Emotions Theory PDF

UNIT 2 THEORIES OF EMOTIONS Structure 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Objectives 2.2 Theories of Emotions 2.2.1 James-Lange Theory of Emotion 2.2.2 Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion 2.2.3 Bem’s Explanation of Behaviour 2.2.4 Schachter-...

UNIT 2 THEORIES OF EMOTIONS Structure 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Objectives 2.2 Theories of Emotions 2.2.1 James-Lange Theory of Emotion 2.2.2 Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion 2.2.3 Bem’s Explanation of Behaviour 2.2.4 Schachter-Singer’s Two Factor Theory of Emotions 2.2.5 Schachter and Singer’s Experiment 2.2.6 Criticism of Two Factor Theory 2.2.7 Opponent-process Theory: Action and Reaction to Emotion 2.2.8 Lazarus’s Cognitive Theory 2.2.9 Arousal Theory 2.2.10Social Theories of Emotions 2.3 Let Us Sum Up 2.4 Unit End Questions 2.5 Glossary 2.6 Suggested Readings and References 2.0 INTRODUCTION This unit explains about different theories put forward to explain basically about the emotion and to explain the number of events occurring during emotions which we have discussed in the pervious unit. The experimental work by psychologists and physiologists has tried to identify the order of these events and also what changes are associated with each event. This in turn has given rise to number of different theories of emotions. As mentioned earlier, the emotion which is experienced has physiological, cognitive and subjective components. But the important point is to determine whether the physiological arousal leads to emotion experienced or the emotion experienced gives rise to physiological arousal. This point has lead to research in formulating various theories of emotion. The oldest theory was James-Lange theory, given by Lazarus. 2.1 OBJECTIVES After completing this unit, you will be able to:  Define emotions in terms of different theories;  Explain the concept of emotions according to each theory;  Put forward the various theories of emotions;  Identify and explain the typical factors that exdplain emotions under each theory; and  Elucidate the similarities and differences among the various theories nof emotions. 16  Theories of Emotions 2.2 THEORIES OF EMOTIONS Psychologists have proposed a number of theories about the origins and function of emotions. The theorists agree on one thing that emotion has a biological basis, which is evidenced by the fact that the amygdala (part of the limbic system of the brain), which plays a large role in emotion, is activated before any direct involvement of the cerebral cortex (where memory, awareness, and conscious “thinking” take place). There are the following theories which explain the complex mental and physical experiences that take place in humans called as “feelings” and these are:  James-Lange theory  Cannon-Bard theory  Schachter-Singer theory  Opponent-process theory  Lazarus’s cognitive theory  Arousal theory  Social theories of emotions. Suppose, in one of your courses, you are required to make a class presentation. As you walk towards the dais, the front of the room, your pulse races, your mouth feels dry and you can feel beads of perspiration coming on your forehead. This is just because you are terrified. What is the basis for this feeling? Sharply contrasting answers are offered by Cannon-Bard and James-Lange theories of emotion. 2.2.1 James-Lange Theory of Emotion Proposed independently by psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange, the James-Lange theory of emotion proposes that emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events. According to this theory, you see an external stimulus that leads to a physiological reaction. Your emotional reaction is dependent upon how you interpret those physical reactions. For example, suppose you are walking in the woods and you come across face to face with a bear. You begin to tremble and your heart begins to race. The James-Lange theory proposes that you will interpret your physical reactions and conclude that you are frightened (“I am trembling, therefore I am afraid.”) William James explained the same thing differently. He said that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as the facts occur and these feelings are called emotions. The James-Lange theory states: Environmental influence (event) —> Physiological change —> Psychological experience In other words, James and Lange would say, “I feel afraid because I tremble”. If a person sees a bear while walking along in the woods, James and Lange would suggest that the person would tremble and then realise that, because they are trembling, they are afraid. According to James, his theory is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact. Our feelings of the same changes as they occur and this is called the emotion. 17 Emotions Common sense says that when we lose our fortune, we are sorry and weep. We encounter a bear, are frightened and run. We are insulted by a rival and we get angry and strike that person. This order of the sequence does not seem to be correct. What is actually correct, according to James is that we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble. Without the bodily states following the perception, the latter would be purely cognitive in form, pale, colourless, and devoid of emotional warmth. We might then see the bear, and judge it best to run, receive the insult and deem it right to strike, but we should not actually feel afraid or angry. Problems: Later studies separated the internal organs that James said caused arousal from the CNS, but this did not eliminate emotional responding. So, perceptions of bodily changes could not be the only factor involved in emotions. James Lange theory offers a more surprising view of emotion. It suggests that the subjective emotional experiences are actually the result of physiological changes within our bodies. In other words you feel frightened when making your speech because you notice that your heart is racing, your mouth is dry, and so on. We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, and afraid because we tremble. Self Assessment Questions 1) Discuss the theory of emotion as put forward by James and Lange..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2) How is the theory explained in terms of physiological aspects?.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.2.2 Cannon – Bard Theory of Emotion This theory suggests that various emotion provoking events induce simultaneously the subjective experiences which are labeled by humans as emotions. All these emotions are accompanied by physiological reactions and thus in the situation given as an example of a student going to the stage to give a lecture, the sight of the audience and of his professor, whose pen is poised to evaluate the student’s performance, causes the student to experience a racing heart, a dry mouth and other signs of physiological arousal and at the same time, also to experience subjective feelings which is labeled as fear. In other words it may be stated that this situation stimulates various portions of the nervous system so that both arousal, mediated by the autonomic nervous system and subjective feelings, mediate in part by the individual’s cerebral cortex. 18 The Cannon-Bard theory is a physiological explanation of emotion developed by Walter Theories of Emotions Cannon and Philip Bard, and states that we feel the emotions and experience the physiological reactions such as sweating, trembling and muscle tension simultaneously. More specifically, it is suggested that emotions result when the thalamus sends a message to the brain in response to a stimulus, resulting in a physiological reaction. For example: I see a snake —> I am afraid —> I begin to tremble. According to the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, we react to a stimulus and experience the associated emotion at the same time. The Cannon Bard theory of emotion differs from other theories of emotion such as the James Lange theory of emotion, which argues that physiological responses occur first and this in turn cause the emotions. The questions in regard to the emotions that arise are for instance Where do our emotions come from? What is it about the human body and mind that has the capacity to form emotions and reactions to such a variety of situations? Even more important, Why do we form these emotions? According to Cannon-Bard, emotions do not come as a response to physiological conditions. However, at the same time, neither do emotions come and then the body creates a physical reaction to the said emotions. When we consider this philosophy we realise that according to Cannon-Bard “emotions and physiological responses occur at exactly the same time.” When both these theories (James Lange and Cannon Bard’s) are considered, the issue arises is that which of these theories is closer to the truth. Until recent decades, most of the psychologists believed that Cannon-Bard theory was more accurate. They reached this conclusion on the basis of several forms of evidence. More recently though the pendulum of scientific opinion has begun to swing the other way and certain aspects of James-Lange approach have gained increasing acceptance. Additional support for the James-Lange theory of emotion is provided by studies of the facial feedback hypothesis according to which changes in our facial expression sometimes produce shifts in our emotional experiences rather than merely mirroring them. In other words, as James would suggest, we feel happier while we smile, sadder when we frown, and so on. While there are many complexities in examining the hypothesis, the results of several studies offer support for accuracy. Self Assessment Questions 1) Describe Cannon Bard Theory of emotions?.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19 Emotions 2) How do emotions emerge?.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3) In what way Cannon Bard’s theory differs from that of James Lange theory?.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4) What are the common aspects in the above two theories?.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2.2.3 Bem’s Explanation for Behaviour In 1978, Thomas Gilbert published Human Competence: Engineering Worthy Performance which described the Behaviour Engineering Model (BEM) for performance analysis. This model consists of three Leisurely Theorems that: 1) Distinguished between accomplishment and behaviour to define “worthy performance”, 2) Identified methods for determining the “potential for improving performance (PIP)” 3) Described six essential components of behaviour that can be manipulated to effect performance. Determine Worthy or Desired Performance The first step to using the BEM involves identifying desired or “worthy” performance. This level of performance is characterised by behaviour (B), or what a person does, and accomplishment (A), the outcomes of the behaviour. Determine the Potential for Improving Performance (PIP) The gap between desired and current performance can be determined by comparing “the very best instance of that performance with what is typical” Exemplary performance is demonstrated when behaviours result in the best outcomes. Typical performance is the current level of performance. The potential for improving performance is the ratio between the two and can be expressed as: The PIP is the performance gap. The greater the gap, the greater the potential for typical performers to improve their performance to the exemplary level. Rather than viewing this gap as a problem, this model helps people see the potential for improvement 20 more positively (Chyung, 2002). In order to understand what changes must be made to a management system to achieve Theories of Emotions worthy performance, a performance technologist must first determine the influences on behaviour. Gilbert (1978) states that behaviour is the product of the personal characteristics of an individual (repertory) and the environment where behaviours occur. Within each of these aspects of behaviour there are conditions that can be examined for deficiencies and ultimately manipulated to improve performance. These six conditions of behaviour are data, instruments, incentives, knowledge, capacity and motives. Following the sequence of steps in the cause analysis process is most likely to uncover the variables that can be improved with the least costly intervention strategies first. Improvements to environmental conditions generally have the greatest leverage for performance improvement. Providing people with clear expectations of and feedback on performance, the right tools for the job, and appropriate rewards and recognition for performance are often the most cost effective changes that can be implemented within a management system. 2.2.4 Schachter-Singer’s Two-factor Theory of Emotions This theory is similar to Bem’s explanation for the cause of behaviour in general. Schachter’s theory looks specifically at how we decide what emotions we are experiencing especially when we are experiencing one. When trying to understand what kind of person we are, we first watch what we do and feel and then deduce our nature from this. This means that the first step in the experience of motions is to experience physiological arousal. You are physiologically up or down compared to normal. We then try to find a label to explain our feelings usually by looking at what what we are doing (behaviour) and what else is happening at the time of arousal (environment) Thus we do not just feel angry, happy or whjat ever. We experience general feeling and then decide what the experience mean, a specific emotion. Physiological arousal + Environment circumstances = Attributed emotions e.g. 1. I am tense and sweating + a gun is being pointed at me = I am afraid. e.g.2. I am tense and sweating + Sheela is looking at me and smiling = I am in love. In both the examples, the state of arousal is the same. What changes is the environment. Two factor theory argues that the cues in theenvironment are what determine the emotions that we believe we are experiencing. Change the environment the emotions will also change. Like the James Lange theory of emotion, Schachter and Singer felt that physical arousal plays a primary in emotions. However, they suggested that this arousal was the same for a wide variety of emotions, so physical arousal alone could not be responsible for emotional responses. The two-factor theory of emotion focuses on the interaction between physical arousal and how we cognitively label that arousal. So, imagine you are alone in a dark parking lot walking toward your car. A strange man suddenly emerges from a nearby row of trees and rapidly approaches. The sequence that follows, according to the two-factor theory, would be much like this: 1) I see a strange man walking toward me. 2) My heart is racing and I am trembling. 21 Emotions 3) My rapid heart rate and trembling are caused by fear. 4) I am frightened! The process begins with the stimulus (the strange man), which is followed by the physical arousal (rapid heartbeat and trembling). Added to this is the cognitive label (associating the physical reactions to fear), which is immediately followed by the conscious experience of the emotion (fear). 2.2.5 Schachter and Singer’s Experiment In a 1962 experiment, Schachter and Singer put their theory to the test. A group of 184 male participants were injected with epinephrine, a hormone that produces arousal including increased heartbeat, trembling and rapid breathing. All of the participants were told that they were being injected with a new drug to test their eyesight. However, one group of participants was informed of the symptoms the injection might cause, while other participants were not. Participants were then placed in a room with another participant who was actually a confederate in the experiment. The confederate either acted in one of two ways: euphoric or angry. Participants who had not been informed about the effects of the injection were more likely to feel either happier or angrier than those who had been informed. Schachter and Singer developed the two-factor theory of emotion. The two-factor theory suggests that emotion comes from a combination of a state of arousal and a cognition that makes best sense of the situation the person is in. For example, the two- factor theory of emotion argues that when people become aroused they look for cues as to why they feel the way they do. If a person experiences a state of arousal for which they have no immediate explanation, they will describe their emotions in terms of the cognitions available to them at the time. If a person experiences a state of arousal for which they have an appropriate explanation e.g. ‘I feel this way because I have just received an injection of adrenalin’, then they will be unlikely to describe their emotions in terms of the alternative cognitions available. If a person is put in a situation, which in the past could have made them feel an emotion, they will react emotionally or experience emotions only if they are in a state of physiological arousal. The participants were 184 male college students, taking classes in introductory psychology at Minnesota University. As soon as the participant arrived, he was taken to a private room by the experimenter and told that the aim of the experiment was ‘to look at the effects of vitamin injections on visual skills’, and was asked if he would mind having an injection of ‘Suproxin’ (made up name). 184 out of 195 participants agreed to the injection. They were given an injection (by a doctor) of either adrenalin (epinephrine) or a placebo, which was actually a saline solution, which has no side effects at all. The effects of the adrenalin are an increase in blood pressure, heart rate, blood sugar level, respiration rate, and blood flow to the muscles and brain, with an accompanying decrease in blood flow to the skin. This is often experienced as palpitations, tremors, flushing and faster breathing. The effects begin after three minutes and last from ten minutes to an hour. The participants were then put in one of four experimental conditions: 1) Adrenalin Ignorant - participants were given no idea of the injection adrenain 22 2) Adrenalin informed - participants were informed what adrenalin will do 3) Adrenalin misinformed - participants were given wrong information about adrenalin Theories of Emotions effect 4) Control group. The researchers then made observational measures of emotional response through a one-way mirror, and also took self-report measures from the participants. In the euphoria condition the misinformed participants were feeling happier than all the others. The second happiest group was the ignorant group. This demonstrates that these participants were more susceptible to the stooge because they had no explanation of why their bodies were reacting differently. 2.2.6 Criticism of Two-Factor Theory While Schachter and Singer’s research spawned a great deal of further research, their theory has also been subject to criticism. Other researchers have only partially supported the findings of the original study, and have also shown contradictory results. Other criticisms of the two-factor theory:  Sometimes emotions are experienced before we think about them.  There are actual physiological differences between emotions. To sum up this theory, strong emotions are a common part of daily life, but how do we tell them apart? How do we know that we are angry rather than frightened, sad rather than surprised? One potential answer is provided by a third theory of emotion, that is the two-factor theory of emotions by Schacter and Singer. According to this view, emotion provoking events produce increased arousal. In response to the feelings of arousal, we search the external environment in order to identify the cause of such arousal feelings. These causes that we select play a key role in determining the importance we place on our arousal. If we feel aroused after a near-miss in traffic, we will probably label our emotion as fear or perhaps anger. If instead we feel aroused in the presence of an attractive person, we may label our arousal as attraction or love. In short, we perceive ourselves to be experiencing the emotion based on the external cues, as well as our processing them, and then suggest what we should be feeling. The theory is described as a two factor theory because it considers both arousal and cognitive appraisal that we perform in our efforts to identify the cause of such arousal. 2.2.7 Opponent-Process Theory: Action and Reaction to Emotion Have you ever noticed that when you experience a strong emotional reaction, it is soon followed by the opposite reaction? Thus, elation is followed by a let-down, and anger is followed by calm, or even by regret over one’s outbursts. This relationship is an important focus of the opponent-process theory of emotion. The theory has two central assumptions: 1) Emotional reactions to a stimulus are followed automatically by an opposite reaction and, 2) Repeated exposure to a stimulus causes the initial reaction to weaken and the opposite reaction, to strengthen. 23 Emotions To cite an example, let us say a student who initially enjoys making speeches in public may experience a kind of a letdown after each speech is finished. With repeated experiences in delivering speeches, the pleasure the student feels at addressing large crowds may weaken, while the letdown intensifies or occurs sooner after the speech is over. This would result in the student to gradually cut down on his public speaking activities. We have pairs of emotions that act in opposing pairs, such as happiness and sadness, fear and relief, pleasure and pain. When one of these is experienced, the other is temporarily suppressed. This opposite emotion, however, is likely to re-emerge strongly and may curtail or interact with the initial emotion. Thus activating one emotion also activates its opposite and they interact as a linked pair. To some extent, this can be used to explain drug use and other addictive behaviour, as the pleasure of the high is used to suppress the pain of withdrawal. Sometimes these two conflicting emotions may be felt at the same time as the second emotion intrudes before the first emotion wanes. The result is a confusing combined experience of two emotions being felt at the same time that normally are mutually exclusive. Thus we can feel happy-sad, scared-relieved, love-hate, etc. This can be unpleasant but as an experiential thrill it can also have a strangely enjoyable element (and seems to be a basis of excitement). Research Solomon and Corbit (1974) analysed the emotions of skydivers. Beginners experienced extreme fear in their initial jump, which turned into great relief when they landed. With repeated jumps, the fear of jumping decreased and the post-jump pleasure increased. Example A person buys something to cheer themselves up but later feels guilty at having spent so much. So they buy something else to cheer up again. A thrill seeker goes rafting. The excitement of the journey is a mix of fear of the next rapids and relief at having survived the last one. To stop a person feeling one thing, stimulate the opposite emotion. Tell people good and bad news in close succession. Then in the confusion get them to agree to your real request. Defending When you are stimulated to feel one emotion, pause and think about the future: will the opposite appear afterwards? Is this what you want? When you feel conflicting emotions, take care not to agree to anything. Calm down first. 2.2.8 Lazarus’s Cognitive Theory The importance of cognitive interpretation of circumstances in determining the arousal levels is central to Lazarus Theory. In this theory he suggests that some degree of cognitive processing is essential before an emotional reaction, either overt or internal, can occur. 24 Lazarus et al.(1980) proposed a theory suggesting that emotion is a cognitive function, Theories of Emotions arising as result of appraisal of a situation. A situation may be appraised as nonthreatening leading to positive emotional states. The actual emotion experienced depends upon other characteristics or circumstances. A stimulus appraised as threatening leads to direct action, such as attack, retreat or freezing, together with physiological responses such as these which accompany negative states, including fear, anger or depression. If direct action is impossible, coping strategies may be employed to reappraise the situation benignly, in order to live with the threat. These coping strategies may be simply to redefine the threat as ‘not’ as bad as it was first perceived. For example, why does a wife continue to live with her husband who is violent towards her? The husband who is the stimulus is appraised as threatening, but for various reasons the wife cannot take direct action. Probably she cannot fight back, as her husband is stronger, she cannot run away, as she has no one and nowhere to go. In such cases, the situation is to be reappraised and a different solution is to be found such as staying on with the husband and losing the extreme fear and doing things that may prevent violence etc. A different thinking pattern may also perhaps help. In other words, the woman may start thinking that the husband may not perhaps hit her again, and that he is very considerate the next day and so on. Living with this reappraised threat is less problematic than fear of the outside of that situation. This theory is primarily descriptive, but the underlying mechanisms involved in emotion such as the relationship between cognitions, feelings and expressions of emotion are undefined to a great extent. Thus to sum up the cognitive theory of emotions, it may stated that as follows: Lazarus’ cognitive-mediational theory: This is an extension of Schacter-Singer theory. Cognitive appraisal of a situation is of primary importance in emotional states. In contrast, Zajonc (pronounced “ZI-ANTS,” rhymes with “science”) holds that we feel first and think later. In other words, the emotional state strongly influences the cognitive appraisal. More recently, cognitive scientists have proposed that there may be different components to our response to stimuli, but it is not productive to segregate them into cognitive vs. emotional categories. 2.2.9 Arousal Theory Many researchers have suggested that arousal theory could form the basis of a theory of emotion. Arousal is a nonspecific physiological response, heightening a person’s awareness. Mandler(1982), suggested that the interruption of ongoing thought process or behaviour sequences is sufficient to activate the Autonomic Nervous System. This creates s state of general physiological arousal, which is then given an emotional label, based on the cognitive interpretation of the stimulus. This suggests that all physiological and all emotional responses are the same and that differentiation arises solely at cognitive level. However sadness and depression are two emotions seen as parasympathetic responses and not simply a lack of arousal. 2.2.10 Social Theories of Emotions Emotion can spread rapidly through large crowds, as the massive social proof leads us into extreme states. This explains much of crowd behaviour, where ‘normal’ people act in ways they may later deeply regret. Social contagion effects, can also occur when 25 Emotions people believe they have been infected by a disease. As more people show the (psychosomatic) symptoms, this is taken as proof that ‘I am bound to get it’. To give an example, emotions take over when people are watching a football match and all of them react as if they are almost one. If you yourself go to this match, you will also get into the same emotional state of mind. To wind someone up, take them to an exciting mass-audience event, from sports to rock concerts. Whilst they are in the flow of the moment, start whooping and dancing wildly. They may well join in. Then take a photo of them and show all your friends. When at crowd events, by all means get swept up in the enjoyment, but keep a part of you separate, watching for inappropriate behaviour in other people. Let it step in to prevent you from slipping over the cliff into hysteria. There are number of theories which concentrate only on social aspect of emotion. As we all know there is a fundamental human need to belong to social groups. Evolution has taught us that survival and prosperity is more likely if we live and work together. However, to live together, we need to agree on common beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviours that reduce in-group threats act for the common good. We thus learn to conform to rules of other people. And the more we see others behaving in a certain way or making particular decisions, the more we feel obliged to follow suit. This will happen even when we are in a group of complete strangers. We will go along with the others to avoid looking like a fool. However the forces are strongest when we care most about respect and love from others in the group. Thus families and friends can apply very strong normative influence in regard to emotions. People with lower self-esteem and who crave approval of others may well be more easily influenced this way. When a person in a group does not conform, then they may be considered a deviant and both private and public advice may be given to them on how to fit in. If they still do not obey norms, they will eventually be ejected and membership of the group revoked. Many emotional expressions depend on this factor based on various situations. National culture also has a significant effect upon emotional expression and emotions and people in countries like Japan, who have collectivist cultures, are far more likely to be influenced than in more individualistic cultures, such as in the USA (although it is a testament to the power of this effect that it still has a massive impact here). Solomon Asch showed a group of people a line on a card and asked them to find a matching line from a group of three lines on another card, one of which was pretty obviously the right choice. The catch was that all except one person in the group were collaborators and chose the wrong line. When it came to the ‘victim’s turn, guess what? In a range of experiments, 76% of them followed suit. The presence of just one supporter reduced this to 18%. To give an example fads and fashions lean heavily on normative social influence. So do racial, political and other situations of persuasion. All these influence emotional status considerably. Thus, to change a person’s emotions and behaviour, put them in a group who (perhaps primed) clearly all exhibit the desired behaviour. Then engineer the situation so the person must exhibit the behaviour or face potential rejection or other social punishment. If they do not comply, ensure the group gives steadily increasing social punishment rather than rejecting the target person immediately. When they do comply, they should receive social reward (e.g. praise, inclusion). This theory states that the likelihood that a person will respond to social influence in regard to emotional expression, will increase with: 26  Strength: how important the influencing group of people are to you. Theories of Emotions  Immediacy: how close the group are to you (in space and time) at the time of the influence attempt.  Number: How many people there are in the group. Increasing the numbers has a decreasing incremental effect (going from 2 to 3 has more effect than going from 66 to 67). In fact beyond four or five, the effect tails off rapidly. This is the Social Influence Model. The effect is most powerful when everyone in the group (apart from the person being persuaded) clearly agree. When your friends try to persuade you about something, find out who is behind it, and who is just going along with things. Divide and conquer: set up a counter-group. Or expose the situation for what it is. The rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviours. These rules may be explicit or implicit. Failure to stick to the rules can result in severe punishments, the most feared of which is exclusion from the group. A common rule is that the some norms must frequently be displayed; neutrality is seldom an option. Other norms include:  Injunctive Norms are behaviours which are perceived as being approved of by other people.  Descriptive Norms are perceptions of how other people are actually behaving, whether or not these are approved of.  Explicit Norms are written or spoken openly.  Implicit Norms are not openly stated (but you find out when you transgress them).  Subjective Norms: Expectations that valued others have about how we will behave.  Personal Norms: Standards we have about our own actions. Norms are often transmitted by non-verbal behaviour, for example with ‘dirty looks’ when people act outside the norms. They may also be transmitted through stories, rituals and role-model behaviour. Norms have very strong influence on emotions. People get swayed by the norms and get emotional when there is a deviance from the norm. For instance, a common group norm amongst academics is that dress is casual (with the underlying implication that what goes on in the mind is more important than what goes on the body). Think up a rule. When other people transgress it, frown. When they follow it smile. Before long they’ll get the point and you’ll be smiling all of the time. Identify the rules that other people are putting on you as a condition for being in their group. Do you really want to follow these rules? Are there any which are particularly irksome? Can you lead a revolution? Is it really worth putting up with these, or is leaving the group a better option? When we do not know how to behave, we copy other people. Even in regard to emotions we tend to go by others’ emotions. Thus others act as information sources for how to behave or what kind of emotions to express as we assume that they know what they are doing. Also because we care a great deal about what others think about us, this provides a safe course of action, that is at the very least, they cannot criticize us for our actions. 27 Emotions We are more likely to use this principle when the task in question is important to us. This leads to such effects as people ignoring public muggings and cult members being led into bizarre and even suicidal acts. This shows how people can be swayed by emotions. Private acceptance occurs when we genuinely believe the other person is right. This can lead to permanent changes in beliefs, values and behaviours. On the other hand, public compliance occurs when we copy others because we fear ridicule or rejection if we behave otherwise. Informational social influence (also called social proof) occurs most often when:  The situation is ambiguous. We have choices but do not know which to select.  There is a crisis. We have no time to think and experiment. A decision is required now!  Others are experts. If we accept the authority of others, they must know better than us. In other words, when we are not sure of our own ability to know what to do, we will look to others to tell us. For permanent change, precede this by sufficient work that they trust you completely and view you as an authority with enviable values and beliefs. i) Averill’s social theory: According to Averill (1983), emotions are considered as transitory social roles. A person adopts the role defined by his or culture for the emotion being experienced. ii) Weiner’s attributional theory: This theory suggests that we attribute causes to all events that happen irrespective of having adequate information. Weiner sees emotions as coming from these attributions. These may initially be good or bad reactions, which are then refined into recognisable emotions once a cause has been attributed to the situation. Self Assessment Questions Match the following: A. Stimulus leads to bodily arousal first, which is then interpreted as emotion 1. Opponent Process theory B. Strong emotional reactions are followed by opposite emotional reaction 2. Arousal C. State of mental readiness for activity 3. Cannon-Bard Theory D. Reactions coming from attributions later are refined as emotions 4. James-Lange theory E. The physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time 5. Lazarus theory F. Two factor theory 6. Schachter Singer theory 28  Theories of Emotions 2.3 LET US SUM UP Different theories have been put forwardby various psychologists and physiologists to explain basically about the emotion and to explain the number of events occurring during emotions. The theories of emotions include James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard theory, Schachter-Singer theory, Opponent-process theory, Lazarus’s cognitive theory, Arousal theory and Social theories of emotions. The James-Lange theory contends that the emotion provoking stimuli induce physiological reactions and these form the basis for subjective cognitive states called as emotions. The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion suggests that emotion provoking events simultaneously elicit physiological reactions and the subjective cognitive states are labeled as emotions. Another theory known as Schachter-Singer theory suggests that when we are aroused by emotion provoking stimuli, we search the external environment for the cause of our feelings of arousal. The causes we select then determine the emotions we experience. According to opponent process theory, strong emotional reactions are followed by opposite emotional reactions. 2.4 UNIT END QUESTIONS 1) What are Emotions? Describe the characteristic features of emotions. 2) Why does emotion arise? 3) What are the effects of emotions on the behaviour of the individual? 4) Discuss each theory of emotions and bring out the salient features. 5) What is the hallmark of Schachter Singer theory? 6) What are social theories of emotions? 2.5 GLOSSARY Two factor theory of emotion : Schachter’s theory which proposes that both physiological processes and cognitive appraisal are implicated in the experience of emotions. Arousal : is defined as a state of mental readiness for an activity. Cognitive appraisal : it is a process through which we can assess the possible effect of a situation on our state of wellbeing, before responding to it. 2.6 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES Tonu Malim & Ann Birch (1998). Introductory Psychology. Macmillan press, London. Sandura K. Ciccarelli & Glenn E. Meyer (2007). Psychology. Pashupati printers. Norman L.Munn, L. Dodge Fernald. JR., Peter S. Fernald. (1967). Introduction to Psychology. Oxford & IBH Publishing co., References E.G Parameswaran, C.Beena (2002). An Invitation to Psychology. Neelkamal Publications. 29 Emotions Daniel Goleman (1995). Emotional Intelligence. Bantom books. Lewis, M. & Haviland-Jones. J.M (2000). Handbook of Emotions. (2nd ed). NewYork: Guildford. Suman (2008). Emotional competency and teaching competency of teacher and its effects on the students academic achievement. Unpublished thesis. Lorraine Bell, (2003). Managing Intense Emotions and Overcoming Self- Destructive Habits. Hove: New York. 30