that they were used widely. whorls from Kodumanal Tamilagam and Overseas A spindle whorl, Pattanam Interactions Tamil country had connections with countries overseas both in the east and west. Roman ships used monsoon winds to cross the Western Sea or the Arabian Sea to connect Tamilagam with the Western world. Spices including pepper, ivory, and precious stones were exported. Metal including gold, silver and copper and precious stones were imported. Yavanar referred to the Westerners, including Shell wastes of bangle craft production the Greeks, Romans and West Asian people. Yavana derives from the Greek region of discovered at Berenike, a port on the Red Sea Ionia. coast of Egypt. Tamil Nadu to Red Sea Coast At Quseir al Qadhim, another port An Indian jar with 7.5 kg of pepper, located north of Berenike on the Red Sea teak wood, a potsherd with Tamil-Brahmi Coast, three Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, inscription and Indian pottery have been Panaiori, Kanan, and Cattan, have been found on pottery discovered here. 43 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 43 08-04-2022 10:34:56  www.tntextbooks.in Akanaanuru poem 149 describes the trading at Emergence of towns 3.6 the port of Muciri as follows: “the well crafted and ports ships of the Yavana came with gold returned with pepper at the wealthy port of Muciri”. The Sangam Age saw the first urbanization in Tamilagam. Cities developed and they had brick buildings, roof tiles, ring wells and planned towns, streets, and store houses. The towns worked as ports and artisanal centres. Arikkamedu, Kaveripoompattinam, Azhagankulam and Korkai on the east coast and Pattanam in Kerala were port centres. Kanchipuram, Uraiyur, Karur, Madurai and Kodumanal were inland trade centres. Many goods and commodities were The trade route from Tamilagam to Rome. produced in these centres and were exported A stone with the name “Perumpatankal” to various regions. Though few in number, has been found at Khuan Luk Pat, Thailand. large towns appeared in the Sangam Age. Small Southeast Asia was known as Suvarna Bhumi in villages however were found in many areas. Tamil literature. This stone was used by a person Bronze vessels, beads, shell bangles, glass beads, called Perumpattan, probably a goldsmith. It pottery with names of people written in Tamil- was a touchstone used to test the purity of gold. Brahmi script were found at these sites. What is an urban centre? A planned town with brick architecture and a proper layout. Urban centres have a larger population involved in non-agrarian, commercial and political occuptations. Various industrial activities are seen in these towns. Ceramic Jars from Tamilagam with preserved pepper, Berenike, Egypt Faith and Belief 3.7 System Like the diverse nature of the society and economy, the belief system of the Sangam Age was also diverse. It consisted of animism, ancestor worship, hero worship and worship of Pottery with the name “Cattan” several deities. Tholkappiyam lists the presiding deities of Kurunji, Mullai, Marutham, Neythal and Paalai landscapes, as Murugan, Thirumal, Indiran, Varunan and Kotravai, respectively. However, people also worshipped natural forces and dead heroes, and ancestors. The force of anangu is mentioned in the Perumpatankal, Kuan literature which indicates the prevalence of Luk Pat, Thailand animistic beliefs. 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 44 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 44 08-04-2022 10:34:57  www.tntextbooks.in Jainism was present as evidenced by called Veriyatal are referred to in the literature. the caves with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. Composition of poems, playing of music Performance of Yagna is also evidenced. Buddhism instruments and dances were also known. was also present in certain centres. Different The literature mentions the fine variety of groups practiced various forms of worship. cuisine of the Sangam Age. People took care of their appearance and evidence of antimony 3.8 Fine Arts rods (kohl sticks) made of copper has been Various art forms too existed in the found in archaeological sites. They were used Sangam Age. Performances of ritual dances by women for decorating their eyebrows. Antimony rods (kohlsticks) Copper rods used for decorating eyelashes were made of bronze Pattanam, Kerala Pattanam is located near North Paravur in Vadakkekara village of Ernakulam district of Kerala. It was an ancient port town that had overseas connections with the western and eastern worlds. Pottery sherds from West Asia Cameo blanks in Carnelian Canoe excavated at Pattanam Gold ornaments from Turquoise glazed Pattanam pottery, West Asia 45 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 45 08-04-2022 10:34:59  www.tntextbooks.in Kodumanal, Tamil Nadu Kodumanal is located near Erode in Tamil Nadu and is identified with the Kodumanam of Pathitrupattu. Evidence of iron, stone bead and shell work, as well as megalithic burials have been discovered at this site. More than 300 pottery inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi have also been found. Iron objects (horse Shell bangle bragments equipment) from and a conch, Kodumanal Kodumanal Excavated Megalithic Burial at Kodumanal Carnelian beads, Kodumanal Human skeleton from Kodumanal Jar with writing in Brahmi Keezhadi near Madurai, Tamil Nadu Keezhadi is located near Silaimaan east of Madurai, on the highway to Rameswaram. In a large coconut garden, called Pallichandai Tidal, the Archaeological Survey of India and Tamilnadu state Archaeological Department excavated an ancient town dating to the Sangam Age. Archaeological excavations have produced evidence for brick buildings, drainage, Tamil-Brahmi inscription on pottery, beads of glass, carnelian and quartz, pearl, iron objects, games pieces, and antimony rods. Further excavation may shed light on the nature of the craft production and the cultural activities undertaken at this settlement.  Brick Structures at Keezhadi A brick structure, Keezhadi 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 46 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 46 08-04-2022 10:35:01  www.tntextbooks.in Furnace, Keezhadi Crystal ear ornaments, Keezhadi Various objects and ornaments from Keezhadi A brick built tank, Keezhadi Tamil-Brahmi Script used in the Sangam Age for writing the Tamil Language 47 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 47 08-04-2022 10:35:04  www.tntextbooks.in Similarities between graffiti of Keeladi and signs of Indus Keeladi English for print 13 12 2019 Curve.indd 71 12/13/2019 2:56:45 PM Keeladi Excavation on the banks of Vaigai suggests that urbanization occured in Tamil Nadu too around 6th century BC (BCE) like in the Gangetic plains. Porunai: The Cradle of Tamil Civilisation Porunai (Thamirabarani) is the only perennial river in Keeladi English for print 13 12 2019 Curve.indd 71 12/13/2019 Keeladi English 2:56:45 for print 13 12PM 2019 Curve.indd 71 12/13/2019 2:56:45 PM Tamil Nadu. It flows through Thirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts. In Porunai river basin, the first archaeological excavation was done in Adichanallur (1876) by a German explorer named Dr. Jagor. Then the British archaeologist Alexander Rea conducted excavation during 1899-1905 and displayed the artefacts he had collected in Madras Government Museum. Nearly after a century, the Archaeological Survey of India conducted excavation in 2004. Its report has been published recently. The Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology began excavations (2019 - 2021) in burial and habitation mound of Adichanallur. Korkai, an ancient port mentioned in Sangam and Greek texts. The Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology conducted here excavation in 1968. The on-going excavation (2020 – 2021) at Korkai has yielded interesting details about the Korkai Port and its overseas contacts. The samples of husk removed paddy in an urn, unearthed during the excavations conducted at Sivakalai (2019), a place situated a few kilometres away from Adichanallur by the Tamil Nadu State Archaeology Department was sent to the Miami-based Beta Analytic Laboratory, Florida, USA for determining the age. This Laboratory, after radiocarbon dating analysis has come to the conclusion that it dates back to 1155 BC (BCE). Which means Thamirabarani civilisation is nearly 3200 years old. Objects Unearthed in Adichanallur, Sivakalai and Korkai Burial urns: Buried under a rocky surface at a depth of 3 to 12 feet, these urns contained bones, utensils, gold, high tin bronze and iron objects, believed to have been used by the dead. 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 48 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 48 08-04-2022 10:35:07  www.tntextbooks.in Gold diadems Long circular gold diadems made of thin plates with small dots of triangles with holes at the extreme ends to fasten with a string. Earthenware (Black and Red) The black - and - red earthen pots of various sizes, more than 500 graffiti and Tamili (Tamil-Brahmi) script inscribed potsherds High tin bronzes Small and big high tin bronze utensils of different sizes and shapes. Ornaments Rings made of copper and iron, beads and bangles made of gold, glass, ivory, bone and shell. Water and Sewage Female Management figurines Th e r a i s e d b r i c k Female figurines structure, using sand similar to those and laterite stones, with found in Indus a big pot placed at its Excavated in Excavated in Civilisation. centre, has 29 courses of Indus Adichanallur bricks, terracotta pipes with perforations in 9 Iron courses kept one above the other is considered weapons the cutting-edge technique of that period. 32 in numb er, including lances, Shell Bangle spears, stilettos. Industry Conches in full, cut-conch shell bangles and shells providing evidence to the existence of conch industries in Korkai. Sangam poems mention about the settlements of shell bangle makers. Ceramics and Coins indicating overseas trade The presence of foreign ceramics and black polished earthenware confirm that Tamils had a trade relationship with different parts of the world even before 6th century BC (BCE). 49 3. Early Tamil Society and Culture 9th_History_Unit_3_EM.indd 49 08-04-2022 10:35:17