Educ4 Midterm PDF

**CHAPTER 4: COMPONENTS OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION** **I. CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS** Referral for evaluation and special education services begins by Identifying students who have additional needs and who may be at risk for developmental disabilities. School guidance couns...

**CHAPTER 4: COMPONENTS OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION** **I. CHILD FIND THROUGH A PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS** Referral for evaluation and special education services begins by Identifying students who have additional needs and who may be at risk for developmental disabilities. School guidance counselors, early childhood teachers, primary school teachers, and community-based daycare workers are often the first to notice such developmental delays in children. In other instances, the parents themselves notice the delays and seek consultation with pediatricians and other specialists. A. **PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS** A child noted to have significant difficulties in relation to expected competencies and developmental milestones may be referred by parents and teachers for observation and assessment. A team of professionals, known as a pre-referral team, is comprised of special education teachers, counselors, administrators, and psychologists who collaborate to determine reasons for the observed challenges (Hallahan et al. 2014). They collaborate to find ways to meet the needs of children with developmental delays. Taylor (2009) provided an assessment model that begins with a pre-referral process. Children with noted developmental delays and difficulties are identified through observations and use of norm and criterion referenced tests. They are not immediately referred for special education testing but are first provided with the necessary academic and behavioral support needed to address noted challenges. In his assessment model. Taylor (2009) explained that the initial step is to determine teaching areas where a learner will benefit from additional support through a variety of means. Very young students who are at-risk or suspected to have additional needs may also be identified through community-based screening Child development and social workers use developmental screening tools such as the Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) Checklist that covers items expected for a child\'s typical development as presented in Chapter 5. B. **PRE-REFERRAL STRATEGIES** Designed to provide immediate instructional and/or behavior management support to a child. Using such strategies lessens the number of cases referred for special education and makes efficient use of time and financial resources that could have been spent for special education assessment. **Examples of pre-referral strategies are:** - observation of the child\'s behavior, including interactions with parents, teachers and peers. - interview of parents and teachers to gather more information about the child. - review of school records. - analysis, portfolio assessment, and criterion-referenced curriculum-based assessment. Depending on the information gathered, corresponding changes can be made to manage the child\'s needs, such as modification of the classroom environment (e.g. seating arrangement, group change, and teacher\'s proximity in class, instructional support, and relevant classroom and behavior management (Mcloughlin & Lewis, 2009). **Pre-referral process** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Initial Identification | - Recognition of potential | | | problems | | | | | | - Parents or Teacher | | | observation | | | | | | - Review of school records, | | | classroom observations | +===================================+===================================+ | Determination of teaching areas | - Small-group instruction | | and strategies | | | | - Direct instruction | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Implementation of teaching | - Additional in class or | | programs | after-school support | | | | | | - Modification of classroom | | | environment and behavior | | | | | | - Modification of instruction | | | to address potential needs. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Evaluation of teaching program | - Determine effectiveness of | | | programs on learning and | | | behavior | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **GOALS AND BENEFITS OF THE PRE-REFERRAL PROCESS** - Provides a forum for teachers and other team members-including parents-to discuss how to meet students\' needs. - Empower general education teachers with a variety of strategies to better serve diverse learners. - Prevents the overrepresentation of students from a particular group in special education. - Improves communication between parents and the school by involving families in the process. **II. ASSESSMENT** Assessment the process of collecting information about a child\'s strengths and needs. It uses a problem-solving process that involves a systematic collection as well as interpretation of data gathered (Salvia et al. 2013). Teachers and administrators make instructional decisions based on the assessment results. A. **Assessment Purposes** Assessment has a variety of purpose in special and inclusive education It begins with initial identification that was explained in the previous Section in Child Find and the pre-referral process. The results of an assessment are used to decide on a child\'s educational placement and to plan instructional programs for a child identified to have additional needs. Progress monitoring and evaluation of teaching programs and services is another, the purpose of which is to determine how effective programs are to assist the inclusive teacher and the special education teacher (Giuliani & Pierangelo 2012). There are a variety of assessment methods that regular and special education teachers can use. This section covers the following: \(1) interviews \(2) observations, \(3) checklists or rating scales, and \(4) tests B. **Methods of Assessment** **Tests**. School psychologists, educational diagnosticians, and other related professionals use a variety of assessment tools to ensure that results are valid and reliable. **Norm-referenced tests** are standardized assessments that compare a child\'s performance with a representative sample of students of the same chronological age. Such tests are rigorously made by a team. Results are reported as percentile ranks and age and grade equivalent scores, which makes it easier for professionals to determine class and individual performance. While such quantitative reporting makes it easier to compare the test performance of children in a class, it has its limitations in terms of use in instructional planning. **Intelligence Tests** (e.g., Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Students and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale) and **Achievement Tests** (Wide Range Achievement Tests and Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement) are examples of norm-referenced assessments. On the other hand, **criterion-references tests** compare a child's performance based on established standards and competencies and can be used to describe student performance (Jennings et al. 2006 as cited in Spinelli 2012). Scores are typically reported as simple numerical scores, percentage of correct responses, letter grades, or graphic score reports. **Informal Assessment**. Professionals also use **informal** or **non- standardized assessments**, which are considered more authentic and thus can be used primarily to describe performance and inform instruction, Such assessments can be curriculum-based or performance-based, such as the teacher-made instruments used in classrooms and portfolio assessments For example, the use of reading Inventories where a teacher listens to a child read while counting for accuracy and speed is an example of an informal assessment **Authentic Assessment**. The use of rests, whether formal or informal, is only one method of assessment. There are other ways of assessing students considered at-risk for developmental delays or have additional needs. One that is highly recommended by professionals is the use of authentic assessment methods and tools. **Authentic assessments** provide students the opportunity to apply knowledge and skills in meaningful, real-world settings (e.g., classroom, playground, etc.) rather than in an artificial and contrived setting (Dennis et al. 20131. Assessment tasks that are more real- life are considered more authentic. An example of authentic assessment is **observation** of young students as they interact with family members, peers, and objects in naturally occurring activities across settings (e.g., home, school, playground, etc.), and routine. During observations, teachers and specialists can use running records which focuses on the occurrence of behaviors as they happen sequentially. Clay (2000 as cited in Dennis et al. 2013) identified essential information to be Included in a running record: - Date and time of the observation - Names of children involves - Location of the incident - Verbatim recording of what the children said - Actual event that occurred Anecdotal records contain shorter descriptions of incidents or anecdotes that teachers and specialists tan use to analyze a student\'s behavior and plan strategies for a specific child or group of children. Other examples of authentic assessment for young children are *play-based assessment* and *portfolio assessment*. C. **ASSESSMENT PRINCIPLES** Assessment practices should be anchored on principles as provided by the Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Student (DEC) (2014) Child and family-centered practices, a team-based approach, application of individualized and appropriate process, and use of genuine and meaningful communication adhere to ethical and legal practices are the recommendations provided by the DEC. **III. PLACEMENT** Assessment results are used to decide a child\'s appropriate education placement within a continuum from the least to the most restrictive settings During the evaluation, student performance is assessed, and the team determines if there would be any changes in the educational placement within the continuum. Teams will base this on their observations, assessment results, and other factors, with the goal to move toward the least restrictive learning environment. Sound decisions are made to allow for fluidity in the child\'s placement based on the child\'s strengths, abilities, and needs. **Educational Placement** Means the overall instructional setting in which the student receives his education including the special education and related services provided. Its goal is matching each students\' abilities with clusters of services to see where he learns best. - General education class with modifications - General education class with related services - General education class (inclusion or co-taught with a special education teacher) - General education class with resource center instruction - Self-contained special education class in a general education - Special education class in a special education - Residential facility - Home / Hospital program **IV. ACCOMMODATIONS AND CURRICULAR MODIFICATIONS** Students with disabilities and additional needs who are studying in an inclusive general education classroom may need accommodations in the form of instructional support and other supplementary services. Others who need more intensive support are provided with curricular modifications. A. **Accommodations** Based on the definition, accommodations are supports provided to students to help gain full access to class content and instruction, without altering the curriculum standards and competencies expected and to demonstrate accurately what they know. When accommodations are provided in a general education classroom for children with disabilities, barriers are removed from accessing education. As a result, children can work around the effect of their disabilities. Examples of accommodations are altering instruments, toys or materials, changing the room during specific activities, providing time extensions on allowances for tests and tasks, and changing response formats in worksheets. Accommodations may be provided both during assessment and Instruction, depending on the learning profile and needs of a child and may vary in terms of presentation, response, setting, and scheduling (Beech 2010). **TYPES OF ACCOMMODATIONS** 1. **Presentation Accommodations** Children with disabilities may need specialized presentation formats especially those with sensory impairments so they can learn the same content alongside typically developing peers. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Learning Needs** | **Examples of Accommodation** | +===================================+===================================+ | Visual Support | - Minimize visual distraction | | | | | | - Visual cues (e.g., use | | | color-coded text, | | | highlighting) | | | | | | - Use of larger print materials | | | (font, size, illustration) | | | | | | - Use of sign language | | | | | | - Videos with closed captioning | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Auditory and comprehension | - Read aloud by peer | | support | | | | - Audio books | | | | | | - Digital text that reads aloud | | | or gives definition of words | | | | | | - Text-to-speech software | | | | | | - Advance organizer or story | | | guide | | | | | | - Highlighting or color coding | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Listening and focusing | - Advance organizer | | | | | | - Explicit verbal or visual | | | cues; physical prompts | | | | | | - Repeat/Clarify directions and | | | important information | | | | | | - Note-taking support | | | | | | - Copy of directions | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ 2. **Response Accommodations** Response accommodations allow students with disabilities and additional needs a variety of ways to complete assignments, written tests, performance tasks, and other activities. Providing such instructional and assessment supports allows them to access the same learning experiences as other students in a general education classroom. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Learning Needs** | **Examples of Accommodation** | +===================================+===================================+ | Writing difficulty (e.g., errors | - Different size/diameter of | | in spacing, visual-perceptional | pencil, marker or crayon | | or spatial-orientation, illegible | | | handwriting) | - Pencil or pen grip | | | (triangular, pear-shaped) | | | | | | - Scribe to record dictated | | | responses | | | | | | - Finger spacer | | | | | | - Handwriting template/guide on | | | the student's desk | | | | | | - Visual cues on paper | | | | | | - Different types and sizes of | | | paper | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Written expression difficulty | - Electronic dictionary with | | | spell check | | | | | | - Online dictionary | | | | | | - Word processor with spelling | | | and grammar check | | | | | | - Writing cue cards | | | | | | - List of sight words | | | | | | - Writing templates, outlines, | | | and graphic organizers | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Math difficulty | - Calculator | | | | | | - Concrete models and | | | manipulatives | | | | | | - Visual representation | | | | | | - Problem-solving guides | | | | | | - Graphic organizers | | | | | | - Special paper- graphing paper | | | for computation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ 3. **Setting Accommodations** Changes in the location or conditions of the educational setting or environment may be necessary for students who need support in terms of behavior, attention, and organization of space and materials. Accommodation in a setting may allow a child who gets easily distracted to work in a quiet corner of the classroom in his own study carrel so that he will not be sidetracked by environmental stimuli. Or a child who is still unable to read fluently may be allowed in take a silent reading comprehension test in another room with a supervising adult just so she could hear herself read aloud which helps her better understand the story. 4. **Scheduling Accommodations** Changing time allotment, schedule of tasks and assessments, and management of time are some types of scheduling accommodations. Students with slower ability in processing Information and directions well as with focusing issues may need these types of accommodation. Some examples of accommodation that can modify scheduling are: \(1) extending time for assignments an assessment, \(2) providing breaks in between tasks, \(3) providing a visual schedule of a checklist of individual responsibilities. \(4) providing predictable routines and procedures, and \(5) providing an electronic device with alarms and cues. B. **Modifications** Curriculum modifications are provided for students with significant or severe disabilities where content expectations are altered, and the performance outcomes are changed in relation to what are expected of typically developing students of the same age (DEC 2007). When instruction and assessment are modified, a student with disability is still given the right to access the same learning opportunities as other students in the general education class, but the tasks are more respectful and appropriate to the student\'s abilities and needs. Curricular modifications include changes in instructional level, content and performance criteria, as well as the breadth and depth of content being learned by students. Students with disabilities or additional needs may be given more, less, or different content and resource materials altogether. They may also be assessed using different standards that are more appropriate to the student\'s needs and abilities, such as being provided with fewer objectives, shorter lessons, or a smaller number of vocabulary words to learn. Educational teams responsible for instructional planning may indicate curricular modifications in the student\'s **Individual Educational Plan (IEP**). Such modifications are needed so that students also have access to the general education curriculum. **V. PARENT INVOLVEMENT** Another component of an inclusive and special education is parent involvement. It has long been established that parent involvement in education, planning, and management of children with disabilities and additional needs is essential as they are the primary caregivers and have direct influence on their children. This is anchored on **Bronfenbrenner\'s Human Ecological Theory**, which stares that there are five environmental systems that comprise a child\'s social context. For the purposes of this book, focus is given on the ***microsystem***, where the child and his/her family belong, along with peers, school, and the immediate community de, neighborhood Within these microsystems, a child has direct interactions with parents, teachers, peers, and others while the ***mesosystem*** refers to the linkages or relationships between microsystems such as the connections between family experiences and school experiences and between family and peers (Santrock 2011). **Ecological Systems Theory** The Division of Early Childhood of the Council of Exceptional Childres DEC) espoused the use of family-centered practices in the assessment an Instruction of young children. Turnbull and Turnbull (2002 cited in Kin et al. 2015) provided the principles of a family-centered model: \(1) honors the family choice by changing the power relationship between professional and families. \(2) abandons a pathology orientation and adopts a strengths orientation, and \(3) where the entire family becomes the unit of support and not just the child with a disability and the child\'s mother. In this way, the whole family is provided support, capitalizing on the child and family members\' strengths and resources, not on their deficits and needs Teachers and administrators may also be guided by these principles when communicating and collaborating with parents and families of students with disabilities. Parent involvement has been found to be directly related to academic achievement and improvements in the school performance of children. Educational support and collaboration with teachers have been found to promote child success in school (Reschly & Christenson 2009). Moreover, programs for children with disabilities become more effective and successful when children and families are involved (Newman 2004 cited in Heward 2013). A. **Home-School Communication** Having established the critical role of parents in a student\'s developmental and academic progress and achievement, it is essential that there is a close home and school collaboration and communication. To establish partnerships, problem-solving, two- way communication, and shared decision making are some of the practices needed. Communicating with parents may be done in several ways. 1. **Parent-Teacher Conferences** Parent-teacher conferences are face-to-face meetings held between parents and teachers. Conducting such meetings is necessary to parents of students with disabilities and additional needs will be able to share about their child\'s background. strengths and abilities, history of difficulties, and practices they have been implementing at home as well as interventions done with other specialists. Together with teachers, they can coordinate their efforts and services to support their child both in school and at home. Schools differ when it comes to the frequency of parent teacher conferences. One best practice is to hold a meeting with parents at the beginning of a school year as part of goal setting for the student with a disability. In this way, both parents and teachers can set expectations for the year and agree on goals and objectives for the child. This is also a good opportunity for teachers to establish rapport with parents. Conferences are also held after every grading period (e.g. every quarter, trimester, and semester) so that progress, changes, and results can be communicated and discussed with parents and agree on necessary action plans. 2. **Written Communication** Home-school communication may also be conducted through written messages, such as the use of a home school communication notebook, where teachers and parents write homework assignments, the student\'s behavior in the classroom, as well as progress on program goals. A written communication may be time consuming. but some parents prefer this form of collaboration as the messages are documented and they can provide a copy to a developmental specialist when needed. 3. **Digital communication** With the influx of mobile devices, many parents and families are more able to communicate through electronic and digital means such as email, text messages, and social network messaging systems. A study found that parents and teachers perceive technology as an effective tool to promote patent involvement and thus value its use for communication (Olmstead 2013). Because it is instant and real-time, parents and teachers are immediately able to receive messages and updates about the student. However, drawbacks can also occur such as when both parties are not mindful of parameters in communication, hence, it is necessary that parties agree on certain boundaries in order to be respectful of everyone\'s time and personal space. 4. **Home-School Contracts** A home-school contract contains an agreement between teachers and parents regarding behavioral and/or academic goals for a student with disability. Just like any formal contract, this is a written agreement between teachers, parents, and students (when appropriate) on specific objectives and corresponding reinforcements or rewards when they are met. One example of a home-school contract is a ***Daily Report Card***, an individualized intervention used in schools that is anchored on the behavioral principles of operant conditioning. The card indicates specific behaviors targeted for a child with disability that are framed as positive statements and targets for improvements. The use of a daily report card has been found to be beneficial in helping a child with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in school and in promoting daily collaboration between teachers and parents (Moore et al. 2016; Mautone et al. 2012). B. **Other Ways to Involve Parents** Parents also have strengths, abilities, intuitive knowledge, and the commitment to help their own child. They become advocates of their own children. To maximize their involvement, schools provide other opportunities such as parent education training. workshops, and parent support groups. a. ***Parent education*** may take the form of providing seminars and workshops to parents to equip them with a better understanding of their child\'s disability and accompanying strengths, uniqueness, as well as specific techniques and strategies that they can practice at home. Such training sessions can be for a few hours done on a quarterly basis or for a regular period, such as every Saturday. depending on the needs of the parents and the training capacity of the school. In this way, parents become educated in evidence-based approaches so that there will be continuity in the practices implemented between the home and school. b. ***Parent support or groups*** are also helpful as parents are able to ask other parents about tips and techniques to work with their children. Parents should be empowered so that they can participate in planning and organizing parent support groups Through such groups, parents can draw support from one another during meetings as they share techniques and strategies, even frustrations and successes about their children. In summary, this chapter has presented the different components of inclusive and special education, which include the following pre-referral, assessment, placement, accommodations curricular modifications, and parent involvement. Across these components, a team approach is highly recommended where each member-the child, parents, general education teacher, special education teacher, therapists, and other specialists coordinate and collaborate in planning and making decisions for the child with disabilities. **CHAPTER 5: TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT AMONG CHILDREN** **I. CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPORTANCE** To ensure that a child meets his/her developmental milestones, it is crucial to observe and monitor his/her development. The milestones or developmental skills that need to be mastered usually at the same rate act as a guide for ideal development. It is done by checking the progress of a child based on his or her age to see if the child is developing within expectations. For others, checking the milestones can help detect any difficulties at a particular stage. Intervention can then he given which can help in the development of a child. Usually, it is the parents, teachers, and pediatricians who use the checklists. **II. CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES** During the early 20th century, interest in child development began. specifically, that which focused on detecting abnormalities. Certain theories were discovered based on this interest to appreciate the growth that children experience from birth to adolescence. A. **Psychosocial Development Theory of Erik Erikson** This is an eight-stage theory that describes the changes one goes through in a lifetime. The main focus of Erikson\'s theory is the conflicts or crises one experiences through social interaction. Starting from birth, each person is faced with a conflict that needs to be resolved since it has an impact on the function of the succeeding stages. If one successfully overcomes the crisis of each stage, a psychological virtue emerges. Stage 1 (Infancy): Trust vs Mistrust Stage 2 (Toddler): Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt Stage 3 (Pre-schooler): Initiative vs Guilt Stage 4 (Grade-schooler): Industry vs Inferiority Stage 5 (Teenager): Identity vs Confusion Stage 6 (Young Adult): Intimacy vs Isolation Stage 7 (Middle-age Adult): Generativity vs Stagnation Stage 8 (Older Adult): Integrity vs Despair B. **Cognitive Developmental Theory of Jean Piaget** This theory is concerned with the thought processes of a person and how they are used to understand and interact with the environment. Piaget's theory focuses on children\'s intellectual development and has four stages **A. Sensorimotor Stage** -- From birth in two years old, a child's knowledge is limited to his or her use of the senses. **B. Preoperational** **Stage** -- From two to six years old, a child learns through the use of language. However, mental manipulation of information does not take place yet. **C. Concrete Operational Stage** -- From 7 to 11 years old, a child begins to think logically and have better understanding of mental operations However, abstract concepts are still difficult to understand. **D. Formal Operational Stage** -- From 12 years old to adulthood, a person has the ability to think in abstract concepts. C. **Sociocultural Theory of Lev Vygotsky** This theory believes that children learn actively through hands- on experiences. Vygotsky highlights the importance of other people such as parents, caregivers, and peers in the development of children. ***Culture*** plays an integral role as well. ***Interaction*** with others allows learning to be integrated in the child\'s understanding of the world. Also included in the theory is the ***zone of proximal development***, which is the portion in between what one can do on his or her own and with help. Children best learn when they are in this zone. **SOCIAL INTERACTION** - Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in social activities, making the social context of learning crucial. Parents, teachers and other adults in the learners\' environment all contribute to the process. They explain, model, assist, give directions and provide feedback to the learner. Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning experience. **CULTURAL FACTORS** - Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the cognitive development of children. **LANGUAGE** - Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have. Learners can use language to know and understand the world and solve problems. Language serves a social function bur it also has an important individual function. **2 Principles of Socio-Cultural Theory of Vygotsky** 1. **More knowledge others** - Refers to anyone who has better understanding or higher ability level than the learner. - Normally thought of as being a teacher, trainer, or older, adult, but MKO could also peers, a younger person, even computers. 2. **Zone of Proximal Development** - Difference between what child can accomplish alone and s/he can accomplish with the guidance of another. **2 Features of ZPD** **1. Scaffolding** -- Appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task. Requires that an instructor shows example how to solve a problem, while controlling the learning environment so that students can take things step by step expanding their knowledge without excessive frustration. **2. Reciprocal teaching** -- A highly successful teaching method, it provides an environment of open dialogue between student and teacher which goes beyond a simple question and answer session. **4 principles underlying the theory of Vygotsky** 1\) Children construct their knowledge. 2\) Development cannot be separated from its social context. 3) Learning is mediated. 4\) Language plays a central role in mental development. D. **Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura** This theory believes that learning takes place through observation and modeling. As a child observes the actions of the people in his or her environment, new information is acquired, and new skills are developed. **BASIC SOCIAL LEARNING CONCEPTS** 1. **Observational Learning** - People can learn through observation. **Three basic models of observational learning:** - Live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating - Verbal instructional model, Involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior - Symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media. 2. **Intrinsic Reinforcement** - Mental states are important for learning. form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. 3. **The Modeling Process** - Learning does not lead to a change in behavior. **PROCESS OF LEARNING THROUGH MODELING** 1. **Attention:** If you are going to learn anything, you must be paying attention. 2. **Retention**: You must be able to retain or remember what you have paid attention to. 3. **Reproduction**: You must translate the images or descriptions into actual behaviors. 4. **Motivation**: Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. **PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY** - People can learn by observing the behaviour of others and the outcomes of those behaviors. - Learning can occur without a change in behavior. - Cognition plays a role in learning. **III. TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT** The development of a child usually follows a predictable pattern. There are certain skills and abilities that are observed to gauge a child\'s development are called developmental milestones. Examples of these ***sitting***, ***babbling***, and ***following directions***. However, *each child is unique*. With this, not all reach a milestone at the same time, thus the terms typical and atypical development. Let us define the two terms first before we look further into what makes a child\'s development typical and atypical. The term ***typical development*** refers to the normal progression where children grow by acquiring knowledge, skills, and behavior called developmental milestones at a certain time frame. ***Atypical development*** is a term used when development does not follow the normal course. More so, a child is developing atypically when he she reaches a milestone earlier or later than other children his/her age. There is no clear way to identify if a child is developing typically or atypically However, there are three commonly accepted principles of child development that one should look into. The principles are as follows: 1\. Rate of development differs among children 2\. Development occurs in a relatively orderly process 3\. Development takes place gradually **IV. DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT** The developmental milestones are categorized into four domains namely, ***physical***, ***social*** and ***emotional***, ***language***, and ***cognitive***. The ***physical domain*** refers to the development of physical changes such as size and strength. The development occurs in both gross and fine motor skills. The development of the senses and their uses are also part of the physical domain which is influenced by illness and nutrition. A child's experience, expression, and management of emotions along with the ability to establish positive relationships with others refer to the ***social-emotional domain***. This includes both the intrapersonal and interpersonal processes that take place in a child. The ***language domain*** refers to the process of acquiring language in a consistent order without the need for explicit teaching from the environment Construction of thought process which includes remembering, problem solving, and decision making refers to the ***cognitive domain.*** **V. STAGES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT** Stages along with age are used as ranges to mark significant periods in a human development timeline. In each stage, growth and development occur in the four domains mentioned above. The stages are as follows: A. **Infancy (birth to 2 years)** Is a critical stage in child development because growth is rapid. Many believe that this stage is the most important stage in one\'s life since the changes that occur in infancy will affect the later stages of development. This stage is also known as the building block for the succeeding stages in the attainment of crucial knowledge, skills and behaviors. B. **Early Childhood (1 to 8 years)** Is a period of life with slow growth and rapid development. Most psychologists label this stage as the exploratory and questioning stage since the children enjoy discovering new things in their surroundings. Interactions with family and the people around them will help shape their development. C. **Middle Childhood (9 to 11 years)** Is a stage that brings various changes in a child\'s life. Independence is a characteristic that children in this stage asserts. Developing friendships is another milestone that is evident in this stage. Children should be given more tasks to develop their sense of responsibility to further develop their growing independence, D. **Adolescence (12 to 18 years)** Is the period where puberty begins. By the end of this stage, most will have completed puberty. The child is now called a teen during this stage. The teen is becoming more vocal about his/her opinions due to the development of a unique personality. Peer pressure. however, will be present, which is why guidance from parents and guardians very much needed.