Emotions Module PDF

MODULE 1 Part 1 Introduction Overview This module focuses on: the evolution of knowledge and study of emotion early theorists and their views of emotion research and approaches to studying emotion current definition of emotion that will be used throughout the course. Learning Outcomes After completing this module, students will be familiar with the various theories of emotion, as well as how the study of emotion has evolved. Students will also be able to define the attributes of an emotion. Content Introduction Early work into emotion suggested that emotions are not beneficial: Philosophers and theorists argued that emotions and passions are dangerous and harmful Historically, philosophers encouraged us to rid ourselves of emotion Later work focused on unifying mind and morals: Aristotle urged moderation as the central unifying principle of the mind and moral behaviour Nietzsche wrote about the "superman" and he worried that negative effects of compassion inhibited people from becoming superior Freud believed that our drives had to be constrained by civilization Believed that emotion was at the core of many psychological disorders Aristotle’s contribution to emotion work was his belief that emotions are connected with action Early Behavioural and Cognitive approaches to emotion stressed: Core of emotion is behaviour Facial behaviour Body movements Evaluation of something in internal and/or external environment That it is our nature to act/ we are inclined to act Complex reasoning processes that lead to emotions Prior to the 60’s, there was little interest in emotions and the study of emotion. Behaviorism was popular during the 30’s, which means the focus of theorists and researchers was observable behaviours. As emotion was not considered observable and, therefore, unable to be studied, there was more interest in behaviours (including those that may have potentially resulted from emotion).However, during the 1960’s and 70’s, there was greater interest in understanding the mind as scholars became interested in how the mind develops; this was a time- period where interest in understanding emotion increased. Since the 1960s, there has been a good deal of work related to many areas and issues of emotion. Many of the influential works in emotion are based in areas of study you have likely discussed (or will discuss) in other courses. Following is a list of important areas of emotion research and prominent researchers in that field.We will discuss some of these individuals and their research in other course modules; for now, focus on the differing fields of study important to early and current work in emotion, these include: 1. Infancy and emotion John Campos 2. Attachment John Bowlby Studied infant attachment and how emotion is important 3. Neuroscience Gazzaniga Treated epilepsy by severing the corpus callosum (the part of brain connecting the two hemispheres) and discovered emotional response can occur without knowledge of the source 4. Cognitive psychology interest in memory, decision making, judgement, perception; wanted to explain all behaviours through cognition 5. Stress Lazarus needed to understand emotions in order to understand the many kinds of stress and stress reactions 6. Ethology Eible Eibesfeldt Ethology is the study of people in the real world Found that emotions tend to look similar across cultures and environments Facial Expression Paul Ekman Developed a coding system to map facial expressions What is emotion? In attempting to understand emotion, Dr. Paul Ekman spent 4 years having his own face electrically stimulated and videotaped; he used this method to map emotions and the facial muscles related to them. He came up with a coding system to map facial expression and emotion, which allowed for the study of emotion as it occurs spontaneously. Ekman believed: 1) that all emotions have facial expressions and 2) that there are 9 attributes of emotion. Ekman believed, based on research evidence, that all genuine emotions have the following in common: Based on Ekman’s work, the 9 emotion attributes include: 1) Brief last 1-5 seconds, possibly up to 10 seconds This was not a popular belief amongst his peers Think of last time you got angry at someone in the same room: what happened? Did you immediately feel anger or did it develop gradually: did you angry feeling slowly grow/increase or decrease; did you demonstrate your angry feelings or keep them internal: did the other person respond and did this impact your anger; did you walk away or stay in the room; did you or the other person apologize and what happened to your anger at this point; did you have one specific angry look that you held for ~10 minutes or do you expect your facial muscles moved every few seconds? Rethink this scenario and consider everything that came between "getting angry", any apology, and any self-reflection. If you recall accurately, you may remember that a number of different thoughts and feeling occurred and each lasted for only seconds. These brief experiences occur very close in time and are multiple episodes of different emotions (e.g., moved from confusion to mild anger, to rage, to frustration, to sadness, to feeling guilty or justified, etc. 2) Unbidden/Involuntary Emotions are hard to control remember these are Ekman’s attributes of an emotion; there is debate between emotion experts as to whether emotions are involuntary; have you ever felt the need to control an emotion (e.g., anger, sadness) and if so then that emotion was likely involuntary 3) Seen across species Unlike a lot of processes, Ekman believes that emotions are seen across species Ekman believes that everything we want to call emotions is in other species, although, other emotion researchers disagree Human emotions may be more complex, but the belief is that our emotions are similar to those found in others species, especially primates. 4) Automatic unconscious appraisal component The mind is wired to detect the source of emotion wired to detect things that make us feel loved, threatened, vulnerable, weak, angry, sympathetic, etc. research is showing that there are specific areas of the brain that take in cues and automatically evoke evolutionary processes 5) Quick onset Emotions happen really quickly 6) Coherent all activity in emotion works together this is what Ekman believes differentiates emotion from other processes The remaining 3 attributes are what Ekman believes to be criteria to help distinguish one emotion from another: 7) Signal in the face and body Specific facial and bodily response are specific to each emotions 8) Universal antecedents what causes the emotion/what occurs before the emotion distinguishes which emotion is experienced 9) Physiology the physiological responses that accompany emotions differ based on the emotion occurring Watch this brief video and determine whether the above emotion criteria can be applied; determine whether you see any emotion displayed. Learning Activity Below is a video in which the title suggests an emotion is being taught. Based on what you see, do you believe that the title is correct and emotion is being taught? Do the above criteria fit indicating that you are seeing true emotion? Which emotions, if any, do you see in the video? How Caretakers Teach Fear (2:14) In the following video, Dr. Ekman discusses examples and details specific to what an emotion is. (if the video does not play, copy/paste the link below it into your browser). Ekman: What is Emotion? Paul Ekman 2 of 5 What is an Emotion? (7:36) Summary This module has provided some very brief information on early thoughts regarding emotion and how the study has evolved over many years. Students were presented some of the important pioneers in the field of emotion from various disciplines; a number of these researchers and their work will be discussed in more detail in other modules. This module concluded with an overview of the attributes of emotion as outlined by Dr. Ekman; although there is not general consensus on these attributes, they provide a good overview of criteria to be considered when distinguishing emotion from other experiences. Emotion Evolution of Emotion Part 2 Previous Evolution of Emotion Part 1 Part 2 MODULE 2 Introduction Overview In part 1, above, you learned how emotion theory has changed over time; you also learned the criteria for an experience to be considered an emotion as outlined by Dr. Paul Ekman. In this second part of Module 2, you will learn about the controversy regarding which experiences are considered basic emotions, the purpose of emotion, and theories of emotion. Learning Outcomes After completing this module, students will be aware of characteristics of emotion, basic emotions, complex emotions, and emotion families. Students will also have knowledge of some important theories of emotion and the discrepancies and controversies regarding the differing theories. Content Emotion Universality Dr. Paul Ekman spent many years studying facial expression related to emotion. Specifically, he spent 4 years having his own face electronically stimulated in an attempt to identify the facial muscles and how they moved with varying emotional experiences. Additionally, he studied the facial expressions and muscle movement of individuals in multiple cultures and countries. Ultimately, this work lead to endless hours of videotaped and mapped emotions and their accompanying muscle movements; based on this, Ekman developed a coding system to map facial expression and emotion. As emotions are spontaneous and brief, the coding system and videotaping allowed for the study of emotion as it occurs spontaneously. Importantly, all basic emotions have distinct facial expressions and Ekman’s work suggests that emotions and accompanying facial expressions are universal. Name that Emotion! Many years of extensive research into emotion reveals that we experience: basic emotions, complex emotions, and emotion families. Basic or Simple Emotions: Emotions that are believed to have a clear biological basis are considered basic or simple emotions. Basic emotions are those that evolve earlier in development; they considered to be rooted in biology. Basic emotions are those that you should see in infants. Interestingly, there is disagreement as to which emotions are considered basic; some of the top emotion researchers do not list the same emotions as basic. Ekman’s basic: anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise Panksepp’s basic: expectation, fear, rage, panic James’ basic: fear, grief, love, rage For this course, we will refer to Ekman's 9 emotion attributes and to Ekman's specific basic emotions. Refer back to the 9 emotion attributes; are there any emotions listed as basic by Panksepp or James that would not meet the emotion criteria? Complex Emotions: It is likely that you have experienced (or witnessed) personal responses that you consider to be emotion. It may be that emotions not captured under the list of basic emotions are actually considered to be complex emotions. Complex emotions are a combination of basic (simple) emotions that occur simultaneously. For example, jealousy may be the simultaneous mix of fear and anger if this is jealousy regarding a partner's interactions with another person. However, if you were to experience jealousy about another person's car or grades, would fear and anger be the correct combination of simultaneous emotions? Think of one emotion that is not listed under the basic emotions; which basic emotions might this emotion be the combination of? Any number of basic emotions may combine into a complex emotion. Can you think of an emotion that likely results from 3 basic emotions occurring simultaneously? Emotion Families: Ekman’s research also led him to evidence suggesting that emotions can be grouped into, what he termed, emotion families. If you think of anger as a basic emotion, what other emotions may belong in the anger family? Rage, irritation, frustration, sadness? Now consider the emotions in the joy family, what would you include? Emotion Theory and Processes There are 4 primary aspects associated with emotion responses: stimulus (e.g., situation), physiology (e.g, pulse), cognition (e.g., thoughts), and emotion. Learning Activity Think of the last time you demonstrated your anger. Though universality suggests that we all contrive our facial muscles the same (i.e., universal facial expression of anger), there are differences in anger responses (anger behaviours), so think of your personal anger response/behaviour (e.g., yelling, slamming an article, crying, withdrawing). Now try to recall everything you experienced between the stimulus and your anger response. Recall from Ekman's criteria that you will be recalling what occurred over a few seconds! Answer the following questions: 1) What stimulus do you believe was related to your angry response/what situation were you in (e.g., learned some information, late peer for dinner, lost something, fight with a family member)? 2) Do you recall experiencing a physiological change? Did your heart-rate increase or decrease? Did your brow sweat? Were your hands clammy? Did you notice physiological changes occurring? 3) Did you have any thoughts and, if so, what were they? 4) Did you experience an emotion? Did you know what the emotion was and, if so, when did you realize the emotion? Did you recognize the emotion before the response? 5) Did all of the above processes (1-4) occur; are you certain each did or did not occur? Now that you have your final process occurrence list, arrange them in the order they occurred. Did 3 occur and if so did it occur before 2 or after 4? 6) How easy was it to answer each of the above questions? How confident are you that the processes you recall actually occurred? How confident are you that the order you specified the processes accurately reflects what did indeed occur? The inclusion of emotion aspects and the order in which the emotion process occurs have been extensively debated and not agreed upon by emotion scholars; as a result, multiple theories of the emotion process have been hypothesized. There are a number of theories related to how/why emotion is experienced; we will focus on 3 of these theories. Your goal is to understand: i) the basic premise of each theory and ii) awareness of the debate regarding each of these theories. The following is a brief overview of the 3 primary theories; the textbook provides more detail and there are many web-based resources. 1) James-Lange Theory of Emotion. As noted earlier, William James classified fear, grief, love, and rage as basic emotions. This theory proposes that physiological arousal (physiological changes such as increased heart-rate) occur before an emotion is experienced; the emotion follows the physical response and, therefore, it results from the physiological experience. According to these theorists, the physiological experience is a direct result of perceiving an event/situation/scenario. 2) Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion. Walter Cannon, and his graduate student Philip Bard, developed this theory to account for their finding that: even without the physiological response, emotion is experienced. According to these theorists, emotion does not require a physiological response or the physiological response and emotion occur simultaneously; this is counter to James and Lange's hypothesis that a physiological response must precede an emotion. Evidence for not needing a physiological response to have an emotion was demonstrated after severing afferent nerves (the nerves that carry nerve impulses from sense organs to the central nervous system; see Afferent nerve fiber - Wikipedia). After severing afferent nerves, Cannon and Bard found that even when the physiological aspects of an experience/event are blocked, the emotion is still experienced. This finding was counter to the James-Lange theory as it is based on evidence that physiological experiences do not need (are not necessary) to precipitate the emotional experience; instead, Cannon-Bard proposed that following an event, physiological responses occur virtually simultaneously with the experience of emotion. Their evidence suggested that physiological changes may not occur or that they occur simultaneously with emotion. 3) Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory In this theory, the researchers suggest that emotion results from the combination of arousal and appraisal; specifically, the physiological responses to the experience occurs at the same time the experience is interpreted and together these result in the emotion. Schachter and Singer developed their theory based on their research regarding how an individual interprets their environment to explain their physiological experiences. Specifically, these researchers conducted an experiment in which they injected adrenaline (epinephrine) or a placebo into their subjects, either informed them of the effects or did not, and then watched their emotional experience when in a room with a confederate acting either angry or euphoric. The results of this experiment lead the researchers to theorize that emotion is the result of using the environment to explain the physiological experiences and that together these lead to the emotion. Importantly, the authors of this theory postulate that the same physiological experience can occur between two individuals, which is why the interpretation of the environment is what leads to the specific emotion. Although others have attempted to replicate this work, this theory has not been substantiated to date. To conclude this module, watch Dr. Ekman discuss the importance of emotion in our lives (copy/paste into browser if it does not open). Paul Ekman 3 of 5 Useful Things to Know about Emotions (7:39) Summary This module provided details of evidence regarding the universality of emotion, described basic and complex emotion, and explained emotion families. Three important theories of emotion: James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard theory, and Schachter-Singer theory, were presented. Based on the information presented in this week’s lesson, students should now be able to start recognizing emotion in themselves and others. MODULE 3 Introduction Overview This module continues last week's discussion regarding identifying emotion and emotion characteristics. Distinctions between emotion and various other experiences are presented to assist with clarifying what emotion is and how to identify emotions. Definitions of emotion as well as the purpose and importance of emotion are discussed from an evolutionary perspective. Learning Outcomes After completing this module, students will have the knowledge to differentiate emotion from mood, sensation, trait, and sentiment. Students should also be able to understand and discuss evolutionary purposes of emotion. Required Readings Textbook chapters: see syllabus schedule Content Introduction What is emotion? Based on what has been discussed so far, can you answer this question? Even with additional information, emotion specialists concede that this is still not an easy question to answer; this is not surprising given that emotion "experts" cannot agree on basic emotions. One way to consider what emotion is, would be to compare it to other cognitive, physiological, and behavioural experiences. In the next few tables, you will find information to assist you in distinguishing emotion. By comparing emotion to other cognitive and physiological experiences, defining and identifying emotion should be easier tasks. Emotion versus Mood Characteristic Emotion Mood Onset Quick Develops and alters over time Duration Brief, seconds Day, week, month, long-standing Appraisal Intentional object; reaction to May not have identifiable specific stimulus/experience cause, more generalized Coherence Cognition, feeling, action all Coherence is not expected work together virtually simultaneous Universal antecedents Similar experiences cause Similar experiences may cause similar emotions; specific differing moods; combined cause causes Facial expression Unique and observable No unique observable expression Focus On the antecedent Multiple targets Recall Ekman's emotion characteristics related to emotion onset and duration: emotion has a quick onset and lasts only a brief time (e.g., up to 10 seconds) whereas moods can develop and alter over time and can continue for years. Consider depression, which develops and may change (e.g., intensity) over time. Moods may appear for no known reason. For example, you may wake up feeling irritable or may feel sad for a few days and not be able to explain the cause, suggesting a mood; however, if you have been in a positive state all day and then suddenly feel angry or sad, you should be able to identify the specific cause of the anger or sadness and, therefore, you are likely experiencing emotion. The focus of emotion is on the cause, whereas the focus of a mood is not specific (e.g., angry at the world). Emotion versus Sensation Characteristic Emotion Sensation Duration Brief, seconds Lasting Appraisal Intentional object; reaction to Does not need identified cause specific stimulus/experience Coherence Cognition, feeling, action all Action, feeling, and cognition work together virtually are not simultaneous simultaneous Universal antecedents Similar experiences cause No antecedent required similar emotions Physiological response Uncontrollable, accompany May be emotion uncontrollable/controllable; Does not need to accompany cognition In an instant, your back hurts, legs feel numb, arm hair is "tingling", and you have unexplained pain; these experiences can be mental or physical events that share properties with emotion. As emotions are accompanied by a physiological experience, we need to distinguish the physiological sensation as brief and out of our control to consider it emotion versus sensation. With emotion, there is a physiological experience (e.g., sensation) related to your existential goals (e.g., goals about your identity, yourself, your relationship, etc.), whereas a sensation (i.e., physiological experience) is not related to these same types of goals (e.g., arm "tingling" is unlikely related to personal identity goals). Some theorist believe that emotions assist us with relationships whereas sensations are lower-level basic responses with no relevance to social, moral, identity, and/or relationship goals. That said, it is possible for sensations to become emotion. For example, an individual may experience heart palpitations; in reflecting on the palpation the individual may wonder whether they are having a heart attack, and thinking about the possibility of a heart attack may result in fear. Therefore, the 1) sensation occurred, 2) followed by cognition; the 3) new physical and cognitive experiences may be 4) emotion (e.g., basic or complex). Emotion versus Trait Characteristic Emotion Trait Onset Quick Repeated Duration Brief, seconds Endures Appraisal Intentional object; reaction to Does not need identified cause specific stimulus/experience Coherence Cognition, feeling, action all Action, feeling, and cognition work together virtually are not necessarily simultaneous simultaneous Universal antecedents Similar experiences cause No antecedent required similar emotions Facial expression Unique and observable No unique observable expression Across species Yes No Traits are the repeated occurrence of a discreet emotion. For example, Jo is rarely angry and when anger does occur it is brief; Jo's partner does not describe Jo as angry. However, if Jo repeatedly experiences seconds of anger and these seconds occur multiple times a day, Jo may be described as an angry person by those who have knowledge of the multiple moments of anger; in this case, Jo is described with a label related to the specific trait (e.g., angry). Traits are not directed, but instead they are generalized. Traits endure in varying contexts (e.g., angry at home, school, with friends, etc.) compared to emotions that are directed, precise, and context specific. Think of how you would describe a friend (e.g., happy, fearful, angry); we experience each of these as emotion in certain situations, but if you are using these to describe a friend then these emotions occur regularly and, therefore, have become a trait. Emotion versus Sentiment Characteristic Emotion Sentiment Onset Quick Continuous Duration Brief, seconds Endure Appraisal Intentional object; reaction to Likes and dislikes specific stimulus/experience Coherence Cognition, feeling, action all Action, feeling, and cognition work together virtually are not simultaneous simultaneous Universal antecedents Similar experiences cause Attitudes and standards similar emotions Facial expression Unique and observable No unique observable expression Across species Yes No Sentiments, like emotions, are directed; however, they endure and are based on likes and dislikes, whereas emotions are triggered and are time limited. Sentiments are related to likes and dislikes based on attitudes and standards. For example, disliking nastiness, preferring to be around friendly people, believing people should be kind all result in displaying/experiencing a sentiment toward particular people. Thus, a sentiment may feel like an emotion towards an object. "Loving" pizza is a sentiment, not an emotion! In the following link, Dr. Ekman provides a discussion of the similarities and differences between emotions, moods, and traits. Moods-Emotions-And-Traits.pdf Defining Emotion Between last week and the information above, you been provided a good deal of information regarding what an emotion is and is-not. As noted at the beginning of this module, even with emotion related knowledge it can be difficult to define emotion. The following 4 emotion definitions expose the similarities and differences between and across emotion researchers and theorists. James, 1884: “bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and that our feelings of the same changes as they occur is the emotion” Barrett & Compos, 1987: “emotions as bidirectional processes of establishing, maintaining, and/or disrupting significant relationships between an organism and the (internal/external) environment” Lazarus, 1991: “emotions are organized psycho-physiological reactions to news about ongoing relationships with the environment” Frijda & Mesquita, 1994: “emotions are.. modes of relating to the environment states of readiness for engaging, or not engaging, in interaction with the environment” Regardless of the theorist/researcher, there tends to be agreement that emotion requires interaction between the environment, personal reactions/actions (behavioural and physiological), and relationships between ones-self and the world. Therefore, emotion requires interaction between: Three Components of Emotion.pdf Evolution and Emotion Now that you have a better idea of what emotion is (and what it is not), our focus will turn to attempting to understand why we experience emotion; this discussion is based on an evolutionary perspective. Throughout this section, you will be presented information regarding: · Elements of an evolutionary approach · Emotions serve functions · Origins of emotions · Basis of social relationships · Evolution of language Assumptions of Evolutionary Theory and Emotion Using evolutionary theory, theorists and researchers -- Charles Darwin included -- discussed the role of emotion in evolution. There are many books and papers, specific to this topic, which you may wish to explore. The following information is a very brief overview of the assumptions of evolutionary theory, followed by a discussion of the importance of emotion in evolution. As you read the assumptions of evolutionary theory, consider how and why emotion may be important to each. Designed for gene replication Gene replication is important to the theory, Survival of the Fittest. In this theory, the goal is to increase the likelihood that our kind survives. This theory is not necessarily about personal survival, or the survival of our offspring; instead, it is about surviving our genes, ensuring that our genes replicate, and that our species survives. The ways we act ensure that we, our children, our relatives, etc., have the opportunity to reproduce. We act to promote the survival of those who share our genes; the individual is designed for gene replication. Superabundance is the term related to producing more offspring than necessary; more offspring increases the chances of gene replication as some of those offspring will survive. Selection pressures We are operating in environments and we are responsive to the nature of environments and selection pressures. Selection pressures are those things that threaten our survival; threats to the likelihood that we will reproduce our genes 1. Natural selection evolves around environmental threats and events that we are designed to avoid; events such as natural disasters, pain, poisonous spiders, etc. individually threaten survival. For example, pain is a way to signal that we are in danger. Imagine not being able to feel pain; what would you expect to be the likelihood of surviving, and how difficult would it be to avoid environmental threats? 2. Sexual Selection is related to sexual selection pressures. One way to pass on our genes to the next generation is to survive (or natural selection), the second way is to reproduce. Obviously reproduction is a huge determinant that our genes are passed on. But, sexual selection is complex as there is a great deal of competition across species; animals kill each other and form social hierarchies. i) Within sexual selection, there is intrasexual competition to mate (e.g., males competing against males; females competing against females). Think of the "alpha" male surrounded by many females while other males remain on the periphery after defeat by the "successful" male. ii) Another aspect of sexual selection is Intersexual competition which is competition across gender (e.g., male to female, female to male) regarding which individual will be chosen as a mate. Females across many species want to mate with males with resources, more resources increase the potential of offspring success, For example, females look for a male with signs of resources (e.g., whether the male is employed/can provide; resources are indicated by possessions such as the car they drive, etc.). Some will call this "gold digging", but it can be blamed on evolution. Next time you are out, watch heterosexual males interact with females (or in the presence of females); take note of whether these males seem to "show off" certain resources (e.g., flaunt possessions; openly talk about what they have). You may view this as bragging, but consider what the purpose of this may be. Adaptations We have evolved to solve problems efficiently; we want to solve problems in order to reproduce our genes. The environment has lots of threats and selection (natural and sexual) pressures; we have met these pressures by developing hundreds or thousands of adaptations, which increase our chance of successful reproduction. Adaptations have certain properties which are precise and serve specific functions. For example, humans have specific areas of the brain that respond to fear calls, to an offspring's face, etc. Adaptations are 1) reliable (since we consistently respond to objects or events in the same way), and 2) predictable and efficient (e.g., the taste buds of animals deter them from certain harmful plants; we have an emotional response to the cries of babies, etc.). Some examples of adaptations: i) An interesting example of adaptation is pregnancy sickness, which is believed to be adaptive as it prevents the mother from ingesting toxins that are harmful to the embryo; evidence of this relates to the fact that women develop pregnancy sickness when the fetus is most vulnerable to toxins, and sickness is reduced or removed when the fetus is least vulnerable. Additionally, there is evidence demonstrating that females with the worst pregnancy sickness have the healthiest babies. ii) Mating is costly so we want to find someone with healthy genes to reproduce with. One method of selecting a mate is looking for signs of health. We perceive facial symmetry as beautiful and, not surprisingly, facial asymmetry is one sign of poor health (e.g., the more you are exposed to toxins and parasites in the environment, the less symmetrical your face). There have been many studies conducted to investigate the role and impact of facial symmetry. iii) Fertility requires a mate who is fertile, to reproduce. Again, humans have adapted to be fertile and recognize fertility. For example, as females reach puberty they undergo a redistribution of fat to the buttocks, thigh, and hip area; wider hips in relation to waist size indicates greater likelihood the female is fertile and has the capacity to reproduce. Research has shown that heterosexual men find the greater waist to hip ratio very attractive, likely because this ratio indicates fertility. Other indications of fertility include smooth skin, full lips, and multiple factors associated with youth and health. iv) Giving birth is costly; heterosexual females, therefore, look for men who have resources and who are committed to raising the offspring. As noted, men like to show off resources and women like to know men have resources. There is also some research suggesting that we have built in cheater detectors to distinguish who will be or is being unfaithful. v) In order for our genes to survive we must protect our offspring as they would die without a lot of care. As anyone who has been around a baby knows, they engage in unpleasant things such as crying at night, vomiting, diapers that need changes, etc; however, adaptations to these less than pleasant experiences is demonstrated by the fact humans are attracted to a baby's features. A baby's big head, small body, big eyes, big foreheads, small chin, and small mouth are all considered endearing characteristics. vi) Women also need an adaptation to make men stay and raise the child; there is no doubt who the biological mother of the baby/child is; however, it is not always clear to men if the child is biologically theirs. In fact, some estimates have suggested that up to 30% of births have "misattributed paternity" (the man believed to be the biological parent is not); though more recent research has lead researchers to note previous rates are inflated and around 2-3% is more likely to be accurate (Bellis et al, 2005; King & Jobling, 2009). With less than 100% certainty that a specific male is the biological father, theories about a baby’s features have been suggested. For example, the belief that babies look more like their fathers than their mothers at birth is believed to reorient and assure the father that the child is biologically his. Although evolutionary theory in this course is focused on humans, as we are attempting to understand human emotion, ground-breaking research by Goodall and De Waal reveals similar characteristics in gorillas. Specifically, as in humans, gorilla studies demonstrate that: cooperation is prevalent, care-giving is common, and social life is hierarchical. The following video provides an overview of the information discussed above. The documentary provides details of natural selection (0-20 min), sexual selection (20-40 min), and human adaptation (40+ min); though the entire documentary is worthwhile, you only need to watch approximately 45 minutes if you want to obtain more in-depth knowledge about the topics discussed above. A number of research studies are discussed to provide evidence supporting the theories. Evolution - Part 1 of 7 - Darwin's Dangerous Idea (PBS Documentary) (1:56:17) Evolutionary Theory & Emotion Hopefully you were able to consider examples of how and why emotion is important in evolutionary theory. Some examples include: 1) Emotion functions to solve a problem Experiencing a specific emotion can lead to altering behaviour or cognition to solve a problem. Though not everything in the expression of an emotion has a function – e.g., yelling at the police officer handing you a speeding ticket is certainly a product of emotion, but it is not a function to solve a problem! 2) Emotion affects cognition When we are happy we remember things; when angry we do not see all environmental risks 3) The face presents information to others and emotion is tied to facial expression If we encounter something dangerous, our body gives us powerful emotional signals (e.g, the Autonomic Nervous System; see pp. 180-181 in Amthor, 2011) such as coordinating breathing and blood flow in relation to the emotion; our own personal experience signals provide information as to what is happening. All of this information results in being directed toward or away from the situation. The following link provides more examples of the role of emotion in evolutionary theory: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion This module ends with a discussion by two experts in evolution and emotion. Experts in Emotion 4.1 - Leda Cosmides & John Tooby on Evolution and Emotion (26:20) Summary In this module, we discussed differences and similarities between emotion and other experiences that have similar features to those of emotion, such as mood, temperament, and sensation. From there, we learned how emotion specialists have defined and categorized emotions, including basic and complex emotions. The module ended with an overview of emotion specific to evolutionary theory, which assists in understanding the importance of emotion in survival. MODULE 4 Introduction Part 1 Overview This module is focused on the physiological and neurological experiences of emotion. The goal of this module is to present some background on various biological and neurological locations and processes, followed by a discussion of these processes with respect to emotion. This module also presents some of the physiological and neurological research that has been conducted regarding emotion. Learning Outcomes After completing this module, students will be able to identify the primary brain areas involved in emotion and understand the physiological components of emotion. Students should also be able to discuss a few research studies that have been instrumental in understanding the physiology and neurology of emotion. Required Readings Required Textbook Chapter: see syllabus Optional text: Amthor (2011) chapter 1, 2, and 3 Content Introduction “Behind every crooked thought is a crooked molecule” ~Anonymous Before we start the discussion of physiology, neurobiology, and emotion, I must acknowledge that this may be a more difficult module to understand as there will be unfamiliar terms and processes presented; therefore, the information presented is, intentionally, simplified. For those of you interested in delving further into this topic, feel free to contact me for additional resources. Physiology This module starts with a discussion of physiological experiences of emotion. You will recall that each of the theories of emotion (e.g., Cannon-Bard;Schacter& Singer) includes a physiological component. Obvious differences between the theories are whether, when, and how the physiological components are experienced. As a review the theories, watch the following video, paying particular attention to the inclusion of physiology. Theories of Emotion | Processing the Environment |MCAT | Khan Academy (8:14) Prior to delving into a discussion of physiological aspects of emotion, think about a recent personal emotional experience and try to answer the following questions: Can you identify the physiological aspects in the emotional experience? Can you specifywhat occurred in your body? Was there achange in physiology? Can you outline when yourphysiology changed? Did you notice the physiological response immediately? How long was it before your physiology experience felt "normal" again (e.g., homeostasis)? Given that emotion experiences are brief, might the physiological component be difficult to identify/notice? Pay attention during your next heightened emotional state and see if you can identify when you experience physiological changes and what they are. Understanding physiological experiences is an important aspect of understanding emotion. Before discussing the physiology of emotion, it is necessary to start with a reminder of the nervous system (NS) as this is the system important for emotion physiology. Nervous System We will not delve into a great deal of discussion about the nervous system (NS) as you learned about this in both high school and this course's pre-requisite. There are many resources on the web that can assist in understanding the NS if the details have been forgotten. Chapter 1 in the recommended text provides a good overview of the NS. Discussions of psychobiology and physiology are talking about the electrochemical communication system within our bodies. Between the brain and NS, there are billions of interconnected cells working to direct our behaviour (chapter 3 in the recommended text provides a discussion of cells, neurons, and communication). The nervous system (NS) is made up of: Central Nervous System (CNS) which includes the brain and spinal cord (see Amthor, 2011, chapter 2) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) which extends the operation of the brain throughout the body The PNS has two parts: The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) which is a voluntary system encompassing sensory nerves and motor nerves The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) which is an involuntary system that moves information to and from your internal organs The ANS controls internal organs, such as heartbeat, glands producing hormones, etc. The ANS is divided into the: Sympathetic Nervous System: related to arousing organs (e.g., increasing heart rate) Parasympathetic Nervous System: related to calming (e.g., decreasing heart rate) Which ANS system (sympathetic or parasympathetic) would you say is at work in this picture? And what about for this picture: sympathetic or parasympathetic? Consider the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS: which do you presume is most often measured in emotion research? Generally, the ANS and specifically the sympathetic NS is used in the study of emotion; recall that this system is involuntary. The primary physiological responses measured in emotion research include physiology discussed in 1-5 below: 1) Heart rate 2) Blood flow/blood pressure 3) Cortisol levels in blood/saliva Cortisol is a primary stress hormone; higher levels of cortisol are released under stressful or frightening circumstances. There is an increase in Cortisol production approximately 10-15 minutes after the onset of a stressor; production peaks approximately 20-30 minutes following the introduction of the stressor and remains until the stressor is removed. Cortisol does not immediately decrease with the removal of the stressor but, instead, it gradually levels off. Cortisol is regulated into the bloodstream by information from the amygdala to the hypothalamus (more on these brain structures later in the module). Cortisol production varies and is tied to the circadian rhythm: Circadian rhythm is the body’s response to light and darkness; these responses are behavioural, physical, and mental For information on the circadian rhythm, see http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Education/Pages/Factsheet_CircadianRhythms.aspx Cortisol levels increase in the few hours before we wake; high levels are produced in the morning (stimulates appetite) and levels decrease at night. 4) Skin conductance response or galvanic skin response (GSR): A change in the skins’ electrical properties Sweat on the skin changes the electrical properties GSR is one of the measures used in lie detector tests 5) Vagal Tone The vagus nerve calms the system (part of the Parasympathetic NS); Vagal tone is measured through the time between heartbeats When the nervous system is aroused (e.g., fright, anger) the vagusnerve works to calm it Increased VN response results in a variable (i.e., inconsistent) heart rate The time between heart beats is a measure of vagal tone The time between beats is known as heart rate variability The VN regulates most of the body's organs and works at a subconscious level (e.g., you are not aware of regulating the liver, or digesting food) Aside: The Vagus Nerve (VN) in mammals is linked to nerves important for socialization; this is unique to mammals (reptiles do not have this link). The VN is located at the top of the spinal cord, in the brainstem. The VN is believed to be related to attachment and prosocial behaviour. Heart rate is one measure of VN activity; healthy babies are reported to have variability in their heart rate. LowVN activity is found in infants of mothers who were prenatally depressed, anxious, or angry mothers; these mothers also have low VN (Field & Diego, 2008). Vagus Nerve The Vagus Nerve and Vagal Tone (VN activity) are likely new terms for many ofyou. The Vagus Nerve is important for emotion; this nerve is described as regulating the heart, face, breath, and abdominal viscera (organs). An easy to understand introduction to theVagusNerve is provided by Dr. Dacher Keltner: he also discusses the nerve with respect to emotion (see https://youtu.be/5d6e_Un6dv8). The Vagus Nerve is important for studying emotion as it is hypothesized to be related to various emotional responses, such as: Behavioural reactivity: Examples, a higher vagal tone has been linked to greater heart acceleration during circumcision (Porter et al., 1988). Vagal tone has been linked to some behavioural strategies used by children (Calkins, 1997). Facial expression: Examples: a higher resting heart rate (Vagal Tone) has been linked to showing longer expressions of interest, and showing more interest and joy toward strangers ( Fox &Gelles, 1984; Stifter et al., 1989). Emotion regulation: Vagal activity is linked toemotion regulation. This course provides details about emotion regulation in an upcoming module; for now understand that emotion regulation, in its simplest description, controls emotional responses and experiences. The following video provides a good visual and descriptive look at the physiological impacts of emotion; while watching this, you will be able to connect what is occurring in the body during an emotional experience to the methods of measuring emotional experiences presented above. Autonomic Nervous System ( ANS) and physiologic markers of... (10:36) Now that you are familiar with the physiological responses/changes during an emotion experience, this is a good point at which to consider some interesting research findings. First, is afollow these instructions to give you an idea of how one study was conducted. Instructions: Furrow your brows Raise your upper eyelids Press your lips together as tight as you can Now hold this for 15 seconds Before releasing, pay attention to how you feel As you are aware, Dr. Ekman developed a system to code facial muscle movements(there will be more discussion on this in module 6) during emotion experiences;he coded which muscles actually moved. Further research has shown that if you intentionally move the facial muscles that correspond to a specific emotion, your Autonomic Nervous System responds to the muscle movements. In other words, if you contort your facial muscles as would occurif experiencing true anger, your ANS responds as if you are experiencing anger. A prominent emotion researcher, Dr. Robert Levenson and his colleagues conducted research demonstrating the physiological response of forced emotion based facial muscle movements, in one of the first studies of its kind. They found that regardless of culture, male facial muscle contraction was related to alterations in ANS response and the ANS response differed based on the emotion the participant was to force. You may have heard, in popular psychology, the idea of “faking happy until you feel happy”; this idea is based on research demonstrating actual physiological responses to forced emotional expressions. Another good example of physiology following intentional emotional expression is laughter therapy; there are lots of videos on the web if you want to learn about this therapy method. Laughter alters physiology and forced laughter creates similar experiences. Based on a number of studies by Levenson, Ekman, and many others, distinct physiological responses have been found for differing emotions. See whether you can provide an educated guess of the ANS response from the following: Disgust, Sadness, Fear, Anger, Happiness, Surprise Which emotion has the lowest heart rate? Which emotion has the highest heart rate? Which emotion has the lowest blood flow? Which emotion has the highest blood flow? Think about particularly memorable occasions when you experienced each of the above primary (basic) and complex (compound) emotions; can you recall which ones increased your heart rate, which caused your hands to feel cold or to sweat? If you recall similar physiological responses to multiple emotion experiences, can you recall which was a more intense response? As you have learned, multipleemotions increase heat-rate, but is the heart-rate elevated to the same level? Negative emotions (e.g., anger, fear, sadness) increase the heart rate more than happiness and surprise; this finding, as well as many other research results, suggests that negative emotions have a stronger or more intense impact on the person than do positive emotions. Additionally, the change in finger temperature is used to measure of blood flow. Based on this measurement, fear and disgust are shown to induce the least blood flow to hands, andanger invoked the most. Aside. For those interested, this link is to a site providing some background information on measuring finger temperature and blood flow. The temperature of emotions | PLOS ONE In fact, researchers have demonstrated thatfear and disgust decrease blood flow below the average flow in a resting state, whereas the other emotions increased blood flow; can you think of reasons why you would need more blood flow to your hands with anger compared tofear or disgust? Many studies have been conducted to understand the physiological experiences during various emotion states; a simple web search will provide more information on this topic, for those who are interested. Aside: Recall the note above suggesting looking into videos regardinglaughter therapy; this link is to a New Scientist (on-line magazine) article on the physiological benefits of laughter. http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7103-laughing-helps... For now, let’s go back to the emotion theories discussed in module 2; recall the point or order whenthe physiological response was noted to occur in each theory of emotion experience. Now that you have some knowledge of the physiological responses, watch the video belowwhichclearly explains the physiological response during emotional experiences; this visual overview willto help in understanding emotion theories and how research is important for evaluating theory. Theorires of Emotion |Processing the Environment |MCAT | Khan Academy (8:14) It is important to note that only one emotion theory can accurately identify the emotion process; therefore, consider which theory you support and why. Next time you recognize a personal emotion experience, pay attention and attempt to apply an emotion theory to it. To end this section of the module, below is a link to a discussion with Dr. Levenson regarding emotion and psychobiology: you will be able to put a face to some historically important andground-breaking research! Experts in Emotion 7.3 -- Robert Levenson on Psychophysiology and Emotion (29:42) The next section of this module focuses on the brain and emotion, which is, of course, instrumental in physiological emotional responses. Module 4 Introduction Part 2 "Affective neuroscience" is a relatively new field of study, and this terminology represents the study of neurological processes and locations of emotional processing and experiences. As noted earlier, the terminology in this module will be novel to many of you; therefore, again, you will be provided only the very basic information important for understanding emotion. There is so much more to this topic than is presented herein! This course topic is split between this module and the next as there is a good deal of informationincluded that may be new to many in the course; too much new information may feel overwhelming to those of you without the biology background. In the remainder of this module, you will be presented with the methods used to study the brain and neurological processes in emotion, as well as some resources that review basic brain structures -- which should be review from the pre-requisite course. The next module (#5) will start with a discussion of specific brain regions and functions in emotion and provide a more indepthdiscussion of affective neurobiology/neuroscience. Note: Throughout this and future modules, you will be presented videos of interviews conducted by Dr. June Gruber; Dr. Gruber gave her permission for the inclusion of each of her interview videos. Affective Neuroscience Measurement Methods There are a number of methods used to study affective neurological processes. Generally, the goal of these methods is to determine the brain's response in relation to emotion; researchers want to understand which brain areas respond, and how they respond. To start this discussion, a review of the various methods to measure brain activity and those used in emotion research are presented below. 1) Brain Lesioning: Lesions in the brain assist in understanding which brain structures are involved in emotion and whether certain structures are specific a particular emotion. Brain lesions can occur through head trauma, accidents, and diseases. Additionally, researchers can induce lesions through chemical injections, destroying with lasers, or surgically removing or altering brain structures. Comparing emotional experiences of healthy brains to lesioned brains provides evidence of neurological processes in emotion. I am sure you remember the story of Phineas Gage from the Introduction to Psychology courses (pre-requisite psychology courses). Mr. Gage was the man who experienced brain trauma - and not just any common trauma as it was caused by a butan iron rod through the frontal lobe region of his brain. Mr. Gage's experiences related to the brain's role and functions in emotion and other processes were very important to, and essentially a hallmark of, understand the link between the brain and emotion. The experiences of Phineas Gage were instrumental in both affective neuroscience and other disciplines. Students often learn about PhineasGage in early and later relevant psychology courses; however, there is far more to Mr. Gage's experiences and life following the accident than is generally discussed in academic settings. I believe that the lack of detail shared with students about Mr. Gage is unfortunate given the extensive evidence he provided to multiple disciplines, especially psychology-based clinicians, theorists, and researchers. So many terrible experiences (e.g., Romanian orphans, David Reimer) have contributed to advanced knowledge in psychology generally and emotion particularly. Aside. The following link provides far more details about Mr. Gage than what is documented in academic textbooks or discussedin academic classrooms.http://news.nationalpost.com/2014/05/16/how-phineas-gage... 2) Positron Emission Tomography (PET): With PET scans, glucose is tagged with a radioactive substance allowing researchers to observe the movement of it in the brain. Increased glucose in a specific region indicates activity in that area. The following picture presents an image of what researchers would see on a PET scan; the red areas indicate the highest glucose activity. wikipedia/commons/c/c6/PET-image.jpg 3) Electroencephalography (EEG): This method allows for the study of electrical activity, but only regarding activity in newer brain areas – as you will see in the next module, much emotion processing occurs in more primitive brain structures. The textbook chapters outline this procedure; this video clip also provides very useful information. Electroencephalogram (EEG) Demonstration (8:10) 4) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): This method allows for magnetic detection of hemoglobin (blood) oxygen levels; increased blood oxygen indicates recent activity. The following two short video clips provide a look at a 3D model produced by fMRI and a demonstration of how an fMRI is conducted. How does fMRI brain scanning work? Alan Alda and Dr. Nancy Kanwisher, MIT (3:48) Human Brain Magnetic Resonance / Diffusion Tensor Imaging (0:41) 5) Neurotransmitters: You will recall from your first year psychology course that chemical neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine, serotonin) are vital to thoughts, feelings, and behaviours; therefore, it will not be surprising to learn that emotion is modulated by neurotransmitters. Chapter 3 in the recommended text (see Amthor, 2011)provides an overview of neurotransmitters. Although this will be discussed in greater detail in the next module, when the emotion regions of the brain are discussed, understand (for now) that researchers study neurotransmitters related to emotion as they naturally occur and when they have been altered. This final video provides an overview of a number of methods to study affective neuroscience. How the Body Works : Physical Responses to Emotion (1:31) Review: To end this module on the physiology and neuroscience of emotion, it is recommended that you watch the following two videos as reminders of important brain structures andprocesses, which were discussed in the pre-requisite courses. The information presented in the following videos provides some of the background information that should be understood before delving into affective neuroscience, in the next module. Some information in these two videos is review from the pre-requisite courses; however, both are good reminders of various brain structures and how information moves through the brain; both videos provide an important knowledge-base upon which to discuss the specifics of affective neuroscience, in the next module. Brain videos The Brain (13:55) The Brain's Inner Workings - Part 1 - Structure and Function (5:40) Summary This module presented a good deal of information related to how emotion is measured in the brain and body. Additionally, students were presented a review of the Nervous System with special attention paid to the Autonomic Nervous System and its role in emotion. By now you should be able to list methods used to measure the ANS and how emotion is demonstrated physiologically. A variety of methods to measure neurological processes in emotion studies was presented, and once you have watched the two videos regarding brain structure and the movement of information through the brain, you will be prepared to learn about the brain structures implicated in emotion. Resources Frijda, N. H. (2001). The emotions: Studies in emotion and social interaction. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Learning Activities Select a favourite song and listen to it with no distractions; pay attention to how that song makes you feel. Does it elicit positive or negative emotion, did your physiology change when you listened to the song? Now listen to a style of music you do not like; again, pay attention to how that music makes you feel, which emotion, if any, it elicits, and physiological experiences. Attempt to mimic what you believe the facial muscle movements are of a number of different emotions; see if you can impact your physiology from holding those facial muscles. MODULE 5: Affective Neuroscience Continued Introduction In the previous module (#4), we started the discussion of physiology and biology related to emotion; in addition we started a discussion ofaffective neuroscience which is continued in this module. Recall that module 4 ended with a few videos related to neurological functioning and structures; these videos -- regarding parts of the brain and the movement of information through the brain-- provide some general brain-related information that the content in this module is based upon. Overview This module is focused on brain structures and functions that are important to understanding emotion. As with the previous modules, there is a good deal of information and evidence related to emotion-related topics. Though the pre-requisite courses introduce some neurological and biological topics and terminology, I do realise that the information presented in modules 4 and 5may be new to many students in the course and, therefore, module content and topics are intentionally not delving deeply into the topics; content is not indepth or extensive. Students interested in delving further into the extensive range of neuro- and bio- emotion related topics and processes, should feel free to email me and I will forward additional resources. Learning Outcomes After completing this module, students will be able to: 1) name brain structures important to emotion, 2) be able to discuss the movement of neurotransmitters through the brain, and 3) indicate the coordination of multiple neurobiological systems and processes related to emotion. Required Readings refer to syllabus Contents The Limbic System Based on your review of the videos presented at the end of module 4, you will remember that there are 3 brain structures: Hindbrain, Midbrain, and Forebrain and two hemispheres, which communicate through the corpus callosum (and the anterior commissure). You will also remember the 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. Lastly, recall that parts of the brain are believed to have evolved over time; therefore, only more fully evolved animals (e.g., humans, primates, etc.) posess more evolved brain structures such as the neocortex. With respect to emotion, the system we are most interested in is the limbic system. The limbic system is sometimes referred to as the "emotional brain". The limbic system is in the forebrain area and it is important in both memory and emotion. This system determines which information stays in the cortex and is important for appraisal. Recall that appraisal (i.e., interpretation) is important in theories of emotion. The picture below (see MultimediaMgr, 2004) shows the limbic system’s placement in the brain. The areas of the limbic system in this picture include: hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, and hypothalamus; these are the structures we will talk about with respect to emotion. The following picture provides aview of the limbic system (and other areas) when the brain is sliced between the hemispheres (i.e., midsagittal view); what you are looking at is the centre of the interior left half of a brain. You will see the thalamus and hypothalamus pointed out and also the other limbic structures (although they are not labelled, you can refer back to the picture above to determine where they are located). serendip.brynmawr.edu Limbic system structures In this part of the module, we look at each limbic structure individually. You will be presented a picture of the specific structure, provided information about what the structure is responsible for with respect to emotion, followed by some important research that will assist in understanding the role of the structure in emotion. Before we start discussing each limbic structure, I want to provide some information about Dr. Wilder Penfield (1891-1976) who was a neurosurgeon at McGill University. Dr. Penfield was instrumental in mapping brain regions and functions; he conducted the first neurosurgeries on patients while they were awake, allowing him to stimulate brain areas and study the immediate self-reported impact. Although his focus was to understand causes of epilepsy, Dr. Penfield'swork influenced many areas of neuroscience. In fact, many experts credit Dr. Penfieldwith starting neuropsychology. Biography of Dr. Penfield: Dr. Wilder Graves Penfield Canadian Medical Hall of Fame Laureate 1994.mov (2:55) This website provides a biography of Dr. Penfield as well as interesting information about hiswork. The site also includes interactive activities; in the research replication tab, you can go through the motions of applying electrical stimulation to various cortical areas and learn which area you stimulated and the impact. In the lab tour you will find some information on the brain, another interactive activity on mapping the cortex, and information on Penfield's lab and work.I personally believe every psychology student should have knowledge of Dr. Penfield and his importance to our discipline, as well as many others (e.g., medicine, pharmacology, neurology).With respect to emotion, Dr. Penfield and Dr. H. Jasper studied the limbic and neocortical functions; they stimulated precise limbic sites and were able to reproduce subjective emotional states. This work was instrumental in pinpointing the limbic structures involved in the generation of emotional experiences. The following information is specific to some of the important brain structures in the limbic system and, therefore, in emotion. Amygdala The amygdala is the almond shaped mass located in the temporal lobe. kurzweilai.net brainposts.blogspot.com The amygdala is instrumental in a number of emotion functions and experiences including: Processing emotions Particularly related to emotion and motivation regarding survival Often discussed regarding anger, fear, and pleasure Involved in determining which memories are stored and where they are stored (e.g., long term memory, short term memory) regarding emotional events Autonomic responses related to fear (e.g., fight, flight, freeze) Secretion of hormones Basic unconscious affective read of the meaning of stimulus (e.g., response before awareness) There is some evidence that the right and left amygdala are functionally different. For example, stimulation of the left amygdala induces pleasant and unpleasant emotions whereas the right amygdala only produced negative emotions. Amygdala Research During the 1930's, Kluver and Bucy removed the temporal lobes of rhesus monkeys and found that, amongst other behavioural changes, their emotional response was inhibited or dulled and there was a loss of fear. Additionally, LeDoux (1996) has found that when the amygdala is knocked out (e.g., lesioned, removed), emotional responses are inappropriate and the individual does not learn from mistakes. Similar results have been found in humans with amygdala disruptions (e.g., amygdala lesions, temporal stroke, encephalitis, etc.). Researchers have linked the amygdala to psychological disorders such as anxiety in children, social anxiety, and depression. For example, the amygdala is involved in activating the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis; the HPA is a biological system that activates and controls "stress" related physiological reactions and regulations (Yan, 2012). Aside: Next time you say the words "I am stressed out" or "this is so stressful" consider how likely it is that your HPA system is activated; if it is unlikely, then there are more accurate terms to accurately describe your experience (e.g., frustrated, overwhelmed, uncomfortable, annoyed).This very topic is discussed in more detail in a later module. Researchers have found that childhood adversity can result in long lasting changes in the amygdala's structure and functioning; these amygdala impacts and alterations may be demonstrated via a lowered emotional reaction threshold (e.g., heightened emotional response, more easily react) which may increase the risk of anxiety and related disorders (Yan, 2012). For example, a number of researchers have revealed larger amygdala volume in institutionalized children who experienced adverse parenting (Mehtaet al., 2009; Tottenham et al., 2010) while others have found smaller amygdala volume in adults with childhood trauma (Driessen et al., 2000; Schmahl et al., 2003). Although there are studies demonstrating no significant amygdala affects following traumatic experiences, when differences are found, it appears that the type, extent, and duration of the trauma-related event may differentially impact the amygdala. Hippocampus Because this area resembles a seahorse -- as you see in the second picture below -- it was named the hippocampus (Greek hippos meaning horse and kampos meaning sea monster). As with the amygdala, humans have two hippocampi. http://worthit2bme.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/amygdala-hippocampus.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocampus The hippocampus is instrumental in: Aside: Not surprisingly, this is one of the brain areas damaged in Alzheimer’s disease. Recording facts and memories Categorizes information Recording time and sequence of events Making new memories The amygdala can override the hippocampus when it “feels” under attack (e.g., extreme fear) Therefore, memories of what occurred are sketchy and/or incomplete Brings stored information to consciousness (in other words, makes the person aware of stored memories; memory recollection) Hippocampus Research Aside: The amygdala and hippocampus are important in traumatic events. Traumatic events may result in the amygdala overriding the hippocampus, resulting in the victim not fully remembering what happened and potentially re-experiencing the event as the sequence of events may not be recorded and, therefore, not have an end point. In studies investigating the brains of children with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), researchers report a negative relationship between PTSD severity and hippocampus (H) volume; in other words, more severe trauma response is related to lower hippocampal volume (see Bremner et al., 1997; Driessen et al., 2000). Others have not found differences between PTSD and nonPTSD, while some have found a relationship but only for the right hippocampi (see Carrion, Weems, & Reiss (2007). Animal studies in which hippocampus volume is measured prior to and following researcher-induced stress reveal a decrease in H volume post- compared to pre- stressor; importantly, the decreased volume was not immediate but appeared to be a function of time (Brunson et al., 2001). To investigate genetics and environment on H volume,researchers compared the H of one identical sibling with PTSD to their identical twin sibling without PTSD. The researchers reported that both siblings had smaller than average H volume; however, no difference in volume between the PTSD and nonPTSD twin, suggesting a link to genetics/biology (see Gilbertson et al., 2001). Based on the conflicting evidence to date, it is unclear whether severe stressors impact H volume or whether the H volume impacts the response to stressor; but it does seem clear that hippocampus volume is the result of environment and genetics. Regardless of why the H is smaller, deficiencies in hippocampal volume decrease the ability to process traumatic events. Using MRI technology, there is evidence of depressed and nondepressed individuals differing in H volume (see MacQueen et al., 2003; Videbech & Ravnkilde, 2004). For example, some researchers report depressed males have smaller left H volume than nondepressed males, whereas depressed females have larger right H volume compared to nondepressed females. Interestingly, the H volume of girls with a depressed mother was found to be lower in the left hemisphere compared the H volume of girls without a depressed mother (Chen, Hamilton, & Gotlieb, 2010). Still, other research teams studying childhood stress (i.e., neglect/abuse) and major depression in adulthood reported hippocampi differences between depressed individuals with and without childhood abuse, with males showing H differences in both hemispheres (Frodiet al., 2010).Though the research discussed above is a very limited snapshot of the vast research conducted over many years, it is clear that H is important in psychology related functioning. Additionally, there are no common answers to questions regarding the role, impacts, causes, implications, consequences, etc., of biology and environmental exposures on, and/or as a result of the hippocampus. What does seem apparent though is that the hippocampus is important to emotion. Hippocampus and Amygdala Research When researchers (e.g., LeDoux) knock out the amygdala but not the hippocampus, respondents experience the stimulus induced emotion, but do not know why they experience it: they cannot track the emotional significance of the stimuli (Phelps, 2004).For example, as part of a classical conditioning study (refer to pre-requisite course material/textbook if need a reminder of classical conditioning), researchers paired a blue square with a shock; theamygdala damaged group did not show fear to the later presented blue square, while those with hippocampus damage responded to the blue square with fear, even though they couldnot recall/state why they experienced fear (see LaBar et al., 1995; Squire & Knowlton, 2000). Can you think of reasons/explanations for these results? The hippocampus sends a rapid signal to the amygdala to generate a quick response -- so quick it does not make it to the cortex; the hippocampus needs to work efficiently in order to relay the memory of the stimuli (or to categorize new stimuli with the pre-existing memory similar) to trigger the unconscious response. You can imagine the difficulties that would be caused if the hippocampus is not present (due to: e.g., research induced, neurological trauma such as head injury,induced lesion, etc.). Imagine the impact that losing hippocampal functioning may have on everyday emotional experiences (e.g., meeting new people, going into an unfamiliar situation, etc.) Thalamus The thalamus is located at the top of the brainstem and near the centre of the brain. There are two halves to the thalamus, each roughly the size of a walnut. The two halves are connected and the thalamus has many nerve fibres connecting it to other brain regions. kurzweilai.net http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamus#mediaviewer/File:Thalamus_small.gif The thalamus acts as a relay station: Except for smell, all sensory information passes through and is processed in the thalamus Information is relayed through the thalamus to the cortex the cortex also relays information through the thalamus to other parts of the cortex and spinal cord recall that the cortex is the most recently evolved brain structure, responsible for higher processing such as reasoning, rationalization, and planning Sensory outputs (responses to the sensory information) are processed through the thalamus The thalamus directs our attention The thalamus screens out “distracting” information The thalamus sorts and sends information to the forebrain Remember that higher processing occurs in the forebrain Because the thalamus processes and relays sensory information, it is also important in emotion regulation (controlling emotion as discussed in a later module) Thalamus Research Researchers have lesioned areas of the thalamus and noted changes in emotional reactivity. Recall that the thalamus is the relay station for sensory stimulus; therefore, there is belief that processing in the thalamus impacts how other areas function. When the thalamus is not working properly (e.g. through lesion or medical stimulation) it impacts how (or if, in cases where the thalamus is removed) information is processed, which may result in other systems not responding as expected. Recent research revealed significantly more nerve cells (31% more) in the thalamus' emotion areas of people with major depressive disorder (see Young et al., 2004). In this study, the researchers compared the post-mortem brains of matched samples of individuals with schizophrenia, major depression, bi-polar disorder, to a comparison group with no known mental health issues prior to death. Below is a verbatim excerpt taken from a news article explaining this research: "The findings, published in today's issue of The American Journal of Psychiatry, are the first to directly link a psychiatric disorder with an increase in total regional nerve cells, said Dr. Dwight German, professor of psychiatry at UT Southwestern. "This supports the hypothesis that structural abnormalities in the brain are responsible for depression," he said. "Often people don't understand why mentally ill people behave in odd ways. They may think they have a weak will or were brought up in some unusual way. But if their brains are different, they're going to behave differently. Depression is an emotional disorder. So it makes sense that the part of the brain that is involved in emotional regulation is physically different." Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/07/040702092133.htm; Interestingly, the schizophrenia and bi-polar groups did not differ in the number of nerve cells in the thalamus compared to the control group; only those with major depression were found to differ. In addition, the researchers found that those with major depressive disorder also had a larger thalamus (in the emotion areas of the thalamus); see https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/ appi.ajp.161.7.1270 for more information on this finding. Note: Recall that depression is mood, but that emotion can be very much intertwined with mood. Hypothalamus The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and above the brainstem; it is reported to be about the size of an almond. kurzweilai.net anatomy.wikispaces.com The hypothalamus is the main location for homeostasis, whichis the process of returning to"set point". For example, in certain emotions, the heart rate is elevated (e.g., blood pressure/BP) and the hypothalamus slows the BP to its "set point" or usual rate. The hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, body weight, response to pain, sexual satisfaction, aggressive behaviour,etc. Regulates ANS functioning (see module 4); therefore, regulates blood pressure, body temperature, breathing, etc. Since it regulates ANS, can you understand itsresponse to emotional situations (e.g., eyes widening, increased heart rate, etc.) Receives information about physiology and, when necessary, induces compensatory changes (e.g., increase heart rate when BP is too low) Regulates emotion Research demonstrates the impact of the hypothalamus as outlined, verbatim, below: "The hypothalamus receives input from a number of sources. From the vagus nerve, it [hypothalamus] gets information about blood pressure and the distension of the gut (that is, how full your stomach is). From the reticular formation in the brainstem, it gets information about skin temperature. From the optic nerve, it gets information about light and darkness. From unusual neurons lining the ventricles, it gets information about the contents of the cerebrospinal fluid, including toxins that lead to vomiting. And from the other parts of the limbic system and the olfactory (smell) nerves, it gets information that helps regulate eating and sexuality. The hypothalamus also has some receptors of its own, that provide information about ion balance and temperature of the blood." Retrieved from: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/limbicsystem.html The hypothalamus is often discussed with respect to fear. As you will learn in module 8, fear is tied to increased heart-rate, fast breathing, blood engorging muscles, and the body preparing for fight or flight; you have no control over these physiological responses as they are controlled by the ANS. Since the hypothalamus regulates the ANS, it regulates relevant autonomic emotion responses. Putting it Together You have been presented some of the major areas of the limbic system found to be important in emotion processing, responses, etc. Based on the information provided above and in previous modules, try to conceptualize the intertwine of each part of thelimbic system with the others and as a fully intertwined system regarding emotion, etc., the limbic system/integration is discussed in various upcoming modules, each relevant to a specific emotion. The following video provides a good overview of the limbic system: Emotions: limbic system | Processing the Environment | MCAT | Khan Academy (10:31) Summary The limbic system, discussed above, is important for instinct, drives, motivation, memory, and emotion. Regarding emotion, the limbic system is involved in pleasure, pain, fear, anger, happiness, etc. As discussed in this module, some of the limbic system's important emotion related functions include:relaying emotion information to higher reasoning systems, prepares the body for response, regulates bodily response, and provides unconscious appraisal allowing for quick action. Imagine any one of these limbic structure based functions not working correctly or efficiently; the consequences may be extremeimpacts to emotion relevant well-being and functioning. Though it has been stated earlier, it is important to reiterate that, this discussion of the limbic system is very basic and, as a consequence, did not include information a number of other limbic structures (e.g., fornix). Additionally, although information is presented in such as way as to suggest each limbic structure, as a whole, is linked to specific functions, it is important to understand that each structure is further subdivided with specific functions located in each subdivision (e.g., it is the dorsal thalamus that relays information to the cortex); however, this level of detail is not required for understanding the limbic system and emotion in a 2nd year course. It is, therefore, important to remember that this module provided enough information for a fairly general understanding of the limbic system in emotion and those wanting a more indepthlook at the limbic system should feel free to contact me for resources. Brain Hemisphere and Emotion Recall that each limbic structure discussed above is bi-lateral, or located on both sides of the brain. Also recall the evidence of differing functions of some limbic structures, with differences being attributed to location(e.g., hippocampus& depression). There is a good deal of evidence regarding emotion and the left and right brain hemispheres, which the rest of this module is focused on. Also recall that the two brain hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum; the left hemisphere is connected to the right side of the body and the right hemisphere is connected to the left body. Even though there is communication and connection across the hemispheres, there isevidence thatsome specificfunctioning is more commonly found in one hemisphere - termed function lateralization. That said, it is important to note that, in the case of damage to a brain region/area/system, researchers have noted thatother brain systems to adapt and accommodate the damaged processes; for example, alternate neural pathways develop to accommodate the impacted regions/processes. Although it is not standard, there is a tendency for some processes to be lateralized (more focused in one hemisphere); for example, the left hemisphere is often associated with planning, working memory, semantic knowledge, and thinking about the future. Some of the research conducted to understand emotion and brain hemisphere is presented below; remember this is only a few studies from the extraordinary number that have been conducted. Those interested in this line of research can certainly, and easily, find many more examples. Lateralization Research Recall the work of Dr. Wilder Penfield, that included stimulating various areas of the brain while the individual was awake; this research provided some of the first knowledge regarding brain lateralization. Other research has added to our current knowledge of brain hemisphere and emotion, and is discussed below. Lie Detection: Research involving individuals with hemispheric damage indicates those with right hemispheric damage are worse at detecting lies than those with left hemisphere damage (see Etcoff et al.2000). Lie detection requires processing nonverbal cues (e.g., voice changes, expressions of fear, hesitation, etc.), suggesting that tuning into nonverbal cues is more dominant in the right hemisphere. Nonverbal cues are important to interpreting emotions in another. Split Brain Research: In the 1960's, Drs. Gazzaniga and Sperry investigated lateralization in individuals whose corpus callosum was severed - reducing the ability of the two hemispheres to communicate - often as a method to control their epilepsy. Watch the video to obtain some background on Gazzaniga's research and learn some results related to emotion and hemispheric function. Split brain behavioral experiments (4:35) Lateralization & Emotion Related Approach and Avoidance There are a few emotion-lateralization theories, with evidence to support them. 1) Right Hemisphere Hypothesis (Barod et al., 1983) According to this hypothesis, the right hemisphere is involved in ALL emotion processing. The right hemisphere of the brain is responsible for recognizing emotional states (e.g., recognizing facial expressions). Evidence indicates that face-to-face communication is impacted in people with right hemisphere damage; with an inability to read nonverbal facial cues, you can imagine how difficult it is to communicate with others. 2) Valence Hypothesis (Silberman et al., 1986) In this hypothesis, the left hemisphere mediates positive emotions and the right mediates negative emotions. it should be evident that the two theories discussed above: Right Hemisphere Hypothesis (RHH) and the Valence Hypothesis (VH) are incongruent; RHH specified all emotion is processed in the right hemisphere whereas VH posits that only negative emotion is processed in the right hemisphere. There continues to be debate and research attempting to discern the lateralization of emotion; the following link is to a paper in which these two theories are tested. You are expected to read the abstract in the attached link to get an idea of how these hypotheses are examined; for those interested, the full paper is also provided. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2569811/ 3) Approach-Withdrawal Hypothesis (Davidson, 1990) This hypothesis proposes that the left hemisphere is responsible for approach behaviours and the right is responsible for avoidance behaviours. Combining the Valence and Approach-Withdrawal Hypotheses Approach behaviours are more likely to occur when the emotion experienced is positive; similarly, avoidance behaviour would be a response to a negative emotion experience. Research A number of studies have been conducted on each of the lateralization hypothesis regarding emotion processing. A couple of examples are reported below, and for those interested a simplesearch will reveal many others. A prominent neuroscientist in the lateralization research field is Dr. Richard Davidson, at the University of Wisconsin in Madison. Davidson’s work is based on the idea that in order to survive, humans must: approach good things avoid bad things This idea has been studied in animal behaviours, with researchers investigating structures that promote approach-related behaviour or promote avoidance-related behaviour. Aside: For those taking the Motivation course, this same information will be discussed with respect to motivation. Hemispheric lateralization is important regarding approach/avoidance emotion and motivation. Davidson believes that approach- avoidance is a basic way in which human emotion should be considered. Severed hemisphere research has provided support for emotion related approach-avoidance hemispheric lateralization. Researchers have revealed that when the left hemisphere is knocked-out, people have trouble carrying out plans and goal-directed activities (e.g., approach activities). Davidson’s work includesyoung children; he has studied 1-year old children by measuring their EEG activity and behaviour. When there is something the child wants, the left hemisphere is more active and the child reaches with their right hand. In a study of emotional lateralization in the brainstem, researchers injected a barbiturate into the left or right carotid artery; the injection, for simplicity, can be considered to shut down functioning on the injected side (of course it is far more complicated than this, but you get the idea). When injected into the left side participants cried, felt negative, and felt fear; conversely, when injected into the right side (thus the left is active) participants report euphoria, feelings of well-being, and smiling. Aside: This procedure is called the Wada Test, developed by Canadian J. A. Wada, at the University of British Columbia. Limits of the information: In later modules covering positive and negative emotion, the discussion of lateralization will be further elaborated on and additional evidence and research will be presented. As a conclusion to this section of the module, remember that the information regarding brain functioning and emotion was presented in its very basic form; as noted earlier when specific limbic systems were discussed, each system is subdivided and it is within these specific subdivisions that specific emotion processes occur. This same notation must be made regarding hemispheric lateralization; although the evidence and discussion has simply referred to "left" and "right" hemispheres, it is important to note that there are specific areas/regions/lobes within the hemispheres that are implicated (e.g., low activity in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is found in major depressive disorder) in many of the studies discussed; for those interested in obtaining amore detailed level of knowledge, upper level courses in emotion and/or neuropsychology as well as the many research and review papers written on these topics will provide the information. For this course, understanding the concepts and results in more general terms is expected, and this is the extent of the material presented. Summary The two brain hemispheres are connected and communicate through corpus callosum; research to understand brain lateralization and emotion has been conducted on individuals and animals with a severed corpus callosum. Additionally, hemispheric brain lesions and brain damage have also provided insight into the role of various brain regions and hemispheres in emotion. The hemispheres have been implicated in approach and withdrawal behaviours, as well as positive and negative emotions, and research has support these various hypotheses. The ability to understand another's facial cues regarding emotion, pursue goals, and demonstrate emotion are all been found to be impacted if one or the other hemisphere is damaged; based on the minimal research evidence presented in this module, it is evident that for optimal emotion experiences and responses, both hemispheres and the various brain structures must be functioning efficiently. This final video of the module provides a summary of lateralization. Do We Have Left or Right Brain Personalities? (3:12) Resources For those interested in more depth to their understanding of affective neuroscience, the following papers and links may be of interest: Miller, G. A., Crocker, L. D., Spielberg, J. M., Infantolino, Z. P., & Heller, W. (2013). Issues in localization of brain function: The case of lateralized frontal cortex in cognition, emotion, and psychopathology. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience, 7(2). Available: http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fnint.2013.00002/full Wolman, D. (2012). The split brain: A tale of two halves. Nature, 483 (7389). Available: http://www.nature.com/news/the-split-brain-a-tale-of-two-halves-1.10213 Learning Activities Just for fun, take an online “brain hemisphere dominance” test to see if you get similar results to your expectations. You can find these from a basic web search or there is one listed below. But remember, the belief that a person is left or right hemisphere dominant is now considered a myth; there was a time when this was a prevailing belief but, with continued scientific gains,research evidence has shown this not to be true. Instead, both hemispheres work together and humans are not dominated by one hemisphere over the other! http://braintest.sommer-sommer.com/en/ MODULE 6: Emotion Development and Cultural Characteristics Introduction Before starting this module, follow this link to a “smile test” and take the “test” before continuing on: Identify the Smile Though this "survey" appears to be specific for a class at another school, all of the content is taken from the original bbc site. You do not need to enter any of your demographic information and your responses are not linked to you or accessible to me in any way; this site simply provides the bbc produced videos and smile options that are not consistently on the bbc's site (bbc archived the material, therefore, it is not always accessible). It is important that you complete at least some examples from the link provided above; this will provide you a a good example of reading emotion before you learn more about interpreting emotion. Overview This module focuses on when emotions emerge, how emotions develop, and the developmental factors that influence 1) which emotions are expressed and 2) which emotions are experienced. Additionally, this module includes individual characteristics regarding stability, age, and cultural features. Learning Outcomes After completing this module, students will be able to describe how emotions develop and the impact of age and time on emotion. Students will also be able to report some cultural similarities and differences regarding emotion. Required Readings Text chapters Content 1.0 Child Development and Emotion There are many questions regarding the development of emotion. Some of these questions include: Can emotions be seen from the first day of life? Is a sequence of the emergence of emotion? and if there is, which emotions emerge first? These are just a few examples of the types of questions researchers studying the development of human emotions try to answer. In order to study emotion development, researchers need to study infants. Can you think of ways that emotion may be studied in infants? Looking at this infant’s picture, can you think of struggles researchers may have in accurately studying emotion in infants? www.123rf.com Some of the issues with this field of investigation include the fact that: babies and infants have a lot of fat on their faces, which makes it difficult to detect muscle movement babies do not have wrinkles; there are some emotions that require visible wrinkles in order to interpret the facial expression related to an emotion for example, wrinkles are important to discern between a genuine and a superficial smile babies faces move quickly which also makes studying the facial movements in emotion difficult The following link is an example of a baby’s quick facial movements; how do you interpret each change in the face? Baby Oliver wakes up with every emotion (1:04) Watch the clip a second time and see if you can list th

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