Emotional Development Across Cultures (Broesch & Carpendale, 2021) PDF
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Broesch & Carpendale
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This document discusses the processes involved in the interactive, bidirectional emotional system of infant-caregiver relationships, focusing on how cultural contexts shape emotional expression and communication styles. It explores how cultural ways of life impact emotional communication styles and how emotional experience is shaped during early development.
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Emotional development across cultures(Broesch & Carpendale, 2021) Main Finding: The first relationship in life, infant-caregiver relationship, is set up for infants to form an emotional bond with caregivers and is the foundation to the developm...
Emotional development across cultures(Broesch & Carpendale, 2021) Main Finding: The first relationship in life, infant-caregiver relationship, is set up for infants to form an emotional bond with caregivers and is the foundation to the development of communication. Developmental process is similar but varies in ways it is shaped and expressed due to developmental outcomes/ displays of emotions across cultures Research question: What are the processes involved in the interactive, bi-directional emotional system of infant-caregiver relationships? What is the evidence that supports this relationship is important in setting the emotional tone of development which affects other forms of early communication? Background literature: Emotions are embedded in culture ○ Cultural way of life that shapes emotional communication styles is embedded in society (i.e.how emotion is expressed/experienced) ○ Emotional experience and expression are shaped by culture in early development ○ Expand beyond WEIRD to global south The first relationship= significant emotional bonds to develop healthy ○ Born helpless so need caregiver ○ The strong emotional bondsthat infants form early in life within relationships with caregivers have long-term influences across the life span for their interaction with others ○ Attachment theory is more than parenting goals and variation of cultural contexts ○ Bond created + maintained byresponsive parenting:responding in timely and appropriate manner Emotion responsiveness across cultures ○ Responsive parentinting further defined byaffect attunement: caregiver accurately identify infant emotions and responding in an “attuned manner” ○ Responsiveness + attunement to infant need = trustworthy person ○ During communication, Amount of of responsiveness is the same but how they respond is different 🔎 Ex. Emotional mirroring by parents in Fiji, Kenya and the USA ○ Same amount of caregiver responsiveness, Acoustic modification of infant-directed speech (pitch, speaking rate) ○ Some universal communicative system in emotions 2 months become embedded into cultural models of emotion co-regulation ○ all social smile develop from interactions + occur at 2M but caregivers respond differently to it Any type of pause in mutual joyful interactions is distressing (ex. Still face) Facial expressions as emotional responsiveness shaping emotional experience is western + not generalizable ○ Cameronian, Italian, African mothers: variation in responses I talian: positive vocal, facial expressions + mutual eye gaze Cameroonian: tactile, motor responses + no sustained mutual eye gaze African: combo of strategies from native + new culture; face to face and sensorimotor exchanges Emotional co-regulatory system shaped by selective emotional responses ○ Pacific vanuatu: variation in responses Tactile stimulation during infant-caregiver interactions Vs USA mothers rely on facial expressions USA vocalizing smile in response to infant VS canatua touch and reposition infant while vocalizing ○ Goals of Socialization into society- affect responses to infants emotions = cause variation 🔎 fijitain : negative facial expression, more likely to get a response than USA ○ Mirroring amount is same but how they mirror is different ○ USA mirrored more emotions ○ Infant emotional experience shaped by caregivers responses Infant develops Social expectations of when response occurs from previous responses Infants learn what emotions caregivers respond to ○ Caregiver cultural responses shape infants 🔎 Kenya mothers want infants to be calm ○ Don't over exaggerated responses to positive cues, responds gently and gaze away ○ Value emotional regulation and control over expressing positive and negative feelings = don't stimulate emotions Methodology: 3 important aspects of emotional development 1. S ocialization goals=The ways in which parents respond to infants is tied to their cultural orientations as adaptive to a specific ecocultural environment ○ Reconceptualize model: Need to interpret/understand how parents respond to infants in ecological environment 🔎 infant social smiling, caregivers coregulate infant’s emotional experience ○ Parental response tied to cultural orientation, but smile itself is universal ○ Emotional understanding tied to societal values; collectivist = self to other relationship; individualist = self relationship 2. Emotion talk=variation in the way cultures talk about emotions 🔎 Pacific island children:develop complex understanding of the relationships central to culture, encouraged to develop awareness of nonverbal cues to understand others emotions (focus on social process not the individual) 🔎 Concept of emotions in 3 cultural groups in netherlands Collectivists culture: self-other relationship, reflect behaviour not individuals inner experience Individualistic culture: reflect individuals inner experience ○ Mental/internal-state talk Some cultures that don't value mental state talk which can affect emotional regulation R educed emphasis on emotional expression = differences in engagement with theory of mind 🔎 Pacific islanders: ○ say that it is impossible/difficult to assess others mental states, don't use theory of mind ○ Different dev pathway from west b/c they Follow opacity of the mind: no mental state talk b/c violates social norms ○ Use observable behaviors b/c cant ever know other’s minds ○ Caregivers ethnic identity not correlated with children's ability of theory of mind ○ Gender differences Ways parents talk about emotion impact outcome Women use more words than men b/c parents talk to them more about emotions 3. Emotion regulation ○ Caregivers seek to socialize emotion regulation skills in children in ways that accord with the values, norms, and beliefs of their culture ○ Cultural differences in emotional regulation because of the parenting values/ behaviors formed by societal values, influence ○ Two developmental pathways Autonomy(Ex. German mothers use more positive regulation strategies- eye contact) Relatedness(Ex. Japan mothers use more negative regulation strategies- no seeking support from mother) Understand and explain why mutual joy as the foundation for human communication and learning E motions cause interactions where infants learn and communicate with others Infants enjoy the attention they get from caregivers, causing interactions to become more complex by expanding infants attention to external environment (attention to infant, then to actions they perform and then to objects/events) From these interactions based on mutual joy they begin to form declarative statements ○ i.e. developmental progression from gradally moves from holding out, showing, giving objects to get adult attention to declarative communication Mutual joy becomes more complex and different from cultural norms The cultural socialization of emotional regulation during infancy(Keller & Otto. 2009) Main findings: 2 cultural (relatedness + autonomy) socialization of emotional regulation during infancy shapes emotional development Research question: What are the characteristics that constitute related and autonomy models of emotional development? Background literature: Importance of evolutionary preparedness ○ Early years are important in development + have psychological and physiological effects ○ Not tabula rasa, instead open genetic programming/ epigenetic rules: biases in learning from environment during development when learning is easier ○ Experience is the product of ongoing interactions between the environment + brain The learning environment ○ Children's learning environment part of Whiting model for psycho-cultural research Environment = starting point of personality and behaviour Environmental information processed to develop best characteristics for success in environment Child rearing practices include environment setting, social contexts, caregivers/teachers, socialization strategies and activities ○ Using socialization goals (i.e parental ideas, beliefs, ethnotheories), Parents pass on behavioural strategies based on culture/ historical values that allow children to survive in societies culture to shape autonomy or interrelated person 2 environmental prototypes ○ Relatedness: Traditional farming villages in non-western world Economy is subsistence based, little variation, small scale, person-person interactions, dense network, basic education, hierarchical family systems based on age, gender, communal work, big families (7), young marriage and birth (17-20) Values: social harmony, valuing cooperation, conformity and identify with social role ○ Autonomy:Urban middle-class families of Western world Economy is money, high variation, large scale, interactions w/ many strangers, high education, freedom/choice, reproduction starts late + only few children Values: unique, opinions, inner sense of self, assertive - personality that doesn't change Cultural foundations of emotional expressiveness:Conception of self based on 2 models of different experiences and expressions of emotions from culture 🔎 East asian (less emotion for well-being of group) VS Euro-american (express emotion even if bad) ○ Autonomy: loose rules, decisions about expressions of emotions, pressure to express positive emotions (i.e. uniqueness + independence) ○ Relatedness: expression of any emotions is threat to social order because of individualism (i.e. social relatedness + interdependent) - need emotional neutrality, control of emotions Methodology: Combination of cognitive and qualitative approach to study Create models of emotional regulation based on the everyday practices that show socialization goals and parental developmental expectations Q ualitative approach in creation = analyze texts where individuals talk about experiences, interpretations and orientations in certain areas (i.e. sem structured interviews, transcriptions of interactions between caregiver + infant) Asses overall orientation toward autonomy and relatedness, then identify socialization goals, parenting beliefs, and behavioural practices Results Differences between cultural preferences in each group Socialization goals are different ○ Cameroon: relatedness values: Respect elderly people, To do what parents say, Maintain social harmony, Share with others ○ German Be assertive, Be different from others in many respects, Express own preferences very clearly, Develop personal talents and interests ○ German had higher scores of autonomy and low scores of relatedness socialization goals Time table for the emergence of emotions ○ Majorly german expect expression of emotions early on ○ Cameroon expect shame and guilt to show 10m earlier than german mothers Why? Shame, guilt are used to regulate social relationships (shows social cohesiveness is valued) Pride is individual-based emotional ○ Timing to develop Self-emotions dependents on socialization goals Quantitative results: evidence for variation ○ Nso mother:emotional regulation is explicit socialization goal “a good child is one who is always clam” Value emotional stability and no display of negative emotions Negative cues indicate health/survival risk No negative cues = health Calmness allows mom to do other chores No reaction to positive cues but also high response to negative cues Why these values? So that anyone can care for child while mother attends to other tasks Ex. mothers have behaviors to try and reduce crying, like breastfeeding to regulate distress as soon as they can open mouths Expectation of directive prompts to suppress negative emotionality “bad child” when not behaving correctly Tell infants this is terrible/inappropriate behaviour “we dont cry in Nso” ○ Berlin mother:you have to smile little man Value infant maintaining Positive emotions + emotionally expressive Figure out reasoning behind crying before acting (ex. Breastfeed only if hunger) Interactions with babies during 1st year is to maintain expression of positive emotionality (eye contact, smiling, positive vocalizations) Individual autonomy: Vocal question while guessing babies inner thoughts and feelings, lots of reference to internal states “You're doing great! Back again? You are doing super!” Positive reinforcement (i.e.praise) ensures individual personality U se cooperative strategies for compliance (treat infant as equal, find reasoning for crying) VS shaming strategies for compliance Want kids to be desirable on society Ex. breastfeeding Evidence of variational affects: consequences of early cultural priming ○ Attachment relationships: emotional bond that develops between an infant and his or her caretakers during the first year of the infant's life 🔎 Study: stranger situation in the WEST 1 year old is left by the mother, stays with a stranger, or alone Emotions displayed reflect emotional regulation learned from caregivers 4 attachment qualities: secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-ambivalent and disorganized results Secure = relaxed w/ stranger if mom was within reach, tense when alone w/ stranger, emotional balance when reunited with mom insecure -avoidant: ignore mother, prefer to play w/ stranger, emotional balance not regained when reunited with mom Insecure-ambivalent: distressed when alone with stranger, clingy reunited with mother but still remain stressed Disorganized: unable to cope with situation, stereotypical behaviour/ emotionally inexpressive, no ease with mother/stranger Evident there will be Differences in Display of emotions + emotional regulation across cultures, challenges attachment theory universal claim 🔎 Study: stranger situation NON-WEST Nso Female stranger visited family, greeting family + child, then picking up child Changes in cortisol levels in saliva Majority were expressionless (declined in cortisol) Some were calm but distressed when touched (increase in cortisol) Negative emotions from very beginning (highest cortisol levels) Most adaptive emotional regulation strategy = calmness + inexpressiveness ○ Differences: Western infant supposed to be stressed in presence of a stranger and should be east with only mother VS Nso infant clam in presence of strangers
