Chapter 11 Motivation and Emotion PDF

lOMoARcPSD|47229513 Chapter 11 Motivation and Emotion Introduction to Psychology (The University of Western Ontario) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by kayzia mck...

lOMoARcPSD|47229513 Chapter 11 Motivation and Emotion Introduction to Psychology (The University of Western Ontario) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 Motivation and Emotion Perspectives on Motivation Motivation: is a process that influences the direction, persistence, and vigour of goal-directed behaviour - Psychologists identify factors that motivate us towards our goals, whether they are obtaining food, a mate, a success or even peace and quiet Instinct Theory and Evolutionary theory Instinct: an inherited predisposition to behave in a specific and predictable way when exposed to a particular stimulus - Inspired by Darwin’s evolutionary theory - Genetic basis, found universally among all members of the species, don’t depend on learning, have survival value - William James proposed 3 dozen instincts. Researchers proposed thousands Modern evolutionary psychologists propose that many “psychological” motives have evolutionary underpinnings that are expressed through the actions of genes - Adaptive significance of behaviour is key to understanding motivation - Affiliation produced survival advantages: shared resources and protection against predators, that passed on from generations to us Homeostasis and Drive theory Homeostasis: a state of internal physiological equilibrium that the body strives to maintain - Maintaining requires a sensory mechanism for detecting changes in the internal environment, a response system that can restore equilibrium and a control centre that receives the information from the sensors and activates the response system - Once at set point, the sensors detect significant changes in either direction - Control units respond - Homeostasis can also involve learned behaviours Drive theory - Clark Hull: argued that all reinforcement involves some kind of biological drive reduction (no longer held) - Physiological disruptions to homeostasis produce drives - Drives: states of internal tension that motivate an organism to behave in ways that reduce this tension - E.g. hunger and thirst Incentive and expectancy theories Incentives: represent environmental stimuli that pull an organism towards a goal - E.g. a good grade. Incentive for studying Incentive theories - Focus attention on external stimuli that motivate behaviour - Historically, concepts of incentives and drives were linked - Emphasizes the pull of external stimuli and how stimuli with high incentive value can motivate behaviour, even in the absence of biological need - Applied to studies of drug abuse - Argues that seeking and administering the drug is a motivated by positive Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 incentive of the drug’s effect Cognitive perspective explains how much effort we put for our incentives - expectancy * value theory - Proposes goal-directed behaviours is jointly determined by 2 factors - The strengths of the person’s expectation that particular behaviours will lead to a goal - The value the individual places on that goal, incentive value - Motivation: expectancy * incentive value - Extrinsic Motivation: performing an activity to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment - Intrinsic motivation: performing an activity for its own sake, because you find it enjoyable or stimulating The overjustification hypothesis - Giving people extrinsic rewards to perform activities that they intrinsically enjoy may over justify that behaviour and reduce intrinsic motivation - We begin to believe that we are doing it for the reward rather than the enjoyment Psychodynamic and humanistic Theories - View motivation within broader context of personality development and functioning, but take radically different approaches Freud - Highlighted the motivational underworld - Most of our behaviour is result from never ending battle of our unconscious impulses struggling for release and our psychological defences used to keep them under control - Energy released from unconscious motives are disguised as socially acceptable behaviours Humanistic theory - Abharam Maslow believed that psychology’s other perspectives ignored a key motive, our striving for personal growth - Deficiency needs: concerned with physical and social survival - Growth needs: uniquely human and motive us to develop our potential - Concept of Need Hierarchy - Progression of needs containing deficiency needs at the bottom and growth needs at the top - When our basic physiological needs are met, we move to safety needs, and etc - Self-actualization: the need to fulfill our potential and is the ultimate human motive - Critics say the concept is too vague Edward Deci and Richard Ryan Humanistic theory - Self determination theory: focuses on 3 fundamental psychological needs: competence, autonomy, relatedness - People are most fulfilled in their lives when they are able to satisfy these needs - When the needs are not met, there can be physical and psychological well-being consequences - Competence: reflects a human need to master new challenges and perfect skills - Motivates exploratory and growth inducing human behaviour Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 - Autonomy: satisfied when people experience their actions as a result of free choice without outside interference - Relatedness: our desire to form meaningful bonds with others - Complements autonomy - Feel freer to be themselves Hunger and Weight Regulation The physiology of Hunger Metabolism: the body’s rate of energy utilization. About ⅔ of the energy we use goes to support basal metabolism. The resting continuous metabolic work of body cells - Short term signals that start meals by producing hunger and stop food intake by producing satiety (state which we are no longer hungry as a result of eating) - Long term signals based on how much body fat you have - Adjust appetite and metabolism to compensate for times when you overeat or eat too little in the short term Many of us think hunger occurs when we begin to run low on energy and we feel full when immediate energy supplies are restored - Body does monitor this but this info interacts with other signals to regulate food intake - Hunger is not necessarily linked to immediate energy needs Homeostatic mechanisms are designed to prevent you from running low on energy in the first place - If an organism would not eat until its energy supply is low, would be a serious survival disadvantage There was a set point, an internal physiological standard, around which body weight was regulated - View holds if we overeat or eat too little - Homeostasis mechanisms wouldn’t bring you back to your original weight, if you’re trying to lose or gain weight Signals that start and terminate meals - Muscle stomach contractions correspond with hunger feelings - Not the cause of feeling hungry - When you eat, enzymes break down food into nutrients - Key nutrient is glucose. - After a meal, glucose is transported into cells to provide energy but a large portion is transferred to the liver and fat cells, being converted into other nutrients and stored - Sensors in the hypothalamus and liver monitor blood glucose concentrations - When glucose levels decreases, liver responds and converts nutrients back into glucose - A drop-rise glucose pattern - As we eat - Stomach and intestinal distensions are satiety signals - When we eat foods that are nutrient full, we food satiety faster - Can feel satiety because of both intestinal dissension and chemical signals - Intestines respond to food by releasing peptides that helps to terminate a meal Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 -CCK or cholecystokinin is released into the bloodstream by small intestines as food arrives to the stomach - Stimulates activity in Peripheral nerves that send satiety signal to the brain, we feel full - Decreases feelings of hunger and food intake - Ghrelin: released by stomach and small intestine and thought of to be one of the most important hunger signals - Important for food cravings and rewarding properties of food and mental images of food - Highest levels just before mealtime, decline rapidly after you eat - Food-related cues can trigger release of hormone Signals that regulate general appetite and weight Fat cells - Actively regulate food intake and weight by secreting leptin, decreases appetite - The more fat we gain, more leptin secreted, we have lower appetite and increased energy expenditure Leptin - A background signal - Doesn’t make us full - Regulates appetite by increasing the potency of other satiety signals Brain mechanism - Midbrain limbic structures, especially nucleus accumbens, play a special role in the motivational value of food - Most brain areas are commonly linked to motivation and reward, Nucleus Accumbens, VTA, and insula are activated by food cues, especially if it’s preferred food. - 2 parts of hypothalamus - Near the side, Lateral hypothalamus is a hunger on centre - Stimulating L.H makes you eat more, making lesions to it make you refuse to eat - Lower middle area: ventromedial hypothalamus is a hunger off centre - Hungry rat to stop eating when stimulating - Lesions made VMH produce gluttons who ate frequently and doubled their body weight - PVN or paraventricular nucleus: cluster of neurons packed with receptor sites for various transmitters that stimulate or reduce appetite - Neuropeptide Y powerful appetite stimulant - Leptin inhibits the activity of neuropeptide Y intoPVN Psychological Aspects of hunger Behavioral perspective - Eating is positively reinforced by the good taste of the food and negatively reinforced by hunger reduction Cognitively Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 - Develop an expectation that eating will be pleasurable, which becomes an important motivator to seek and consume food - Even the thought of hunger can trigger hunger Attitudes, habits and psychological needs regulate food intake - Don’t leave food on your plate habit - Conditioned habits like autopilot eating when watching a movie - Food restrictions - Women wanting to conform to cultural standards of beauty - Have to be thinner, leaner, unrealistic idea of ideal body Study of ideal body types - showed that women overestimate how thin they need to be - Men overestimated what women want in terms of bulkiness - Women thought they are heavier than they really are - Men rated their body close to ideal - Men’s perception of themselves keeps them satisfied while women feel like they need to lose weight Influential objectification theory - Western culture teaches women to view their bodies as objects, much as external observers woulds - Would increase body shame and anxiety, leading to more eating restrictions, eating disorders - Norm of you can never be too thin is ingrained in adolescence and have a strong impact Environmental and Cultural Factors - Environmental: food availability. Poverty vs. abundant low-cost foods (leading mostly to obesity) - Food variety increases consumption: e.g. buffet meals - The size of food. The larger the portions, the more we eat - Learning to associate smell and sight of food with its taste, trigger hunger - Eating alone or with people (eat more) - ice cream trucks. We might be full but we associate the song with the ice cream and get hungry - Cultural: when, how and what we eat - Spain, greece: eating dinner in the late evening - North americans eat dinner way earlier - Also being more comfortable with the food we are familiar with and we have difficulty getting past our squeamish thoughts about unfamiliar dishes Obesity - BMI of 25-29.9 is overweight - BMI of 30< is obese - ⅔ of Canadian adults are overweight or obese - Obesity often blamed on lack of willpower, weak character, or emotional disturbances Genes and environment Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 - More than 200 genes identified to contribute to human obesity - Majority in CNS - Reasons - An abundance of inexpensive, tasty, high fat food available almost anywhere - Cultural emphasis on getting the best value, contributes to the supersizing of menu items - Technological advances that decrease the need for daily physical activity and encourage a sedentary lifestyle Dieting and weight loss - Weight gain tends to promote additional weight gain, altering chemistry and energy expenditure - Obesity and high levels of insulin - Dieting tends to be ineffective in the long term - Non-obese young girls and women diet Sexual motivation What is the drive for sex? Reproduction or pleasure? - Adolescents feel pressured into having sex - Most women think of sex as unenjoyable marital duty - First time for women are usually disappointing - 10% of men and 20% women don’t find pleasure in it - People engage in sex for a host of reasons: to reproduce, obtain and give pleasure, express love, foster intimacy, build one’s ego, fulfill one’s duty, conform to peer pressure, get over a ex, to earn money Patterns and Changes In surveys - 9% of adults younger than 40 have not had sex in over a year - 10% have had sex more than 4 times per week - Single adults who cohabit are the most sexually active - Married adults - Single adults who don’t cohabit are the least sexually active - Men masturbate and fantasize more than women do - 25% of men. 10% of women masturbate more than once per week - Not because they don’t have a partner - Males tend to have their first experience of sex one to two years earlier than women - On average Canadians have sex 1.35 times per week Physiology of Sex The sexual response cycle - 4 stages - Excitement phase: arousal builds rapidly, blood increases to arteries in and around the genital organs, nipples, women’s breasts. Causing vasocongestion. - Plateau phase: respiration, heart rate, vasocongestion, muscle tension begin to build until there is enough muscle tension to trigger orgasms - Orgasm phase: males: rhythmic contractions of internal organs and muscle tissue Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 surrounding the urethra project semen out of the penis - Females: rhythmic contractions of the outer third of the vagina, surrounding muscles and uterus - Males: resolution phase: physiological arousal decreases rapidly and the genitals and tissues return to their normal conditions - refractory period: temporarily incapable of another orgasm - Females can have two or more orgasms before the resolution phase Hormonal influences - Hypothalamus plays a role in sexual motivation - Gonadotropins secreted into bloodstream, affects the rate of gonads secreting androgens, mascuiline hormones, estrogens, feminine hormones - Have organizational effects that direct the development of male and female sex characteristics. - Also have activational effects that stimulate sexual desire and behaviour: activation begins at puberty when the gonads secrete the sex hormones - Influence sexual desire. The hormonal surge of puberty results in sexual motivation for many - Have little effect on sexual arousability - Women may desire high sexual desire at any time during their menstrual cycle - A baseline level of certain hormones appears necessary to maintain sexual desire The psychology of Sex Sexual fantasy - Sexual arousal begins with desire and sexual stimulus that is perceived positively - Among 18-59 year olds, more than half of men and ⅕ of women fantasize about sex at least once a day - May trigger erections and orgasms in people and often used to enhance arousal during masturbation - Many fantasize during sex - People who are more sexually active tend to fantasize more Desire, arousal, and sexual dysfunction - Psychological factors can both trigger and inhibit sexual arousal - Some people desire sex but have difficulty being aroused - Stress, fatigue, anger at one’s partner can lead to temporary problems - Sexual dysfunction: chronic, impaired sexual functioning that distresses a person - Result of injuries, drugs, diseases, psychological - Performance anxiety can occur - Psychological consequences of sexual assault, or childhood sex abuse Cultural and environmental influences Psychological meaning of sex depends storngly on cultural contexts and learning - Some religions discourage premarital sex, extramarital sex and public dress and behaviour that arouses sexual desire - Most people who are very religious believe it;s important to bring their sexual practices into harmony with their religious beliefs Cultural norms Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 - Some cultures suppress childhood sexuality while others encourage it - E.g. Marquesas island - Everyone sleeps in one room. When boy is distressed, the parents mastrubate him - Kids learn to masturbate by age of 2 Arousing environmental stimuli - Sexually arousing stimuli can trigger sexual desire. E.g. undressing etc - Erotic portrayals can trigger arousal if they think of it as a positve experience Pornography, sexual violence, sexual attitudes Social learning theory - People learn through observation. - Rape myths of porn. Men are entitled to sex and can have it whenever they want - Women like being dominated etc Catharsis Principle - By freud and other psychodynamic analysts - States that as inborn aggressive and sexual impulses build up, actions that release this tension provide a catharsis that temporarily returns us to a more balanced psychological state Correlation of real world studies don’t support either points when it comes to sexual assault Sexual Orientation - One’s emotional and erotic preference for partners of a particular sex Determinants of Sexual Orientation - Early and unsupported biological theory - Gay and heterosexual males differ in their adult levels of sex hormones - Psychodynamic view - Gay identity develops when boys grow up with a weak, ineffectual father and identify with a domineering or seductive mother - Being sexaully seduced by a gay adult made the children be gay - Extensive study of 1000 gays and lesbians and 500 heterosexual men and women - No particular phenomenon of family life can be singled out for either homosexuality or heterosexuality - There is a pattern of feelings and reactions within the child that cannot be traced back to a single social or psychological root One pattern: gay and lesbians always felt that they were somehow different from others when during childhood and engaged in gender-nonconforming behaviours Achievement Motivation Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 Need for achievement: represents the desire to accomplish tasks and attain standards of excellence - Viewed this need as a stable personality characteristic that energizes and guides our achievement behaviour The thrill of victory, agony of defeat - We strive for success for 2 reasons - Positively oriented motive for success - Attracted to the thrill of victory - Negatively orientated fear of failure - Measured with psychological tests asking how much anxiety they feel when striving for achievements Achievement goal theory - Focuses on the manner in which success is defined both by the individual and within the achievement situation itself - Mastery orientation: focus is on personal improvement, giving maximum effort, perfecting new skills - Performance orientation: goal is to outperform others - Mastery approach goals - Focus on the desire to master a task and learn new knowledge or skills - Performance approach goals - Reflects a competitive orientation that focuses on outperforming others - Mastery avoidance - Reflects a fear of not performing up to one’s own standards - Performance avoidance - Centre on avoiding being outperformed by others - Performance goals are referred to as ego goals - Men are more likely to report performance avoidance goals - Women are more likely to report mastery avoidance goals Achievement needs and situational factors - High-need achievers are most likely to strive for success when - They perceive themselves as personally responsible for the outcome - They perceive some risk of not succeeding - There is an opportunity to receive performance feedback Family and Culture influences - High need for achievement develops when parents reward and encourage success but do not punish failure - Fear of failure seems to develop when parents punish failure and feel indifferent about achievement - Individualistic cultures tend to stress personal achievement - Collectivist cultures tend to reflect the desire of fitting in a family and social group to meet expectations and goals - Achievement goals of many cultures support the concept of individual responsibility and work ethic - Culture: the level of concern for achievement in children’s books reflects the motivational Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 level of adults in the country - Culture can influence achievement motivation and the desire to achieve can transcend culture Motivational Conflict - Approach-approach: involves opposition between two attractive alternatives. Selecting one means losing the other. Higher conflict when both alternatives are equally attractive and important - Avoidance-avoidance: a person faces two undesirable alternatives - Approach-avoidance: involves being attracted to and repelled by the same goal. Most difficult to resolve - The tendency to approach a desired goal and the desire to avoid it both grow strangers as you get nearer to your goal - Delay discounting: refers to the decrease in the value of a future incentive. The value for future reward will change at the time goes by The nature of functions and Emotions - Emotions: positive or negative feelings consisting of a pattern of cognitive, physiological, and behavioural reactions to events that have relevance to important goals or motives - Emotion and motivation both involve state of arousal, and both trigger patterns of action - There is always a link between emotions and motives because we react emotionally when our motives and goals are gratified, threatened or frustrated - Some suggest that emotions are responses to an internal stimuli that energizes and directs our behaviour towards a goal - Emotions further our wellbeing in many ways - Arousing us, by helping us communicate with others, by eliciting empathy and help - Negative emotions narrow attention and behaviours, whereas positive thoughts tend to broaden our thinking and behaviour The Nature of emotion - More than 550 words refer to emotions states - Common features of emotions - Emotions are responses to external or internal eliciting stimuli - Emotional responses result from our interpretation or cognitive appraisal of this stimuli, gives the situation a perceives significance - Our bodies respond physiologically to our appraisal. - Emotions include behaviour tendencies - Some are expressive behaviours - Instrumental behaviours Eliciting stimuli - Stimuli triggers cognitive appraisals and emotional responses - Not always external, can be internal as well The cognitive components Cognitions involved in every aspect of emotion - They evoke emotional responses. Part of our subjective experience of the emotion Appraisal processes Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 - Emotions are always responses to our perceptions of the eliciting stimuli - Appraisals involved in emotions are especially evaluative and personal - They relate to what we think is desirable or undesirable for us - Both conscious and unconscious process are involved Culture and appraisal - Cross-cultural similarities in the types of appraisals that evoked joy, fear, anger, sadness, disgust - One study showed that americans feel happy more than japanese people who feel more shame The physiological component - Subcortical structures: amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, other limbic systems - Some specific areas of the limbic system: if stimulated, will trigger aggression. Destroying the sites will show absence of aggression - Other areas of the limbic system shows patterns of lack of emotions when stimulated and unrestrained emotions when removed - Cerebral cortex has connections with the hypothalamus and limbic system - Allows constant communication between cortical and subcortical regions - Cognitive appraisal processes - Ability to regulate emotions depends on executive functions of prefrontal cortex which also controls reasoning, planning, decision making and control of impulsivity - Thalamus routes sensory input to various parts of the brain, amygdala, which helps to coordinate and trigger physiological and behavioural responses to emotion-arousing situations - Thalamus sends messages along two independent neural pathways, one travelling to cortex and other directly to amygdala - The cortex: sensory input is organized as perceptions and evaluated by the linguistic or thinking part of the brain - The amygdala can receive direct input from the senses and generate emotional reactions before cerebral cortex has time to fully interpret what is causing the reaction Hormones - The fight or flight response - Produced by sympathetic branch of autonomic nervous system and by hormones from endocrine system - Endocrine pumps body with epinephrine, cortisol, and other stress hormones into the bloodstream - Hormones will produce physiological effects but they are longer lasting than the nervous system effects Studies suggest that left hemisphere activation might underlie certain positive emotions and right hemisphere functioning negative ones The behavioural component Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 Expressive behaviours - We can infer hoe someone’s feeling based on their expressive behaviours - Empathy: sometimes other’s emotional displays can evoke similar emotions in us Evolution and emotional expression - Darwin emphasized the basic similarity of emotional expression in animal and humans - Fundamental emotional patterns - Certain emotions are similar across a variety of cultures, suggest that certain expressive behaviour patterns are wired into the nervous system - Children who are blind from birth seem to express these basic emotions in the same way that sighted children do, ruling out that they learned it through observation - Evolutionary view doesn’t assumed that all emotions are innate Facial expression of emotion - We can read other people’s emotions - Facial action coding system permits the precise study of facial expression Cultural display - The norms for emotional expression within a given culture are called display rules - Certain gestures, body postures, and physical movements can convey vastly different meanings in other cultures Instrumental behaviour - Directed at achieving some goal - Complex tasks have lower optimal arousal levels Theories of Emotion The James- Lange Somatic theory - The body informs mind, our physiological reactions determine our emotions - We know when we are afraid or in love only because our bodily reactions tell us so - suggested that emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events. In other words, this theory proposes that people have a physiological response to environmental stimuli and that their interpretation of that physical response then results in an emotional experience. - bodily changes follow directly the PERCEPTION of the exciting fact and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur IS the emotion The Cannon-Bard Theory - Our bodies do not respond instantaneously to an emotional stimulus, several seconds may pass before signs of physiological arousal appear - Proposed that when we encounter an emotion-arousing situation, the thalamus simultaneously sends sensory messages to the cerebral cortex and to the body’s internal organs - Messages to the cortex produces the experience of emotion, and the one to the internal organs produces the physiological arousal Role of autonomic feedback - James-Lange theory: feedback from the body’s reaction to the stimuli tells the brain we are experiencing an emotion - Cannon-bard: maintains that experiencing emotions result from signals sent from the Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 thalamus to the cortex, not from bodily feedback - Facial feedback hypothesis: this feedback to the brain might play a key role in determining the nature and intensity of emotion that we experience,(James-lange) Cognitive Affective theories - Focus on the ways in which cognitions and physiological responses interact Richard Lazarus - Emphasized the link between cognitive appraisal and arousal, argues that all emotional responses require some sort of appraisal, whether we are aware of it or not Schachter’s two factor theory of emotion - States that arousal and cognitive labelling based on situational cues are the critical ingredients in emotional experience - The intensity of physiological arousal tells us how strongly we are feeling something, - Situational cues give us the information we need to tell us what we are feeling - It is possible to manipulate appraisal and thereby influence the level of arousal - Arousal changes can affect appraisal of the eliciting stimuli Lecture Videos Basic Biological Control - Orienting responses or taxes - Overall musculature responses toward (positive) or away from (negative) stimulus - Homeostatic mechanisms - Maintaining a constant state Self-regulation - Homeostatic mechanisms - Importance of Autonomic Nervous system Divisions of the nervous system Brain - Peripheral N.S - Autonomic (antagonistic Nervous systems) - Parasympathetic - Sympathetic - Skeletal - Central N.S Sympathetic NS - Gears up for action. Activation - Accelerated heart rate - Inhibition of peristalsis - Vasoconstriction Parasympathetic - Conserves - Decelerated heart rate - Stimulation of peristalsis - Vasodilation Arousal Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 - Cannon 1945: vegetative and activating functions - Emergency reaction - Activation of SNS - Stimulation of Adrenal medulla (endocrine), dumps Adrenaline - Adrenal gland sits on top of the kidney - Heart rate and breathing increases - Break down of glucose - Norepinephrine and dopamine - Result - Heightened state of arousal - Detect with polygraph - Species specific behaviour - Related to emotion Some effects of arousal Making eyes Pupil Dilation - Hess and Polt 1960 - Interesting slides, dilated pupils - Hess 1965, 1975 - Photos. Photos with the larger pupils seemed more positive attraction - Why? Pupil dilation might mean arousal - Aboyoun and Dabbs 1998 - Novelty - In general, hess suggests pupil dilation for positive, pupil dilation for negative - Support uneven Emergency situation - Elicits fear - Importance of - Stimulus intensity: avoid intense - Stimulus Novelty - Prefer the familiar Berlyn’s set point theory - Relation between arousal and pleasure - All of us have a set point of arousal - Moderate increase of decrease, that will be pleasurable - You don’t want things to be very dull or very intense - Will be less pleasurable with extreme increase or decrease Emotions and James-Lange theory Emotion and arousal - Darwin: expression intensified experience - Freud: expression reduces experience Tourangeau and ellsworth 1979 - Highly aroused subjects show little expressiveness - Supports freud Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 Supporting Darwin - Facial feedback hypothesis, LAzard - Updated James-Lange's theory Common sense theory - Emotion provoking events, perception (danger), perception of emotion (fear), bodily arousal James-Lange theory - Emotion provoking event, perception (danger), bodily arousal, Perception of emotion (fear) - Arousal is needed in order to perceive emotion Izard: Facial feedback - Changes in facial expression responsible for distinct emotion - Number of studies indicate that adopting appropriate expression yields emotion Laird 1974 - Subjects asked to tense and relax muscles - Smile or frown - Self-reported happiness is higher in smile groups - Self-reported anger higher in frown group - Stimuli as funnier for smile group Strack et al 1988 - Holding pencil in teeth or lips Ekman 1983 - Explicit instructions following ekman’s coding system - Measure ANS activity - Heart rate - Low: happy, disgust, surprise - High: skin temperature - High temp: anger - Low temp: fear, sad Is movement of facial muscles really necessary? Ideal test - Evaluate patient with bilateral facial paralysis - Patient could not display emotion but did report feeling emotional Cognitive Affective theories Lazarus Theory - More for coping with stress - Emotion provoking events, appraisal kicks in, bodily arousal kicks in. bodily arousal kicks back until you figure out what emotion you are feeling Schacter’s theory - Emotion provoking event, leads to perception (appraisal), leads to bodily arousal - Bodily arousal is going to be responsible for the intensity of perception of emotion. - The appraisal is going to be responsible for the type of emotion you perceive - 1971 Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 - Subjects injected with either epinephrine or placebo - Exposed to frightening film, comedy, insulted, control - In control group epinephrine alone did not produce emotion - Subjects reported more anger, fear, happiness in appropriate groups - No emotion at all if subjects have been informed about the effects of epinephrine - Basically given a new label Misattribution of arousal - What arousal was produced by one source and mistakenly identified as due to another? - Dutton and Aron 1974 - Bridge study. You could generate some arousal just by being on the bridge - Some individuals had to walk to the middle of the bridge. - Some met at the edge. - Female experimenter, participants were males - Middle of the bridge: said they were more attractive, more willing to participate in other parts of the experiment - Excitation transfer - Zillman 1994 - Residual arousal from one event is transferred to another situation - Can be any source - Meston and Frohlich 2003. Rating of opposite sex photos before and after riding roller coaster. Higher ratings after Detecting Deception Nonverbal Behaviour - Telling lies: breaking eye contact, saying um to much Ekman and Friesen 1974 Notion of leakage - Non-verbal cues that escape attempts to conceal - Predicting the face is easier for us to lie with. We can’t lie with our body - If you try to detect deception, you have a better chance if you look at the body Nonverbal behaviour - Paralanguage and facial expression - Body movement - Eye contact - Interpersonal and distance Paralanguage - Non Content aspects of speech - Tone of voice - Speed - Amplitude - Rise time, fall time - Hesitations and pauses Facial expressions - Typically emotions - May reflect other cognitive states e.g. comprehension Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 - There are 6 primary emotions: anger, surprise, fear, happiness, disgust, sadness - According to Ekman Eye contact - Looking directly into one’s eyes - Typically conversation - 60-70% gazing - 30% mutual eye contact about 1-3 seconds - Staring - Eye contact for more than 7 seconds - Uncomfortable unless it is with someone whos a spouse Body movement - Body language - Kinesics: body movement, posture, etc. - Gestures: hand signals - Emblems: meaningful substitutes - Okay hand gesture - Thumbs up - Illustrators: accompany speech, accent etc - Using hand gestures to talk - Regulators: maintain or change speakers Interpersonal Distance - Use of physical space - Personal space - Halls interaction Zone - Touch to 0.5 meters: intimate zone - 0.5- 1.25: personal: strangers or acquaintances - 1.25- 3.5 m : social distance - 3.5- 7.5: public. Bigger zones, very informal interaction. You don’t know the people. E.g. in a park - - Discussion 1. Describe the homeostasis and drive theory of motivation - Homeostasis is a state of internal physiological equilibrium that the body strives to maintain. - Requires sensory mechanism for detecting changes in the internal environment - Requires a response system that can restore equilibrium - A control centre that receives information from the sensors and activates the response system - Physiological disruptions to homeostasis produce drives, states of internal tension that motivate an organism to behave in ways that reduce this tension - Thirst, hunger arise from tissue deficits and provide a source of energy to push an organism into action 2. Discussion Maslow’s hierarchy Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 Tutorial 1. Define motivation - A process that influences the direction, persistence, and vigour of goal directed behaviour 2. Describe incentive and expectancy theory of motivation - Incentive theory: Focus on external stimuli that motivate behaviour. Emphasizes the pull of external stimuli and how stimuli with high incentive value can motivate behaviour, even in the absence of biological need - Expectancy theories include the value of the incentives. A cognition approach called expectancy x value theory. - Proposes that goal directed behaviour is jointly determined by 2 factors - The strength of the person’s expectation that particular behaviours will lead to a goal - The value that the individual places on the goal or incentive value - motivation= incentive value x expectancy 3. Describe what maslow meant by “deficiency needs” and “growth needs” - Deficiency needs: concerned with physical and social survival - Esteem needs, belongingness and love needs, safety needs, physiological needs - Growth needs: uniquely human and motivate us to develop our potential - Cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, self-actualization 4. Describe the mechanisms of hunger and satisfaction. What brain mechanisms are important in the regulation of hunger and eating? - Midbrain limbic structures, especially nucleus accumbens, play a special role in the motivational value of food - Most brain areas are commonly linked to motivation and reward, Nucleus Accumbens, VTA, and insula are activated by food cues, especially if it’s preferred food. - 2 parts of hypothalamus - Near the side, Lateral hypothalamus is a hunger on centre - Stimulating L.H makes you eat more, making lesions to it make you refuse to eat - Lower middle area: ventromedial hypothalamus is a hunger off centre - Hungry rat to stop eating when stimulating - Lesions made VMH produce gluttons who ate frequently and doubled their body weight - PVN or paraventricular nucleus: cluster of neurons packed with receptor sites for various transmitters that stimulate or reduce appetite - Neuropeptide Y powerful appetite stimulant - Leptin inhibits the activity of neuropeptide Y intoPVN 5. What psychological, environmental, and cultural factor affects eating behaviour? - Eating is positively reinforced by the good taste of food and negatively reinforced by hunger reduction - We develop and expectation for food - Psychological factors can lead to eating disorders Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 - Western women and objectification theory. Viewing your body as an object. Increasing body shame and anxiety - Leads to eating restrictions - Environmental: food availability. Poverty vs. abundant low-cost foods (leading mostly to obesity) - Food variety increases consumption: e.g. buffet meals - The size of food. The larger the portions, the more we eat - Learning to associate smell and sight of food with its taste, trigger hunger - Eating alone or with people (eat more) - ice cream trucks. We might be full but we associate the song with the ice cream and get hungry - Cultural: when, how and what we eat - Spain, greece: eating dinner in the late evening - North americans eat dinner way earlier - Also being more comfortable with the food we are familiar with and we have difficulty getting past our squeamish thoughts about unfamiliar dishes 6. Describe the factors that influence partner attractiveness for both males and females. - Reciprocity - Physical attractiveness in early stages of dating - Proximity - Similarities: age, race, religions - Matching type shows people 7. How do hormones affect sexual behaviour - Hypothalamus plays a role in sexual motivation - Gonadotropins secreted into bloodstream, affects the rate of gonads secreting androgens, mascuiline hormones, estrogens, feminine hormones - Have organizational effects that direct the development of male and female sex characteristics. - Also have activational effects that stimulate sexual desire and behaviour: activation begins at puberty when the gonads secrete the sex hormones - Influence sexual desire. The hormonal surge of puberty results in sexual motivation for many - Have little effect on sexual arousability - Women may desire high sexual desire at any time during their menstrual cycle - A baseline level of certain hormones appears necessary to maintain sexual desire 8. Describe the phases of the “sexual response cycle” proposed by Masters and Johnson - 4 stages - Excitement phase: arousal builds rapidly, blood increases to arteries in and around the genital organs, nipples, women’s breasts. Causing vasocongestion. - Plateau phase: respiration, heart rate, vasocongestion, muscle tension begin to build until there is enough muscle tension to trigger orgasms - Orgasm phase: males: rhythmic contractions of internal organs and muscle tissue surrounding the urethra project semen out of the penis - Females: rhythmic contractions of the outer third of the vagina, surrounding Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 muscles and uterus - Males: resolution phase: physiological arousal decreases rapidly and the genitals and tissues return to their normal conditions - refractory period: temporarily incapable of another orgasm - Females can have two or more orgasms before the resolution phase 9. Define sexual orientation - Refers to one’s emotional and erotic prefernce for partners of a particular sex 10. What are some of the proposed explanations for the development of sexual orientation - Early and unsupported biological theory - Gay and heterosexual males differ in their adult levels of sex hormones - Psychodynamic view - Gay identity develops when boys grow up with a weak, ineffectual father and identify with a domineering or seductive mother - Being sexaully seduced by a gay adult made the children be gay - Extensive study of 1000 gays and lesbians and 500 heterosexual men and women - No particular phenomenon of family life can be singled out for either homosexuality or heterosexuality - There is a pattern of feelings and reactions within the child that cannot be traced back to a single social or psychological root - One pattern: gay and lesbians always felt that they were somehow different from others when during childhood and engaged in gender-nonconforming behaviours 11. Define each of the following types of motivational conflict: approach-approach conflict, avoidance-avoidance conflicts, approach-avoidance conflicts - Approach-approach: involves opposition between two attractive alternatives. Selecting one means losing the other. Higher conflict when both alternatives are equally attractive and important - Avoidance-avoidance: a person faces two undesirable alternatives - Approach-avoidance: involves being attracted to and repelled by the same goal. Most difficult to resolve - The tendency to approach a desired goal and the desire to avoid it both grow strangers as you get nearer to your goal 12. Discuss the brain structures and neurotransmitters that are involved in emotion - Subcortical structures: amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, other limbic systems - Some specific areas of the limbic system: if stimulated, will trigger aggression. Destroying the sites will show absence of aggression - Other areas of the limbic system shows patterns of lack of emotions when stimulated and unrestrained emotions when removed - Cerebral cortex has connections with the hypothalamus and limbic system - Allows constant communication between cortical and subcortical regions - Cognitive appraisal processes - Ability to regulate emotions depends on executive functions of prefrontal cortex which also controls reasoning, planning, decision making and control of impulsivity - Thalamus routes sensory input to various parts of the brain, amygdala, which helps to Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 coordinate and trigger physiological and behavioural responses to emotion-arousing situations - Thalamus sends messages along two independent neural pathways, one travelling to cortex and other directly to amygdala - The cortex: sensory input is organized as perceptions and evaluated by the linguistic or thinking part of the brain - The amygdala can receive direct input from the senses and generate emotional reactions before cerebral cortex has time to fully interpret what is causing the reaction Hormones - The fight or flight response - Produced by sympathetic branch of autonomic nervous system and by hormones from endocrine system - Endocrine pumps body with epinephrine, cortisol, and other stress hormones into the bloodstream - Hormones will produce physiological effects but they are longer lasting than the nervous system effects 13. Describe the James-Lange theory - suggested that emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events. In other words, this theory proposes that people have a physiological response to environmental stimuli and that their interpretation of that physical response then results in an emotional experience. - bodily changes follow directly the PERCEPTION of the exciting fact and that our feeling of the same changes as they occur IS the emotion 14. Describe the Cannon-bard theory - The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion states that stimulating events trigger feelings and physical reactions that occur at the same time. - For example, seeing a snake might prompt both an emotional response and a physical reaction. - Both of these reactions occur simultaneously and independently. The physical reaction isn’t dependent on the emotional reaction, and vice versa. - Cannon-Bard proposes that both of these reactions originate simultaneously in the thalamus. This brain structure is responsible for receiving sensory information. It relays it to the appropriate area of the brain for processing. - When a triggering event occurs, the thalamus might send signals to the amygdala. The amygdala is responsible for processing strong emotions, such as fear, pleasure, or anger. It might also send signals to the cerebral cortex, which controls conscious thought. Signals sent from the thalamus to the autonomic nervous system and skeletal muscles control physical reactions. These include sweating, shaking, or tense muscles. Sometimes the Cannon-Bard theory is referred to as the thalamic theory of emotion. 15. Describe Schatcher’s two-factor theory of emotion - There are two key components of emotions: physical arousal and a cognitive label. The experience of emotion involves first having some kind of physiological response which the mind then identifies. - This arousal was the same for a wide variety of emotions, so physical arousal alone Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|47229513 could not be responsible for emotional responses. - The two-factor theory of emotion focuses on the interaction between physical arousal and how we cognitively label that arousal. In other words, simply feeling arousal is not enough; we also must identify the arousal in order to feel the emotion. Downloaded by kayzia mckie ([email protected])