Session 4: How Languages Are Learned PDF

Session 4: How Languages Are Learned 1. Main Second Language Acquisition Theories 1.1. Behaviourism Definition Language is acquired through a process of imitation and reinforcement. Process − the environment gives the learner a stimulus − the learner responds to this stimulus − the envir...

Session 4: How Languages Are Learned 1. Main Second Language Acquisition Theories 1.1. Behaviourism Definition Language is acquired through a process of imitation and reinforcement. Process − the environment gives the learner a stimulus − the learner responds to this stimulus − the environment then positively reinforces the response or gives negative feedback − this leads to a conditioned habit-formation (after repetition) Audio-Lingual Method (1950s-1970s) − teacher and instruction o teacher as the expert and model o direct instruction o teacher provides input and closely monitors acquisition process − learner o receives, imitates, reproduces input, forms habits o no to little creative language use o input = intake = output − characteristics o pattern drills (said to be effective for acquiring fluency and accuracy o no explicit grammar teaching (considered detrimental to fluency) o controlled practice o focus on accuracy − criticism: overgeneralisation of output 1.2. Innativism (Noam Chomsky) Ideas − languages are not learnt through imitation − input is o insufficiently rich (i.e. children produce more than what they have heard) o degenerate ▪ i.e. full of false starts, slips, fragments etc. so that the child would never be able to work out how the language operates ▪ i.e., does not contain negative evidence (what is not possible to say)  − input, imitation and reinforcement cannot explain why all children learn a complex grammar system → if we restrict research to observable phenomena, we will not understand how language acquisition works − languages are acquired by means of an innate device for language learning (‘nature’ → humans are born with an innate capacity for language acquisition) − Language Acquisition Device (LAD): humans are genetically programmed to use language − UG = Universal Grammar: fundamental set of principles that structures language in general Application to L1 VS. L2 Scenarios − thesis: innate capacity needs to be activated in a critical period until puberty in order to master the L1 well − critical learning period in L2 learning o older learners may advance faster in view of areas such as grammar because most of them have greater competences in abstract thinking and metalinguistic awareness o younger learners have motor organs that are still able to develop and learn new sounds (better pronunciation), may attain better levels of ultimate achievement and are less inhibited (mostly) Weaknesses − does not fully account for the influence of environmental factors on language acquisition − does not account for individual differences in language acquisition − does not explain how adult second language learners are able to acquire language 1.3. Constructivism Ideas − humans perceive and interpret the world in very different ways, i.e. humans construct their own realities − learning is o construction of knowledge o a highly subjective/individual process − knowledge structures differ significantly between individuals − learner is understood as a self-referential, autonomous system − learning means adapting actions, concepts, and language in order to make them viable − teachers cannot teach anybody anything in the sense of handing down knowledge but then can rather offer authentic material, tasks, and support o individual disruption and reflection o novice: aims at processing data (trial and error) o advanced learner: aims at interpretation (searches for strategies that work) − but: too much complexity and uncertainty may frustrate learners (resistance rather than personal interest and effort) Method − teacher and instruction o meaningful interaction between learners but not necessarily between learner and teacher o teacher provides rich learning environment, arrangement and authentic material  o teacher as a guide on the side and a moderator o interaction, cooperation and collaboration rather than instruction − learner o cognitive processor o actively involved in constructing knowledge o autonomous, self-referential individual − role of the L1: major but only if it has the potential to elicit meaningful interaction, provides background and general language skills Weaknesses − lack of structure − limited attention to form − lack of accountability: focus on the process and not on the final product 1.4. Input Hypothesis (Krashen) Ideas − input: the only thing that matters for successful learning → comprehensible input − i+1: input that is slightly beyond students’ current level of proficiency (some new forms without having students be lost/overwhelmed) − affective filter: the emotional factors that can affect language acquisition o if learners are anxious, stressed, or unmotivated, their affective filter may be high → can block the intake of comprehensible input and impede language acquisition o if learners are relaxed, engaged, and motivated, their affective filter may be low → can facilitate language acquisition Example: listening to a podcast slightly above your level of comprehension − you may not understand everything − but enough to progress − over time: gradual improvement 1.5. Output Hypothesis (Canal and Swain) Ideas − output is needed for hypothesis testing − importance of corrective feedback Example: practicing with a language partner by describing a picture − noticing knowledge gaps while producing (or failing to produce) language (e.g. past tense) − improvement through feedback and further active practice 1.6. Interaction Hypothesis (Long) Ideas − language acquisition through a combination of innate abilities and environmental influences  − children are born with a capacity for language, but this capacity must be activated and developed through social interaction with caregivers and other speakers of their language − importance of joint attention, turn-taking and feedback in language learning − opportunities for experimentation via face-to-face interaction − trial and error (am I being understood?) Weaknesses − does not fully account for the role of individual differences in language acquisition − can be difficult to apply in classroom settings with large groups of learners − may not be effective for learners who are not comfortable with social interaction 2. Errors and Rules in the Learner’s Developing Interlanguage Definition Overgeneralisation Overgeneralisation refers to the phenomenon that language learners who have applied a certain grammar rule ‘overuse’ it by applying it to all contexts even when there are exceptions from that rule. Example: overgeneralisation of the past-ed-morpheme also for irregular verbs Assumptions of Foreign Language Learning (FLL) − psycholinguists: language learning = gradual development within the mind of the learner (L1 and L2) − individual learners need to build up their own knowledge system and language awareness − learners have to be developmentally ready to notice and process new linguistic structures of the foreign language → developmental path − learners move from an initial state of (their version of) the target language to (ideally) a target-like use → interlanguage Interlanguage Development The learner moves along a continuum in a continual process of hypothesis formation and hypothesis testing while acquiring new elements of the target language and integrating them into the developing interlanguage (language- like state between native language and target language); non-target like elements of the interlanguage can only be corrected and improved if the learner is developmentally ready. The development of a learner’s interlanguage has been seen to follow a predictable path, whose stages cannot be skipped. 3. Importance for Teachers − make adequate choices of methods based on the individuals in your class − adapt syllabi in a way that is conductive to language learning − understand the role of errors (what should the consequences be?)