ELT-206_reviewer.pdf

PROSE LITERATURE Elements of a Short Story - Setting...

PROSE LITERATURE Elements of a Short Story - Setting - Theme 2.1 Introduction to Prose Literature, Short Story, Biography, and - Characterization Autobiography - Point of View Origin: Prose comes from the Latin word prosa, part of the phrase prosa oratio, - Conflict meaning straightforward speech. - expressed in a direct style Plot Structure - the ordinary form of spoken and written language whose unit is the sentence - a form of language that applies ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech Prose Poetry - Paragraphs - Verse - Grammar-friendly - Linear - Everyday Speech - Rhythm - Narrative Qualities - Imagery - Effectively Communicate - Emotional Effect 2. Non-Fiction Varieties of Prose Biography Autobiography - Descriptive - a genre of literature that recounts the - a literary genre in which an individual - Narrative life story of an Individual writes about their own life experiences - Expository - written by an author who is not the - a firsthand account of author's own subject of the book journey, offering personal reflections, memories, and insights Two Divisions of Prose - typically includes details about their 1. Fiction personal background, significant - you’re getting the author’s own events, accomplishments, and Impact interpretation of their life - Short Story on society A short story is a brief work of fiction that typically focuses on a single incident or - you experience the subject’s life character and aims to create a significant impact in a condensed format. It usually through someone else’s lens (Schiffrin ranges from about 1,000 to 7,500 words. Unlike a novel, which has a more complex & Brockmeier, 2012) structure with multiple subplots and characters, a short story often explores a specific theme or idea with a tight narrative and limited scope. 2.2 Folktale, Myth, Legend, Fable, and Parable - Novels are generally longer than other forms of fiction, with a typical length ranging from 50,000 to 200,000 words or more. Folktale Ex: Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte, The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, and The - A fictional story that has been orally passed down over hundreds, sometimes Giver by Lois Lowry thousands, of years. The word folk comes from the German word volk, which means people. Folktales are thus stories for people (all people). Novella Myth - A novella is a work of fiction whose plot revolves around one single theme, with room for description and character development. - A symbolic narrative of how the world was formed that tells ancient stories about gods, goddesses, and mortals. Sacred stories, often about the creation of the world/ - They are generally considered to be a lot longer than short stories, a bit longer universe or the way the world came to be the way it is. than novelettes, but shorter than novels. Ex: A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens, Crank Palace by James Dashner, and Different Season by Stephen King Legend - A narrative on the origin of people, places and things that has been passed down through many generations, believed to be true and considered historical by some. Novelette - a rare type of short fiction that develops a fully complete story around a single central conflict Fables - Falls between a short story and a novella in terms of length and complexity. It is - Short tales used to teach moral lessons often with animals as characters. shorter than a novella but longer than a short story, typically about 7,500 to 20,000 words. Parable Ex: The Lottery by Shirley Jackson, The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson, and Nightfall by Isaac Asimov - A story or short narrative designed to reveal allegorically some religious principle, moral lesson, or general truth. Novel Novella Novelette - typically over 50,000 - between 20,000 and 40, - 7,500 and 20,000 words 2.3 Novel, Novella, Novelette, Drama, and Tragedy words— the longest form 000 words - often focus on a specific Novel - complex plots and - focus on a single plot incident or character - a piece of long narrative in literary prose multiple subplots theme with fewer subplots - limited exploration of - It is a description of a chain of events which includes a cast of characters, a setting, - in-depth character themes and settings than and an ending. development and - more concise character novellas or novels expansive settings development Drama 2.4 Types of Essays - a drama is the portrayal of fictional or non-fictional events through the performance of written dialog (either prose or poetry) Essay - can be performed on stage, on film, or radio - An essay is a focused piece of writing designed to inform or persuade audiences. There are many types of essays, all structured differently with distinct uses. Elements of Drama Plot - the chain of interconnected events that occur from beginning to end in a story Argumentative Essay Audience - a group of individuals gathered together at a certain time and place for - presents an extended, evidence-based argument. It requires a strong thesis no purpose other than to see the performance statement—a clearly defined stance on your topic Characters - everything in the drama is conveyed by the movements and dialogues of the characters Forming content via research > Evidence-based > Requires investigative capabilities Dialogue - ensure that all the thoughts and feelings of characters are out in the Introduction > Body > Conclusion open for the audience to interpret Staging - a focus on stage directions and setting to properly recreate the visual Expository Essay themes and aspects of the drama - Provides a clear, focused explanation of a topic. It doesn’t require an original argument, just a balanced and well-organized view of the topic. Tragedy - Tragedy is a genre in drama that expresses serious issues. Narrative Essay - A tragic play is usually about a hero or heroine who goes through trials and tribulations that don’t lead to a happy resolution. Most tragedies end with death and - A narrative essay is one that tells a story. This is usually a story about a personal destruction. experience you had, but it may also be an imaginative exploration of something you have not experienced. Types of Tragedy Heroic Tragedy - It features a larger-than-life hero who struggles to make a choice Descriptive Essay between love and duty, which leads to tragic consequences. - Provides a detailed sensory description of something. Like narrative essays, they Revenge Tragedy - Revenge tragedies are about a tragic hero who decides to allow you to be more creative than most academic writing, but they are more take justice into their own hands and avenge the death of someone they loved. tightly focused than narrative essays. You might describe a specific place or object, rather than telling a whole story. Domestic Tragedy - Domestic tragedy explores the struggles faced by ordinary people. Domestic tragedies are usually about family relations. 3.1 Poetry and Literary Skills and Devices There are five types of rhythmic feet that are commonly used in poetry: iamb, trochee, spondee, dactyl, and anapest. Structure in Poetry A foot is the term used to describe a combination of both stressed and unstressed Structure in poetry refers to the organization of syllable in a single line of a poem. the poem’s elements, including elements such as rhyme, rhythm, and meter. Rhyme is the repetition of syllables, typically at the end of a verse line. Rhymed words conventionally share all sounds following the word's last stressed syllable. Types of Rhyme Perfect/True - The stressed vowel sounds and any other sounds after are identical. (bake and cake) Slant/Imperfect - Words that have similar but not identical sounds. (work and fork) Identical - Repetition of the same word. (bake and bake) Sight - Words that look like they rhyme, but they do not. (alone and gone) Placement of Rhyme Meter refers to the number of feet used in each line. End - Rhyming words at the end of a line Internal - Rhyming words within a line of poetry or between lines A rhyme scheme is the pattern of sounds that repeats at the end of a line or stanza. Rhyme schemes can change line by line, stanza by stanza, or can continue throughout a poem. Rhythm is the pattern of beats made up of stressed and unstressed syllables resulting in the rising and falling of the voice. Rhythm is what gives poetry its ‘sound.’ Rhythm is most easily identified through listening.  Monometer – Dimeter – Free Verse Anonymous from Yellowstone Park Dust of Snow by Robert Frost - Free verse is any form of poetry that does not rely on consistent patterns of rhyme and meter. - Free verse first emerged in the 19th century, gaining prominence in the works of poets like Walt Whitman and T.S Eliot. - Realistic storytelling that celebrate life in simple, clear and direct terms. - Liberal use of figures of speech that paint pictures in everyday language. - No set rhythm, no set line length, and no rhyming pattern. Sonnet - The sonnet, which is derived from the Italian word sonetto, meaning “a little sound or song," is a popular classical form that has compelled poets for centuries. - The most well-known and important sonnets in the English language were written by Shakespeare. These sonnets cover such themes as love, jealousy, beauty, infidelity, the passage of time, and death. - Two types of sonnet: Italian (PETRARCHAN) and English (SHAKESPEREAN) - All sonnets have 14 lines, which can be broken down into four sections called Types of Poetry quatrains. Haiku - It follows a strict rhyme scheme example ABAB / CDCD / EFEF / GG. - It first emerged in thirteenth century and was popularized in sixteenth century. - It is written in iambic pentameter, a poetic meter with 10 beats per line made up of alternating unstressed and stressed syllables. - The haiku (or hokku) is an ancient form of Japanese poetry that has become very popular all over the world. Acrostic - Haiku are typically about nature, and in Japanese, they contain a kireji, or “cutting - An acrostic poem is a poem in which certain letters of each line spell out a word, word,” that divides the poem into two parts. name, or phrase when read vertically. - It has unrhymed poetic form - Each line starts with a capital letter that spells out the poem's theme vertically. - It consists 17 syllables arranged in three lines of 5, 7, and 5 syllables. - Like any poem, acrostic poems don't need to rhyme, but all the other poetic devices like alliteration, similes, and rhythm can be used in acrostic poems, too. - It is in iambic pentameter where unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed syllable. Villanelle - A villanelle is a poem of nineteen lines, and follows a strict form that consists of five tercets (three-line stanzas) followed by one quatrain (four-line stanza). - The term "villanelle" simply carried the connotation of "country song." It was used Elegy to refer to a style of lyric verse that was similar to a ballad and did not have a fixed - An elegy is a serious, melancholic lyric poem, often written to reflect on the sorrow form. of losing someone who has died. - Often written in iambic pentameter - The style was developed in the eighteenth century when it flourished during the Romantic movement. - Follows an ABA rhyme scheme. - Elegiac stanza is a quatrain with the rhyme scheme ABAB and written in iambic - Villanelles are notoriously tricky to write because of their strict form and double- pentameter. refrain - It discusses death and loss, expresses grief and emotions, and reflective - Some common themes often found in this form of poetry include love, loss, time, and the passage of seasons. Ballad Limerick - A ballad is a narrative poem that tells a story, often set to music and passed down through generations. - The first limericks were written in the early 1700s, and they were often used in folk songs. However, the father of the limerick is considered to be Edward Lear, the - The word ballad has been taken from the Latin word “ballare” which means dancing famous British poet who popularized it. song. - Limericks are humorous, often nonsensical, and ribald poems that originated in - It has four-line stanzas the nineteenth century. - A ballad can be any length, but it must be a series of rhyming quatrains. - A limerick contains just one stanza. - It can follow any rhyme scheme like the ABCB pattern. - Its rhyming scheme is always AABBA. - Usually fun poems designed with humor to make readers laugh. UNIT 3.2 Poetic and Rhetorical Devices Ode - The word “ode” comes from the Greek word “aidein,” meaning to sing. Poetic devices are techniques used primarily in poetry to enhance the expression - It is a formal lyric poem that is written in celebration or dedication. They are and aesthetic quality of the writing. generally directed with specific intent. Rhetorical devices are techniques used in speech and writing to persuade or - The poet composed an ode to her mother, expressing her love and appreciation influence an audience. for all the hard work her mother had done for her. - Odes are not required to stick to any specific meter, rhyme scheme, or length— Simile though they often use a formal tone. A comparison of two unlike things that is often introduced by "like" or "as". - Its tone and manner are typically elaborate, dignified, and imaginative. Ex: They fought like cats and dogs. - Tends to focus on one purpose and theme. Metaphor Oxymoron A word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of A combination of contradictory or incongruous words. It is a combination of an another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them. adjective preceded by a noun with contrasting meanings. Ex: Laughter is the music of the soul. Ex: Climbing the mountain was a bittersweet experience. Personification Paradox Personification is giving human characteristics to non-human object. It is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly, but may contain a latent truth. Ex: Death robbed her of the chance at happiness. Ex: Less is more. Hyperbole An oxymoron is the combination of two A paradox can be one or more Extravagant exaggeration. words that are contradictory or sentences. A paradox appears to Ex: I’m so hungry I could eat a horse. opposite. An oxymoron, however, can contradict the general truth, but it have a dramatic effect while making no contains an implied truth. Onomatopoeia literal sense. The naming of a thing or action by a vocal imitation of the sound associated with it. Ex: “There was a deafening silence Ex: “I am nobody.” after the loud argument ended.” Ex: The corn went pop in the microwave. Assonance Chiasmus Assonance occurs when two or more words close to each other repeat the same An inverted relationship between the syntactic elements of parallel phrases. vowel sound but begin with different consonant sounds. Ex: Do I love you because you’re beautiful, or are you beautiful because I love you? Ex: The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain. Enjambment Consonance An enjambed line in poetry is a line that does not end with a complete thought or It is the repetition of the middle or final consonant sounds, usually in the more sentence. The reader must continue to the next line to complete the meaning. important words or in the accented syllables. Typically punctuated with a period, comma, or semicolon. Ex: It will creep and beep while you sleep. Ex: Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, Alliteration And sorry I could not travel both Alliteration is a series of words begin with the same consonant sound. And be one traveler, long I stood And looked down one as far as I could Ex: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. To where it bent in the undergrowth; Amplification Dysphemism Involves extending a sentence or phrase in order to add information, emphasize, or Intended to be offensive to the subject or to the audience. exaggerate certain points. May be motivated by fear, distaste, hatred, contempt, or humor. Some sources define amplification as the repeating and/or elaborating a word or Anadiplosis phrase to create impact, a sense of urgency, or even importance. When the writer uses a word or a phrase from a preceding sentence and uses it to Anthropomorphism begin the next. Similar to personification, anthropomorphism gives human traits or attributes to Ex: Vladimir Nabokov's "Lolita", "What I present here is what I remember of the animals, inanimate objects, or other non-human things. letter, and what I remember of the letter I remember verbatim. Coming from the Greek words, "anthropo" and "morph", meaning "human" and Tmesis "form", respectively. A literary device that lets writers cut into multi-syllable words with one-word quips. 1. Literal Anthropomorphism - characterized by non-human characters acting or depicted as "human-shaped" Comes from the Greek word, which means, "to cut" 2. Metaphorical Anthropomorphism (aka personification) Ex: a-dork-able, un-freaking-believable 3. Anthropomorphic Analogy - is when you describe something as being human- Zeugma like; comparing language is often used in this type An expression is used both literally and figuratively. 4. Symbolic Anthropomorphism – unlike the previous two types, this type is more literal and symbolic than it is metaphorical. Ex: He fell out of her favor... and the window. It happens when an extended symbol is the essence of who the character is Catachresis Ex: Aphrodite as the Ancient Greek goddess of love. Happens when writers use mixed metaphors in an inappropriate way, often to create rhetorical effect. Antithesis It's also known as "exaggerated comparison". Happens when two contrasting ideas are “juxtaposed in a parallel structure”. Used to highlight the differences between two opposing concepts or views in order to create tension or to create a particular point. UNIT 3.3 PERSUASION TECHNIQUES Ex: One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. Bdelygmia (AKA abominatio or “rhetorical insult”) Persuasion techniques are the rhetorical and stylistic strategies that authors use to influence readers’ thoughts, emotions, or perspectives. It also understands how Express disgust or hatred of a character, idea, or hatred of a [person's] character. writers craft their arguments, develop characters, and shape narratives to persuade or engage their audience. Ex: His person was of so wretched an aspect that his ugliness surpassed all description Aristotle's Rhetorical Triangle Ethical Appeals is to present yourself as a lover of wisdom who seeks the good for others rather than personal gain. 1. Ethos (character) is the ethical appeal, credibility, and character of the writer. Use of Dramatic Tension is when the tension creates a dynamic and engaging - Phronesis: Authority and Expertise over the subject narrative, drawing readers in as they watch the clash of ideas unfold. - Arete: organization of arguments to guide the readers through your train of thought Contrasting Rhetoric with Dialectic - Eunoia: virtuous intent and goodwill as a messenger Rhetoric seeks to persuade by appealing to emotions, often through simplified 2. Pathos (experience or emotion) appeals to the readers’ emotions, might suggest arguments and repetition. Dialectic seeks to uncover the truth through rigorous that the arguments are shaky and may end up manipulating the readers, and careful questioning and logical reasoning. choice of words to create an emotional impact on the readers. 3. Logos (reason or principle) “reasoned discourse” where facts, figures, and additional information are provided to establish their points, the organization of 3.4 LOGICAL FALLACIES information that makes it make sense, and the logical flow from one piece of evidence to the next, ensuring that the readers will have the same conclusions as you A logical fallacy is an error in reasoning that occurs when invalid arguments or irrelevant points are introduced without any evidence to support them. The majority of logical fallacies involve arguments—in other words, one or more Plato's Persuasion Techniques statements (called the premise) and a conclusion. The Socratic Method is the method of asking questions to engage someone in dialogue. Mistakes That Can Occur in Arguments The Use of Myth and Allegory illustrates a moral or philosophical lesson through stories, myths, or allegories. A factual error in the premises occurs when the premise is observably false or inaccurate. Socratic Irony and Elenchus are feigning ignorance to draw knowledge and questioning aimed at the contradictions in someone’s belief. The premises fail to logically support the conclusion means the reasons or evidence provided (the premises) do not properly lead to or justify the outcome Appeal to Higher Ideals is the use of universal ideals like truth, justice, and the being claimed (the conclusion). There is a flaw or gap in the logical connection good. between them. Gradual Unfolding of Arguments uses a step-by-step method to develop arguments, often leading the reader through various stages of understanding. 2 Types of Logical Fallacies The Maieutic Method means midwifery, and this method has been framed as a technique for bringing ideas into the world. It is a discussion where ideas are tested. A formal logical fallacy occurs when there is an error in the logical structure of It allows for a more digestible and convincing argument, where each step builds on an argument. the previous one. By laying out intermediate steps that seem reasonable it helps to ensure that the audience is mentally prepared to accept the final conclusion. An informal logical fallacy occurs when there is an error in the content of an Ex: Some people argue against getting vaccinated by saying, “We don’t know the argument (i.e., it is based on irrelevant or false premises). Informal fallacies can be long-term side effects of the COVID-19 vaccine, so it must be unsafe.” further subdivided into groups according to similarity such as: 5. False Cause Fallacy Relevance - informal fallacies that raise an irrelevant point Assuming that because one thing occurred after another, it must have occurred as Ambiguity - informal fallacies that use ambiguous words or phrases, the meanings a result of it. of which change in the course of discussion Ex: Others claimed that their child was diagnosed with Autism after being vaccinated, therefore, they conclude that vaccines cause Autism. Common Logical Fallacies 6. Slippery Slope 1. Appeal to Authority Arguing that a small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of relevant (negative) events. Claiming something is true because an authority says it without presenting any evidence. Ex: Some opponents of divorce legalization argue that allowing divorce will lead to the breakdown of the family unit, which will then result in moral decay and the Ex: Former President Duterte made controversial remarks suggesting the use of collapse of society. This argument assumes a chain of events without providing gasoline or kerosene as disinfectants if alcohol was not available. He emphasized substantial evidence that legalizing divorce will inevitably lead to such extreme that he was not joking about using these substances for disinfection. outcomes. 2. Bandwagon Fallacy 7. Appeal to Emotion Arguing that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or Manipulating an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument. desirable. Ex: “You should support the new animal welfare legislation because think of the Ex: An example of the bandwagon fallacy in the Philippines can be seen in the countless animals suffering in shelters. Imagine how heartbreaking it is to see them popularity of certain political candidates during elections. Often, voters may choose in such pain. By supporting this legislation, you can make a difference and give them to support a candidate simply because they see that many others are doing so, a chance at a better life.” rather than evaluating the candidate’s policies or qualifications. 8. Ad Hominem 3. Appeal to Nature Attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself. Arguing that because something is natural therefore it is valid, justifiable, inevitable, or ideal. Ex: If someone criticizes the policy, they might be labeled as “Dilawan” (a term used to describe supporters of the opposition party) instead of addressing their Ex: In 2016, former Senator Manny Pacquiao made a controversial statement about arguments. This shifts the focus from the argument to the person’s political homosexuality, comparing gay people to animals. He said, “Have you seen any affiliation. animal having male-to-male or female-to-female relations? Animals are better because they recognize gender differences.” 9. Appeal to Tradition 4. Appeal to Ignorance Arguing that something should be done a certain way simply because it has been done that way in the past. Claiming something is true because it has not been proven false or vice versa. Ex: During the budget hearing for the OVP, Cong. Rodante Marcoleta moved to 4.1 PERIODS AND MOVEMENT IN ENGLISH LITERATURE terminate the hearing, citing “tradition” and “respect.” 10. False Dichotomy or False Dilemma Fallacy Periods and Movement in English Literature Presenting two options as the only possibilities when more option exists. 1. Old English (Anglo-Saxon Period) (450-1066) Ex: In discussions about the West Philippine Sea, some political figures have - poetry, prose, and religious texts presented the situation as a choice between going to war with China or completely surrendering the Philippines’ claims. This ignores other possible solutions, such as - heroism, loyalty, kinship, fate, and the struggle between good and evil diplomatic negotiations, international arbitration, or multilateral cooperation. - a mix of pagan and Christian beliefs and literature 11. Straw Man Fallacy - written in Old English, with strong oral traditions Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack. Keywork: Beowulf Ex: “I think we should have stricter regulations on factory emissions to reduce pollution.” “So, you want to shut down all factories and destroy jobs? That would 2. Middle English Period (1066-1500) ruin the economy!” - written in middle English, reflecting the influence of Norman Conquest in 1066 led 12. Hasty Generalization by William the Conqueror Draws a broad conclusion based on a small sample. - this period is marked by religious themes, chivalry, and allegorical storytelling Ex: If someone hears about a few incidents of violence in Mindanao and then Keywork: The Canterbury Tales by Geoffry Chaucer concludes that the entire region is dangerous and that all people from Mindanao are 3. Renaissance Period (1500-1660) violent, they are committing a hasty generalization. This conclusion is based on limited incidents and does not reflect the diverse and generally peaceful - focus on humanism, exploration of human nature, and revival of classical learning communities in Mindanao. - drama and poetry flourished, particularly with the work of Shakespeare 13. Red Herring Elizabethan Era (1558-1603) – the golden age of English literature for its An attempt to distract from the main issue by bringing in irrelevant information. dramatic and poetic achievements Ex: “What’s your plan to address climate change?” “My tax cut boosted the Jacobean Era (1603-1625) – shift toward darker and more complex themes economy!” Keywork: Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet by William Shakespeare 14. Cherry Picking 4. Neoclassical Period Occurs when evidence is selectively chosen to support a claim instead of considering all available evidence. - emphasis on reason, order, and classical ideals Ex: Advertisements for health supplements often cherry-pick studies that show - satire, essays, and poetry were the dominant forms positive effects while ignoring studies that show no effect or potential harm. For Restoration (1660-1700) – satirical and often moralistic works following the example, a supplement company might promote a product by citing a study that restoration of the monarchy shows a minor benefit while ignoring larger studies that show no significant impact. Augustan Age (1700-1745) – writers like Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift focused on satire and classical ideals Age of Sensibility (1745-1798) – more emotional and personal writing, prefiguring romanticism Keywork: Gulliver’s Travel by Jonathan Swift 5. Romantic Period (1798-1837) - focus on emotion, nature, imagination, and individualism - a reaction against the industrial revolution and the rationalism of the enlightenment Keywork: Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth 6. Victorian Period (1837-1901) - explores social issues like class, industrialization, and morality - a great focus on realism, along with an undercurrent of gothic fiction Keywork: Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens 7. Modernist Period (1901-1945) - fragmentation, stream of consciousness, and a break of traditional forms - often focus on the alienation of the individual in the rapidly changing modern world Keywork: Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Wolf 8. Postmodernism Period (1945-late 20th century) - continuation and critique of modernist experimentation - marked by irony, metafiction, and questioning traditional narratives - explores themes of identity, reality, and truth Keywork: Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett 9. Contemporary Period (late 20th century-present) - reflects diverse voices, global perspectives, and mixed genres and styles - explores issues like posy-colonialism, feminism, identity, and technology Keywork: White Teeth by Zadie Smith