Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects PDF

Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 1 Course No. : ENTO-242 Course Title: Insect Ecology and Integrated Pest Management Including Beneficial Insects. Course C...

Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 1 Course No. : ENTO-242 Course Title: Insect Ecology and Integrated Pest Management Including Beneficial Insects. Course Credit: 3(2+1) Teaching Schedule (Theory): Lecture Topic No. 1 Insect Ecology: Definition – Importance of ecology and its scope. Environment : Its components 3 Effect of abiotic factors – temperature, moisture, humidity, rainfall, light. Atmospheric pressure and air currents. 4 Effect of biotic factors-food competition natural and environmental resistance. 5 Concepts of balance of life in nature, biotic potential and environmental resistance. Causes of pests outbreaks in agro-ecosystem. 6 Pest surveillance and pest forecasting. 7 Categories of pests. 8 IPM-Definition, importance, concepts, principles and tools of IMP. 9 Practices, scope and limitation of IPM. 10 Host Plant Resistance. 11 Cultural, mechanical. Methods of Pest control. 12 Physical, Legislative. Methods of pest control. 13 Biological methods of pest control.(Parasites, predators) 14 Microbial methods of pest control (Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses Nematodes, weed Killers.) 15 Chemical control- importance, hazards and limitations. 16 Classification of insecticides-Inorganic & organic 17 Mode of action of insecticides. 18 Novel insecticides IGR, chitin synthesis inhibitor, Juvenile Hormones mimic, ecdysone antagonistic 19 Toxicity of insecticides. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 2 20,21 Formulations of insecticides, pesticide application equipment &22 Recent methods of pest control- repellents, antifeedants attractants, gamma radiation, genetic control (Transgenic crops) 23 Semio-chemicals 24 Insecticide Act 1968, important provisions. 25 Phytotoxicity and compatibility of insecticides. 26 Symptoms of poisoning, first aids and antidotes. 27 Mass multiplication techniques 1. Trichogramma 2. Cryptolaemus (coccinellids) 3. Epiricania melanoleuca 4. Kopidosoma Koehleri 5. Chrysopids. 28 Important group of microorganisms. Bacterial- mass multiplications (Bt), Pseudomonas. Fungi – mass multiplication Verticillum lecanii, Beaveria, Metarrhizum. Viruses – HaNPV, SlNPV, Mass multiplication. 29 & 30 Sericulture /Lac culture / apiculture. 31 Non-insect pests: mites, rodents, birds, and nematodes, snails. 32 Vermiculture: - importance, species of vermicompost, morphology, techniques of vermicompost production, use of Vermicompost in agriculture. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 3 INSECT ECOLOGY  The term ecology was coined by a German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1869).  The term ecology is derived from the Greek word “oikos” means “house or place to live” & “logous” means “the science of” or “the study of”.  Thus literally ecology is the study of earth’s household comprising of the plants, animals, microorganisms and people that live together as interdependent components. Definition of Ecology  Ecology: - It is the science which deals with the study of relationship of organisms with their environment including both biotic & abiotic factors.  Insect Ecology: - The science which deals with the study of relationship of insects to their environment. Terminology Related to Ecology  Auto ecology: - Study of an individual organism, its behavior and influence of environment on its life cycle.  Synecology: - Study of groups of organism which are found as unite called community ecology.  Habitat ecology: - Study of habitat and its effects on the organisms.  Ethology: - Study of behavior of organisms under natural condition.  Habitat: - It is the place where the organism lives.  Population: - denotes groups of individuals of any kind of organism.  Community: - in the ecological sense includes all the populations of a given area.  Ecosystem: - A self-containing system they are composed of living organisms and the nonliving environment where continuous exchange of matter and energy takes place.  Biome: - The grouping of communities that have similar structure composed of ecosystem of similar vegetation type.  Biota: - Fauna and flora of a particular habitat are together called biota.  Biosphere: - It is the largest ecosystem which includes all living organism on earth interacting with physical environment.  Ectone: - Some communities which are considered to be transitional between two biomes called Ectone.  Inquilines: - An animal lives in the habitat of another one with sharing its food.  Phoresy: - A commensalistic relationship among the organisms in which one kind of organism attacks to another thereby gains mode of transportation. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 4 ENVIRONMENT: ITS COMPONENTS  The term environment entomologically means “Surroundings”. Environment is a complex of living and non-living factors which surrounds on organisms.  Environment: - An environment is anything which surrounding to individuals that may influence its change to survive and multiply. Components (Factors) of environment:- Following components of environment affect or influencing on insect population. A) Abiotic Factors: (Physical/non-living /Density independent factor) 1.) Climatic factor :- i) Temperature ii) Rainfall iii) Humidity (Moisture) iv) Air current (Wind) v) Light vi) Atmospheric pressure 2.) Topographic factor: - i) Mountains ii) Sea, Ocean, River iii) Soil B) Biotic factors: (Living /Density dependent factor) 1.) Food (Nutritional factor) 2.) Competition (Interspecific & Intraspecific Competition) 3.) Natural enemies (Predators, Parasite & Pathogen) Abiotic Factors (Density independent factors) Temperature  Insects are the cold blooded animals; they do not have mechanism to regulate body temperature called poikilothermic.  Insects survive at specific optimum temperature - Upper lethal limit i s 40- 50oC (even up to 60oC survival in some stored product insects) & Lower lethal limit - Below freezing point e.g. snow fleas.  At low temperature (winter) insect takes more days to complete a stage (larval or pupal stage) Larva, pupa commonly undergoes hibernation in winter.  At high temperature (summer) it takes less than to complete a stage. Eggs undergo aestivation in summer.  Temperature effects on fecundity, migration & rate of development of insects.  E.g. i) Grasshopper lays 20-30 times more eggs at 32oC compared to 22oC, ii) Oviposition of bed bug inhibited at 8-10oC, iii) Thrips give few eggs at 8°c & more at 20-30°c, iv) Larval period of sugarcane internode borer is very short in summer & prolonged in winter & v) Swarm migration of locust occurs at 17-20oC. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 5 Rainfall  Heavy rainfall has adverse effect on small insects like aphids, Jassids, thrips, white fly, mealy bugs, diamond back moth (DBM) and scale insects etc. which are washed out from plants & killed in flooded soil.  Rainfall also effect on the abundance of insects.  Rainfall is essential for adult emergence of cutworms and RHC. Humidity / (Moisture)  It is essential for physiological activities like metabolic reactions and transportation of salts in insects.  Insect get die when water content increases or decreases termed as lethal wetness or lethal dryness. Moisture scarcity leads to dehydration and death of insects.  High humidity causes development / Encourages of disease causing pathogens on insects (fungi). e. g. White halo fungus Verticillium lecanii on coffee green scale requires high RH for multiplication and spread, Termites prefer high humidity 90-95% RH  Humidity also effect on fecundity & normal development of insects.  E.g. Locust does not lay eggs if there is no sufficient moisture. It mature quicker & give more eggs at 70% relative humidity, Low RH in rainfed groundnut crop induces leaf mines incidence. Air current (Wind)  The disposal of insects to great extent depends upon wind.  It interferes with feeding, mating & oviposition of insects.  Many insects fly with the air current & get transfer from one place to other. Many of them die by falling in rivers or sea. Many insects are known to spread in new countries through air currents.  Large number of aphids has been found after a strong wind & many of them are destroyed by falling in the sea & rivers etc.  Thus air current also play an important role in natural control of insects. Light  Light plays an important role in growth, development & survival because it is prime source of energy in all organisms.  Light control locomotive activities of insects by direct action this phenomenon is called as Phytokinesis. The movement of animal in response to light called phototaxis. The response of organism towards the length of day light called as Photoperiodism.  Photo period influences induction of diapause (a resting stage) in most of the insects E. g. Short day species- mulberry silk moth & Long Day Species- Pink bollworm. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 6  Some insects are active in night (Nocturnal), Some are active during the day (diurnal) & Some active during dawn and dusk (Crepuscular).  In many insects oviposition is stimulated by exposure to light or darkness. E.g. Fruit flies lays eggs in light, Lepidopterans like cotton bollworm, Red hairy caterpillar (RHC) oviposit in dark. Atmospheric pressure  The insects are more affected in low atmospheric pressure than in high atmospheric pressure.  The phototrophic insects are more active during periods of high atmospheric pressure.  The activities of some insects are directly influenced by pressure. E.g. due to the low atmospheric pressure a chances of rain increased resulting the emergence of ants. Topographic factors  Major topographic factors like mountain, rivers, sea are act as physical barriers to the spread of insects.  Lake & ponds affect the nature of insects of that region.  Water current - Larva of mosquitoes & beetles are able to live only in standing water & running water is preferred by Dragonfly and Caddis flies.  Soil type - Wire worm, multiplies in heavy clay soil with poor drainage whereas termites, white grubs & cut worm prefer light, loamy soil. Biotic Factors (Density dependent factors) Food (Nutritional factor)  Insects are heterotrophic hence they cannot synthesize their own food they depend on plants for food.  The quantity and quality of food/nutrition plays important role in survival, longevity, distribution, reproduction and speed of development  Quantity of food - Short supply of food causes intraspecific and interspecific competition.  Quantity of food - This depends on nutritional availability of plants. Crop varieties/species differ in nutritional status which affects insects. Competition  Insect species are likely to be competing with one another or with members of another species for limited resources like food, mates, suitable site for oviposition or pupation. Such competition operates whenever the population is increasing and the resources are limited.  a) Intraspecific competition: When members of population of the same species compete for resources. Examples are as follows;  i) Cannibalism in American bollworm larvae, Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 7 ii) Cannibalism in later stage grubs of Chrysopid, iii) Crowding in aphids result in alate (winged) form for migration, iv)) Reduction in fecundity (egg laying) in rice weevil during overcrowding. v) Crowding in honeybees leads to swarming.  b) Interspecific competition: This is the competition occurring between members of two or more species. Two or more competing species with identical requirements cannot coexist in a same place for a long time. The elimination of one species by another as a result of interspecific competition. It gives by Russian scientist G. F. Gause called competitive exclusion principle or Gause’s hypothesis / principle.  E.g. i) Accidental introduction of oriental fruit fly into Hawaii eliminated by Mediterranean fruit fly & ii) Trichogramma & Crysoperla compete for Helicoverpa eggs in cotton.  Cannibalism: - It is the phenomenon where the insects feed on the individuals of the same species when crowding is occurring.  Colonization: - Grouping of free living individuals to form colonies to have better protection from natural enemies or environmental conditions for improved utilization of food.  Aggregation: - Tendency of congregating in large numbers than normal distribution for mating, food etc. Natural enemies Every insect has a number of natural enemies in the nature viz; parasitic insects, predatory insects, mites, spider, birds, mammals, reptiles, fishes & diseases causing fungi, bacteria & viruses. They keep the insect population in check and thus natural balance within limits is almost always maintained.  Predators: Predators are free living organisms that feed on l i v i n g insects & consume more than one individual during their lifespan. Major insect predators are as follows;  Lady bird beetle (Coccinellids) - Feed on aphids & leaf hoppers.  Green lace wing (Chrysoperla spp.) - Feed on aphids & other sucking pests.  Mantid, Dragon fly & Syrphid fly - Feed on different insects.  Parasitoid: An insect parasite of an arthropod that is parasitic in its immature stage killing the host in the process of development and adults are free living. Major insect parasitoids are as follows;  Trichogramma spp. - Feed on Sugarcane borers & Cotton bollworms.  Apanteles flavips - Feed on lepidopteran larvae.  Epiricania meloneuca - Feed on sugarcane pyrilla.  Capidosoma koeheleri & Chilonus blackberni - Feed on potato tuber moth. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 8  Parasites: Parasites are organisms which live on other organisms for getting food & shelter. The association of parasite and host known as parasitism. A parasite weakens or kills the host while feeding requires only one part of one host to reach maturity. E.g. ticks, mites, Protozoa, Nematodes and other arthropods.  Pathogens: Disease causing microorganisms called as pathogens. Certain fungi bacteria & viruses cause disease in many insects & reduce their population in nature. The important microorganisms which cause disease in insects are as follows;  Fungi - E.g. Verticillium lecanii (White halo fungus) cause disease in mealybugs & aphids, Beaveria bassiana (White muscardine fungus) cause disease in lepidopteran larvae & Metarhizium anisopliae (Green muscardine fungus) in coconut rhinoceros beetle.  Bacteria - E.g. Bacillus thuringiensis effective against lepidopteran larvae & Bacillus popilliae attacking on beetles.  Virus - E.g. HaNPV (Helicoverpa armigera nuclear polyhedrosis viruses) against American bollworm. & SlNPV - (Spodoptera litura nuclear polyhedrosis viruses) against tobacco leaf eating caterpillar.  Other Natural Enemies: Frog, Toad, reptiles, birds, rats, bears, snakes & lizard Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 9 Environmental Resistance & Pest Outbreaks  Agroecosystem - Any ecosystem largely created and maintained to satisfy a human want or need. o It is not a natural ecosystem but is man-made. o Agroecosystem is the basic unit of pest management - a branch of applied ecology. o A typical agroecosystem is composed of; i) More or less uniform crop-plant population ii) Weed communities iii) Animal communities (including insects) iv) Macrobiotic communities v) and the physical environment the react with.  Balance of Nature -  Definition - “The maintenance of more or less fluctuating population density of a given organism over a period of time with in certain definable upper and lower limits by action of abiotic and biotic factors”. Or a tendency of population density of all species in a same area to maintain a constant number of individuals in the physical environment.  The concept of Balance of Nature was given by Smith in1935.  In unmanaged ecosystems, a state of balance exists or will be reached, that is species interact with each other and with their physical environment in such a way that on average, individuals are able only to replace themselves. Each species in the community achieves a certain status that becomes fixed for a period of time and is resistant to change which is termed as the balance of nature.  When m an b e gi n s t o manage c r e a t i n g n e w ecos ystem ( agroecosystem) where natural ecosystem existed previously, the balance is altered. The exceptionally strong forces react in opposition to our imposed change toward a return to the original system (e.g. outbreak of a pest is one of the forces). So, insect pests are not ecological aberrations. Their activities counter wants and needs of human populations. Factors that determine insect abundance:- 1) Biotic potential - It is the innate ability of the population to reproduce and survive.  It depends on the inherited properties of the insect i.e., reproduction and survival.  Potential natality is the reproductive rate of the individuals in an optimal environment.  Survival rate depends on the feeding habits and protection to young ones. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 10  Generally insects with high reproductive rate tend to have low survival rate and vice versa.  Insect pests with high reproductive rate and low survival rate are called r strategists named after the statistical parameter r, the symbol for growth rate coefficient. E.g. Aphids.  K strategists reproduce slowly but effectively compete for environmental resources and so their survival rate is high. (K letter denotes flattened portion of growth curve) e.g. Codling moth of apple.  Birth rate or natality is measured as the total number of eggs laid per female per unit time. Factors determining birth rate are fecundity, fertility and sex ratio.  Death rate or mortality denotes the number of insects dying over a period. 2.) Environmental resistance - It is the physical and biological r e s t r a i n t s t h a t prevent a species from realizing its Biotic potential.  Environmental resistance may be of 2 types. 1. Biotic factors - includes a) Competition (interspecific and intraspecific) b) Natural enemies (predators, parasites and pathogens) 2. Abiotic factors -Temperature, Light, Moisture & water.  ‘K’ Mortality - it is that factor existing in natures that are responsible for mortality of the insects. Population dynamics:-  Insect populations grow in two contrasting ways. 1. J- shaped growth form 2. S- Shaped or sigmoid growth form  In the J - shaped growth form, the population density increases in exponential or geometric fashion.  Populations with this kind of growth form are unstable. Their reproductive rate is high and survival rate is less and so they are r strategists. Factors other than density regulate the population. (e.g.; Aphids).  In the S-shaped growth pattern the rate of increase of density decreases as the population increases.  Their reproductive rate is less and survival rate is more. So they are K strategists. This pattern has more stability since the population regulates itself. (E.g. Hymenopterans). Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 11 Life table: Life tables are tabular statements showing the number of insects dying over a period of time and accounting for their deaths.  Life table is a numerical aid used in the study of insect population to record in a systematic fashion.  There are two types of life table; 1.) Age specific (Horizontal) life table - It is based on the observations made on single generation in different region. 2.) Time specific (Vertical) life table - It is based on the observations made on overlapping/multiple generation. Uses of life table : i.) Number of generations per year of an insect can be known. ii.) Age of different life stages can be known. iii.) Key mortality factor & critical stages affected can be known. iv.) Population models can be developed from life table. v.) Pest surveillance, pest forecasting & prediction of pest can be possible. vi.) It is possible to regulate beneficial processes like parasitism, predation, inter & intraspecific competitions etc. Causes of pests outbreaks in agro-ecosystem Pest outbreaks: - The phenomenon of sudden increases in pest population due to the effect of different biotic & abiotic factors.  Activity of human beings which upsets the biotic balance of ecosystem is the prime cause for pest outbreak.  The following are some human interventions - Reason for outbreak 1.) Bringing forest area under cultivation or destruction of forest. 2.) Destruction of natural enemies of pests. 3.) Intensive and Extensive cultivation. 4.) Introduction of new varieties and crops. 5.) Improved agronomic practices. 6.) Introduction of new pest in new area or environment. 7.) Accidental introduction of pests from foreign countries (through air/sea ports) 8.) Large scale storage of food grains 9.) Lack of adopting IPM strategies. 10.) Resurgence of sucking pests. Bringing forest area under cultivation or destruction of forest.  The insects feeding on the forest trees & plants in the forest are driven to neighboring areas where they may infest the cultivated crops and become new pests. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 12 Destruction of natural enemies of pests.  Due to excess use of insecticides, natural enemies are killed. This affects the natural control mechanism and pest outbreak occurs, e.g. Synthetic parathyroid insecticides kill natural enemies. Intensive and Extensive cultivation.  Monoculture (Intensive) leads to multiplication of pests. Extensive cultivation of susceptible variety in large area - No competition for food multiplication increases e.g. Stem borers in rice and sugarcane. Introduction of new varieties (Strain) and crops.  New plant may serve as new host for some of the insect species. Mostly improved strains of crop plants are susceptible to pests whereas character near to their wild parents is resistant to pest attack.  Varieties w i t h favorable p h y s i o l o g i c a l a n d morphological f a c t o r s cause multiplication of insects.  E.g. Succulent, dwarf rice varieties favors to leaf folder, Cambodia cotton favors stem weevil and spotted bollworm & Hybrid sorghum (CSH 1, HB1) favors shoot flies and gall midges. Improved agronomic practices.  Application of more nitrogenous fertilizers leads to crop growth which increase stem borer incidence in rice & sucking pests in cotton.  Closer planting in rice increase incidence of brown plant hoppers & leaf folder. Introduction of new pest in new environment.  Pest multiplies due to absence of natural enemies in new area. E.g. Apple wooly aphid multiplied fast due to absence of Aphelinus mali (Parasite) in Nilgiri hills. Accidental introduction of pests from foreign countries.  Diamondback moth on cruciferous crops, Potato tuber moth on potato, Cottony cushion scale on wattle tree, Wooly aphid on apple, Psyllid on subabul & Spiralling whitefly on most of horticultural crops. Large scale storage of food grains.  Serve as reservoir for stored grain pests & Rats found in underground drainage. Resurgence of sucking pests.  Definition: - Tremendous increase in pest population brought about by insecticides despite good initial reduction in pest population at the time of treatment called resurgence.  Deltamethrin, Quinalphos & Phorate cause resurgence of BPH in rice, Synthetic pyrethroids cause resurgence of Whitefly in cotton & Carbofuran cause resurgence of Leaf folder in rice. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 13 Pest surveillance and pest forecasting  Pest Monitoring - It is the estimation of changes in insect distribution and abundance, information about insects & life history, influence of biotic & abiotic factors on pest population.  Pest Surveillance - It refers to the constant watch on the population dynamics of pests, its incidence and damage on each crop at fixed intervals to forewarn the farmers to take up timely crop protection measures.  There are three basic components of pests surveillance; i.) Determination of the level of incidence of the pest species, ii.) Determination of the loss caused by the incidence & iii.) Determination of the economic benefits, the control will provide.  Objective of pests surveillance 1.) To know the existing and new species of pests. 2.) To assess the pest population and damage at different growth stage of crop. 3.) To study the different weather parameters on pests. 4.) To study changing pest status (Major & minor). 5.) To assess natural enemies and their influence on pests. 6.) To study effect of new cropping pattern and varieties on pest.  Pest forecasting - Forecasting of pest incidence or outbreak based on information obtained from pest surveillance.  Uses of pest forecasting - i.) Predicting pest outbreak which needs control measure. ii.) To know the suitable stage at which control measure gives maximum protection.  Types of pest forecasting - 1.) Short term forecasting- one or two crop seasons. 2.) Long term forecasting- cover large areas & based on weather conditions.  Pest forecasting comprises following three main points: -  Quantitative measurement of population of pest on ecological zones.  Study of life history of the insect pest.  Study of fluctuation in pest population due to natural enemies & other factors. Survey: - Conducted to study the abundance of a pest species.  Types of survey - 1.) Roving survey 2.) Fixed plot survey  Roving survey o Assessment of pest population/damage from randomly selected spots representing larger area o Large area surveyed in short period o Provides information on pest level over large area Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 14  Fixed plot survey o Assessment of pest population/damage from a fixed plot selected in a field. o The data on pest population/damage recorded periodic from sowing till harvest. o Qualitative survey - Useful for detection of pests. o Quantitative survey - Useful for enumeration of pest.  Sampling technique - 1.) Absolute - To count all the pests occurring in a plot 2.) Relative - To measure pest in terms of some values which can be compared over time and space e.g. Light trap catch, Pheromone trap. Methods of sampling - a.) In situ count - Visual observation on number of insects on plant canopy (either entire plot or randomly selected plot). b.) Knock down - Collecting insects from an area by removing from crop and (Sudden trap) counting (Jarring). c.) Netting - Use of sweep net for hoppers, odonata, grasshopper. d.) Narcotized collection - Quick moving insects anaesthetized and counter. e.) Trapping - Light trap - Phototropic insects, Pheromone trap - Species specific, Sticky trap - Sucking insects, Bait trap - Sorghum shoot fly & Fishmeal trap Emergence trap - For soil insects. f.) Crop samples - Plant parts removed and pest counted e.g. Bollworms  Decision Making/Concept of injury level  Population or damage assessed from the crop compared with ETL and EIL.  When pest level crosses ETL, control measure has to be taken to prevent pest from reducing EIL.  Concept of injury level was given by Stern et al. 1959. Economic Injury level (EIL): - The lowest pest population density that will cause economic damage. Also defined as a critical density where the loss caused by the pest equals the cost of control measure. Economic Threshold Level (ETL) or Action threshold: - The pest population density at which control measures should be applied to prevent the economic yield loss of crop.  ETL is always less than EIL. General equilibrium position (GEP):- The average density of a pest population over a long period of time, around which the pest population tends to fluctuate due to biotic and abiotic factors and in the absence of permanent environmental changes. Damage boundary (DB):- The lowest level of damage which can be measured. Provides sufficient time for control measures. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 15 CATEGORIES OF PESTS  Pest- Derived from French word ‘Peste’ and Latin term ‘Pestis’ meaning plague or contagious disease.  Pests include insects, nematodes, mites, snails, slugs, etc. and vertebrates like rats, birds, etc.  Depending upon the importance, pests may be agricultural forest, household, medical, aesthetic and veterinary pests.  Definition - Pest is any animal, pathogen, insects which cause damage to man, his animals & crops. Or Pest is any animal which is noxious, destructive or troublesome to man or his interests.  Economic Pest: - The pest which causes more than five percent economic yield loss.  CATEGORIES OF PESTS A.) According to frequency of occurrence: - 1.) Regular pest: Certain pests occur most frequently on crop form c lose association with particular crops. E. g. Gram pod borer, Thrips on chilies, Aphids on cotton, soot & fruit borer on Brinjal & bhendi & Epilachna beetle on Brinjal. 2.) Occasional pest: Certain pests occur rather infrequently on crop & there is no c lose association with particular crops. E. g. Caseworm on rice, Mango stem borer. 3.) Seasonal pest: Occurs during a particular season every year. E. g. Grasshoppers on safflower in kharif, Red hairy caterpillar on groundnut in kharif, White grub 4.) Persistent pests: Occurs on the crop throughout the year and is difficult to control. E. g. Chilli thrips, mealy bug on guava 5.) Sporadic pests: Pest which occurs in few isolated localities during some period. E. g. Coconut slug caterpillar, Rice ear head bug. B.) According to intensity of pest or Based on level of infestation : - 1.) Epidemic: Sudden outbreak of a pest in a severe form in a region at a particular time. E. g. Brown plant hopper in Tanjore, Red hairy caterpillar in Madurai, 2.) Endemic: Occurrence of the pest in a low level, regularly and confined to particular area. E.g. Rice gall midge in Madurai, White grubs on sugarcane in Kolhapur district, Groundnut in sangali, Rice stem borer in Raigad district. C.) According to losses caused by pest or According To EIL, GEP And DB: - 1.) Negligible: If the insect causes less than 5% yield loss. 2.) Minor pest: If the insect causes 5-10% yield loss. E.g. Rice hispa, Ash weevils. 3.) Major pest: If the insect cause more than 10% yields loss. E.g. Cotton jassid, Rice stem borer. 4.) Key pest: Most severe and damaging pests & GEP lies above EIL always hence the environment must be changed to bring GEP below EIL. E.g. Cotton bollworm, Diamond back moth. D.) ‘r’ pest: small size insects having strong dispersal & more host finding ability Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 16 Host Plant Resistance  Definition: - The ability of some varieties to produce good quality yield than ordinary varieties at the same level of insect population.  R.H. Painter (1968): He defined as relative amount of heritable quality possessed by a plant which influences the ultimate degree of damage done by the insect.  He also referred as a Father of HPR.  R.H. Painter (1936, 1941) classified the mechanisms of resistance into (i) Non preference (ii) Antibiosis (iii) Tolerance. Mechanism of Insect Resistance: -  Antixenosis (Non-preference): - It results from some morphological characters like- i) Absence of attractant, ii) Presence of repellent and allelochemic / morphological characters. It is used to denote the group of plant characters and insect responses that keep away an insect from using a particular plant (or) variety, for oviposition, food (or) shelter (or) combination of the three (Painter, 1951). It is proposed by Kogan and Ortman (1978). Morphological characters include plant character such as (1) trichomes, (2) surface waxes, (3) hardiness of plant tissues, (4) thickening of cell walls and (5) cuticle, (6) rapid proliferation of tissues, (7) colour, and shape etc. E.g. Trichomes in cotton - resistant to whitefly, Wax bloom on carucifer leaves - deter feeding by DBM Plant, shape and colour also play a role in non-preference, Open panicle of sorghum - Supports less Helicoverpa.  Antibiosis: - Adverse effect of host plant on the biology of insects. This is due to the presence of toxic metabolites - alkaloids, glucosides, anions Absence / insufficiency of essential nutrients unbalanced proportion of nutrients Presence of antimetabolites that renders some essential nutrients unavailable to insect. Presence of enzymes inhibits normal process of food digestion and consequently utilization of nutrients. Salicylic acid Rice stem borer Gossypol (Polyphenol) Helicoverpa armigera (American bollworm) Sinigrin Aphids, Myzus persicae Cucurbitacin Cucurbit fruit flies DIMBOA (Dihydroxy methyl Against European corn borer, Ostrinia benzoxazin) nubilalis  Tolerance: - ability of host plant to withstand and give good quality yield even if the sufficient infestation of insects are observed. Tolerance has no adverse effect on the insects. Known component of this form of resistance includes. i) General vigour of plant, ii) Compensatory plant growth in individual plant / population, iii) Wound healing, iv) Mechanical supports in tissue and organs v) Changes in photosynthate partitioning. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 17  Avoidance or Escape: - Escape of a variety from insect attack either due to earliness or its cultivation in the season where insect population is very low.  Major gene resistance: Controlled by one or few major genes (vertical resistance).  Minor gene resistance: Controlled by many minor genes. The cumulative effect of minor genes is called adult resistance or mature resistance or field resistance. Also called horizontal resistance.  Advantages of HPR as a component in IPM  Specificity: Specific to the target pest. Natural enemies unaffected  Cumulative effect: Lasts for many successive generations  Eco-friendly: No pollution. No effect on man and animals  Easily adoptable: High yielding insect resistant variety easily accepted and adopted by farmers.  Less cost.  Effectiveness: Res. variety increases efficacy of insecticides and natural enemies  Compatibility: HPR can be combined with all other components of IPM  Decreased pesticide application: Resistant varieties require less frequent and low doses of insecticide.  Persistence: Some varieties have durable resistance for long periods Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 18 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)  History of IPM: -  Michel bacher and Bacon (1952) coined the term “integrated control”.  Stern et al. (1959) defined integrated control as “applied pest control which combines and integrates biological and chemical control”  The idea of managing pest population was proposed by Geiger and Clark (1961) who called this concept as “protective population management”.  Geier (1966) coined the term “pest management”.  Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ, 1972) gave the term “Integrated Pest Management”  IPM Working Group (IPMWG-1990) was constituted to strengthen implementation of IPM at international level.  In 1997, Smith and Adkisson were awarded the World Food Prize for pioneering work on implementation of IPM.  NCIPM: National Centre for Integrated Pest Management at Faridabad (Near Delhi) (1988).  In 1967 a broader definition was adopted by FAO (Food Agricultural Organization, Italy- Rome) Panel of experts as - Definition: - ‘It is the pest management system in context of associated environment and population dynamics of pest species utilize all the suitable techniques and methods in as compatible manner as possible and maintains pest populations at level below those causing economic injury.’  Need for Pest Management - 1. Development of resistance in insects against insecticides e.g. OP and synthetic pyrethroid resistance in Helicoverpa armigera. 2. Outbr eak of secondary pest e.g. Whiteflies e m e r g e d a s m a j o r p e s t w h e n spraying insecticide against H. armigera. 3. Resurgence of target pest e.g. BPH of rice increased when some OP chemicals are applied. 4. When number of application increases, profit decreases. 5. Environmental contamination and reduction in its quality. 6. Killing of non-target animals and natural enemies. 7. Human and animal health hazards.  Objectives of pest management 1. To reduce pest status below economic injury level. Complete elimination of pest is not the objective. 2. To manage insects by not only killing them but by preventing feeding, multiplication and dispersal. 3. To use ecofriendly methods, which will maintain quality of environment (air, water, wild life and plant life) 4. To make maximum use of natural mortality factors, apply control measures only when needed. 5. To use component in sustainable crop production. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 19  Principles of Pest Control: 1. Identification/Monitoring insect pests and natural enemies of pest. 2. Insect classification and life history. 3. Understanding the pest population dynamics & Concepts of injury levels. 4. Understanding the agro-ecosystem. 5. Knowledge of introduced pest. 6. Economics of the pest control. 7. Consumers pressure. 8. Preventive control. 9. Knowledge of various pest control methods/Integration of pest control tactics. 10. Extension Education.  Advantages/Importance/Significance of IPM :- 1) It minimizes residue & toxic hazards. 2) It helps to minimize the development of pesticide resistance in the pest. 3) It gives scope to biological control & bio-agents. 4) It is easy to adopt. 5) It is cheaper & most efficient way of utilizing chemical insecticides. 6) It is ecologically beneficial to both human & animals. 7) Export of agricultural commodities.  Limitations/Disadvantages of IPM: - 1) Lack of planning in national economic planning. 2) Lack of IPM information to the farmers. 3) Pesticide industries create a situation that chemicals give effective control of pest Tools/Methods of IPM  Preventive methods of IPM include the following a. Natural enemies b. Host plant resistance c. Legal control (Plant Quarantine) d. Cultural control  Curative methods of IPM include the following a. Physical methods b. Mechanical methods c. Chemical methods d. Biological methods e. Insect Growth Regulator (IGR)  Preventive methods can be used, irrespective of the level of pest incidence. It can be followed as a routine, even if the pest is at a low level.  Curative methods have to be followed only when the pest attains economic threshold level (ETL). Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 20 Different Methods of Pest Control Natural Control Artificial Control (Applied control/ Tools of IPM) Abiotic factors Biotic factors (Density independent) (Density dependent) (1. Food 2. Shelter 3. Natural Enemies) Climatic Topographical 1)Mountains 2)Soil properties 3) Ocean (Water resources) 4) Deserts 1) Temp 2) Humidity 3) Rainfall/ Moisture 4) Air 5) Sunlight etc 1. Cultural control 2. Mechanical control 3. Physical control 4. Biological Control 5. Legal Control 6. Chemical Control Recent trends in pest control 1. Ionizing /radiation 2. Chemosterilants 3. Pheromones 4. Genetic manipulation 5. Insect attractants / Repellants A) CULTURAL CONTROL/METHODS: -  Definition: Regular farm operations, so performed as to destroy the insects or prevent them from causing injury. Cultivation practices employed in a manner that makes the environment less suitable for growth & reproduction of the insects. 1) Tillage operations – Ploughing & other tillage operations expose the insects to upper soil surface which are picked by birds or destroyed by heat. e.g. Bihar hairy caterpillar, fruit fly, gram pod borer. It also helps in removal of weeds which may serve as host for insects. 2) Crop rotation – Practice the crop rotation in such a manner which will break the continuous supply of food to the major pests of that crop. Growing of non-host crop reduces the pest attack on crop. Okra followed by cotton increases the pest attack. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 21 3) Trap cropping – The trap crops are those crops which are used to control the pest of main crop. Trap crop plants are harvested early or used as a fodder. Okra is good trap crop for cotton to attract Jassids & spotted bollworms. 4) Sanitation of field – removal & destruction of all undesirable plants, plant debris, weeds & clean cultivation of field. Insects use the plant residues, weeds as a host & increase the pest attack in next season. e.g. sugarcane borer, Jowar stem borer, etc. 5) Time of sowing/planting – By adjusting time of sowing infection of some pests can be prevented. If egg laying period of a pest is avoid; young plants can be establish before the attack starts. e.g. Early sowing of kharif Jowar to escape from attack of Jowar shoot fly. 6) Use of resistant varieties – some morphological or genetic factors associated with the variety make the variety resistant for some pests. e.g. Deshi cotton is more resistant to Jassids whitefly & bollworms than American cotton. 7) Other cultural methods – management of seed rate, pruning, clipping of tips in rice, earthing-up & flooding like cultural practices help to control the pest incidence on the crop. E.g. flooding rice nurseries to eliminate attack of armyworms. Clipping of rice tips at the time of transplanting to eliminate egg masses of stem borer. Merits: - i) It not increase the production cost. ii) Environmentally safe. iii) It is well-matched with other methods of pest control. iv) It gives least chance of insect development. Demerits: - i) Knowledge of ecology & biology is essential. ii) The control measures should be taken well in advance. iii) It should be supplemented with other methods. B) MECHANICAL CONTROL/METHODS: - Definition: The method with which insect population is directly beat by mechanical devices or manual operations. 1) Hand picking & destruction: - Insects are picked out & destroyed from the crops. This method is applied when the insects are in large number & easily accessible to picker. i) By use of hand nets – e.g. butterflies, moths, grasshoppers, etc. ii) By use of iron hook – e.g. rhinoceros beetles from coconut. iii) Beating with brooms – e.g. locust iv) Shaking of plants – Shaking of babul& neem to collect adult beetles of white grub. v) Sieving and winnowing – used for insects pest of stored grains. E.g. grubs of khapra beetle. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 22 vi) Rope dragging – Passing of rope across the rice crop to dislodge caseworms over the standing water which then drained out to collect the pests at corner of field. 2) Mechanical exclusion or provision of preventive barriers: - Use of devices by which insects is physically prevented from reaching the crop or the produce. i) Collar around the plants – Paper & tin collars around potato & tobacco to protect from cutworms. ii) Tin bands – fixed over coconut to prevent damage by the rats. iii) Sticky bands – oily bands around mango tree to prevent upward movement of mealy bugs. iv) Trenches around fields – migration of rice armyworms prevented by digging 60×60cm trenches. v) Bagging of fruits – fruit is covered by bags to protect from fruit sucking moth. vi) Use of ant pans – use of four leg rack in vessels containing water to prevent from ants. vii) Screening of houses – screening the windows, doors, etc. to prevent from mosquitoes. viii) Bird scarer – device used to scare away the birds by explosive sounds called bird scarer. 3) Use of Mechanical Devices: -Various traps are used for collecting & killing of insects. i) Light traps – Light is used to attract the insects. e.g. moths, beetles etc. ii) Air suction traps – the traps are fixed in godowns against stored grain pests. iii) Electric trap – live metal screen on which birds & insects are electrocuted. iv) Use of flame thrower – burning of locust adults or hoppers with the help of flame. Merits: - i) Insect population is directly hit by mechanical devices or manual operations. ii) Environmentally safe. iii) Highly special equipments not required. iv) They are economically good & generally popular. v) It is more useful in highly pest populated areas. Demerits: - i) It requires more time to get result i.e. it is time consuming method. ii) These methods are ineffective on large areas & cannot be apply commercially. C) PHYSICAL CONTROL/METHODS: - Definition: Use of the physical forces or factors of environment for the eradication of insects. 1) Application of Heat – Heating of the empty godowns above 50°c kills the hibernating stored grain pests. Exposing infested grains to the sun in summer also kills stored grain pests. Flame thrower is used to control the locust. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 23 2) Application of cold – refrigeration at 5-10°c of edibles including dry fruits will kill the insect. Many insects fail to multiply below 10°c. Potato is stored at low temperature. 3) Manipulation of moisture – By draining away the stagnant water mosquito’s reproduction stops. Reducing the moisture content of grains below 8% can save from most of the insects. 4) Radio activity – High frequency radio waves generate about 80°c temperature in grains to kill weevils. Male insect can make sterile by gamma radiation. 5) Manipulation of soil – Steam sterilization of soil is done to kill soil insects and nematodes. 6) Sound – Exposure of insects to ultrasonic waves of 100 kilocycles for 4-30 minutes at 500 watts has been found to be lethal to most of insects. Merits: - i) It gives immediate results. ii) These methods are generally popular & believable to farmers. iii) Insects are killed by physical action hence environmentally safe. Demerits: - i) These methods are time consuming & costly. ii) These methods are useful only when much more damage has done. iii) Special equipment are required for heating & refrigeration. BIOLOGICAL METHOD  Definition: Destruction, regulation or suppression of undesirable insects, other animals or plants by introduction, encouragement or artificial increase of their natural enemies.  Paul Debach (1973) - The study and utilization of parasitoids, predators and pathogens for the regulation of pest population densities.  Predators: Predators are free living organisms that feed on living insects & consume more than one individual during their lifespan. They attack on prey at larval & adult stage. E. g. Lady Bird beetle, Green lace wing, Mantid, Dragon fly, Syrphid fly etc.  Parasitoid: An insect parasite of an arthropod that is parasitic in its immature stages killing the host in the process of development and adults are free living. E. g. Trichogramma spp., Apanteles flavips, Epiricania meloneuca, Capidosoma koeheleri, Chilonus blackberni, Braconid wasps etc.  Parasites: Parasites are organisms which live on other organisms for getting food & shelter. The association of parasite and host known as parasitism. A parasite weakens or kills the host while feeding requires only one part of one host to reach maturity. E.g. ticks, lice, Bed bugs, Protozoa, Nematodes, Mosquitos etc. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 24 Differentiating points – Sr. Properties True Parasite Parasitoids Predator No. 1 Size Smaller than host Same as that of host Larger than host Only larvae adults are free living Larvae and 2 Feeding stages Larvae and adults (Feed on nectar of flowers ) adults No. of host 3 One one More than one needed Injury to the Feed without 4 Paralyze to oviposit and kill Kill to devour host killing Functions at low Functions at Functions at low host density, so 5 Activity host density, so higher host efficient efficient density 6 Host specificity Great Great Not so great Suitability for 7 biological Not suited Best suited Suited control E. g. Lady Bird ticks, lice, Bed Trichogramma spp., Apanteles beetle, Green bugs, Protozoa, flavips, Epiricania meloneuca, lace wing, 8 Examples Nematodes, Capidosoma koeheleri, Chilonus Mantid, Dragon Mosquitos etc. blackberni, Braconid wasps etc. fly, Syrphid fly etc. History of biological control  The term biocontrol first time used by H. S. Smith in 1919. He is also referred as father of biocontrol. Paul Debach (1973) - He is a pioneer worker in biocontrol.  Ancient times - In China Pharoah’s ant was used to control stored grain pest. Red ant al so used to control foliage feeding caterpillar, 1762 - ‘Mynah’ bird imported from India to Mauritius to control locust, 1770 - Bamboo runways between citrus trees for ants to control caterpillar.  November 1888 - First well planned and successful biological control attempt made -  In California (USA) Vedalia beetle (Rodolia cardinalis) introduce from Australia to control of cottony cushion scale, pest of citrus, by the scientists Mr. C.V. Riley & Mr. Albert Koeble. This is the first classical example of biological control.  1898 - First introduction of natural enemy into India-  1898 - A coccinellid beetle (Australian lady bird beetle), Cryptolaemus montrouzieri was imported into India from Australia and released against coffee green scale, Cocus viridis. Even today it is effective against mealybugs in South India.  1920 - A parasitoid Aphelinus mali introduced from England into India to control Woolly aphid on Apple, Eriosoma lanigerum.  1929-31 - Rodolia cardinalis (common names vedalia beetle or cardinal ladybird) is a species of ladybird beetle that is sometimes described as endemic to Australia. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 25 imported into India (from USA) to control cottony cushion scale Icerya purchasi on Wattle trees.  Regional Station of Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control (CIBC) established at Bangalore in 1957. Presently Project Directorate of Biological Control (PDBC) Bangalore looks after Biocontrol in India. Recently it called as International Center for Agricultural Important Insects in 2006.  Characteristics of ideal parasites/Qualities of an effective natural enemy  Adaptability: It should be Adapted to varied environmental condition & survive in all habitats of pests.  Host specific: It should be Monophagous and should be narrow host range.  Fast multiplication: Multiply faster than the host Short life cycle with high fecundity and high female: male ratio.  High host searching capacity.  Easy rearing and mass multiplication/culturing in laboratory.  Disperse quickly in locality.  It should be free from hyper parasites.  It should not harmful to other beneficial species and plant species.  It should withstand refrigeration.  It should be small and tiny. Types of parasites - 1) Primary parasites: - The parasites attack on crop pests. 2) Secondary parasites: - The insects which parasitize the primary parasites of pest called secondary parasites. 3) Tertiary parasites: - The parasites attack on secondary parasites. 4) Hyperparasites: - All parasites that are parasite upon other parasites are collectively called as Hyperparasites. 5) Super parasitism: - It is a type of parasitism where more individuals of the same species are present in a single host they can complete their development in normal way. E. g. Larva of pin sawfly carry tachinid fly. 6) Multiple parasitisms: - It is a type of parasitism where the host is attacked by two or more species of parasitoids. E.g. Ecto parasitoid - Feed externally e.g. Bracon brevicornis Endo parasitoid - Feed internally e.g. Chelonus blackburni Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 26 Methods/ Techniques in Biological Control:  Three major techniques of biological control 1. Conservation and encouragement of indigenous natural enemies – o It refers to avoid use of those pest control measures that destroy natural enemies. o It can be achieved by use of selective insecticides which do not kill the natural enemies and development of resistant strains of parasite to pesticides. E. g. Endogramma of Trichogramma spp. this is resistant to Endosulfan. o Avoidance of those cultural practices which are harmful for natural enemies. o Preservation of inactive stages of natural enemies. 2. Importation or Introduction – o Natural enemies are introduced from other areas into a new locality (mainly to control introduced pests) o The organization which helpful for finding exotic predator like- 1) Commonwealth Institute of Biocontrol-Trinidad, West Indies 2) International Organization for Biocontrol of noxious animals and plants- Zurich, Switzerland 3) International Center for Agricultural Important Insects- Bangalore, India 3. Augmentation – o It includes activities designed to increase the numbers or effect of existing natural enemies. o Propagation (mass culturing) and release of NE to increase its population. o It may be two types- a. Inoculatve release: This type of release may be made as infrequently as once a year or season to re-establish a species of natural enemies. b. Inundative release: It involves mass culture and release of natural enemies to suppress the pest population directly. Natural enemies used in Biological control: I] Insects: a) Predaceous insects –  Chrysoperla carnia (Green Lace Wing) feed on Aphids, Jassids, whitefly, etc.  Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Australian Ladybird beetle) feed on mealy bugs.  Coccinella septumpunctata (Ladybird beetle) feed on aphids  Syrphid fly - Feed on different insects.  Vedalia beetle feed on cottony cushion scale.  Dipha (Conobathra) aphidivora feed on sugarcane wooly aphids. b) Parasitic insects - (Parasitoids)  Egg Parasitoids - Trichogramma japonicum: parasite of stem borer of paddy. Trichogramma chilonus - parasite of Cotton bollworms & sugarcane stem bores.  Larval Parasitoid - Bracon kirkpatrickii & Apanteles angaleti parasite of cotton bollworms. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 27  Egg-Larval Paranoids - Capidosoma koeheleri & Chilonus blackberni - parasite of potato tuber moth.  Nymphal & Adult Parasitoid - Epiricania meloneuca - parasite of sugarcane pyrilla. Aphelinus mali - parasite of Apple wooly aphids. II] Predatory vertebrates:  Birds – Useful birds which destroyed crop pests includes king-crow & myna. Ducks used in rice to control bug.  Fishes – Destroy large number of mosquito larva.  Frog – Destroy paddy stem borer.  Toad & wall lizard – Live on insects such as termites‟ crickets, grasshoppers, bug, etc.  Snakes –feed on rats. III] Nematode parasites:  46 nematodes species, parasitizing various species of beetle, grasshoppers, cockroaches, moths etc.  Neoaplectana glaseri used for control of Japnese beetle.  Nematodes especially rhabditids are found to have a symbiotic relationship with the bacteria, forming disease complex. E.g. DD-136 Association beetween the nematode Neoplanctana caprocapsi and bacterium Acromobacter nimatophilus against Codling moth of apple. IV] Pathogens:  Certain microorganism able to causing diseases in insects which includes fungi, bacteria, viruses, protozoa, rickettsia and nematodes.  Microbial control: - It is a branch of biological control which deals with study and utilization of microorganism for the suppression of pest population density.  The Microbial control first time used by the E. A. Steinhause in 1949 referred as a ‘Father of Insect Pathology’ worked on Muscardine diseases of silkworm. 1) Fungi – The fungi which cause disease in insects called as Entomopathogenic fungi. Adults are more affected than larvae to Entomopathogenic fungi. Fungi require high atmospheric humidity to germinate. Fungi get entry through integument, via respiration. Fungus gets entry with the help of aspersoria which is present on conidia. They are usually attack on dipteran insects followed by Hemiptera, lepidopteran & coleopteran. Besides Entomopathogenic fungi the other fungi is also attack on insects like Entomophilic fungi (insect loving) and Entomophagous fungi (feed on insects) E.g. Green muscardine fungus- Metarhizium anisopliae attack on coconut rhinoceros beetle & sugarcane pyrilla, White muscardine fungus- Beaveria bassiana against lepidopteran larvae, White halo fungus- Verticillium lecanii on coffee green scale & Entomophthora grylli on grasshoppers. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 28 2) Bacteria –The bacteria cause disease in the insects when they infect through ingestion. a) Spore forming (Facultative, Crystelliferous) - They produce spores and also toxin (endotoxin). The endotoxin paralyses gut when ingested by insects e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki effective against lepidopteran & it is stomach poison. Commercial products - Delfin, Dipel, Thuricide b) Spore-forming (Obligate) - e.g. Bacillus popilliae attacking on beetles cause ‘milky disease’. Commercial product - ‘Doom’ against ‘white grubs’ c) Non-spore forming - e.g. Serratia entomophila on grubs 3) Viruses – There are six families of insect viruses. Among them baculoviridae is important which includes the nuclear polyhedrosis & granulosis are most lethal & promising viral insecticides which cause disease in Lepidoptera larvae. Insect viruses have great potential for field because of their specificity & effectiveness against important crop pests. Two types of viruses are common. a) NPV (Nucleo polyhedrosis viruses) - e.g. HaNPV (Helicoverpa armigera nuclear polyhedrosis viruses) against American bollworm, SlNPV (Spodoptera litura nuclear polyhedrosis viruses) against tobacco leaf eating caterpillar. b) GV (Granulovirus viruses) -e.g. CiGV (Chillo infuscatellus Granulovirus viruses) 4) Protozoa – The role of protozoa as microbial agents in artificial control is limited because of difficulties in their mass multiplication for field release. E.g. Nosema bombycis on silkworm and Perezia pyraustae on Eropian corn borer. 5) Biological control of weeds  Lantana camara (Ghanery) control by Lantana seed fly Agromyza lantinae.  Maxican beetle, Zygogramma bicolorata effective against parthenium.  Leaf eating weevils, Neochetina spp. feed on water hyacinth. Advantages of biological control: - i) Complete control over large area is possible. ii) Co-operative efforts of farmers of a locality are not necessary. iii) It is cheap method as it useful to long time. iv) Biological agents will survive as long as the pest is survive. v) It is environmentally safe. vi) There is no pest resistance problem. Demerits biological control: - i) It is slow process & takes long time. ii) Not suitable where immediate control required. iii) Effectiveness depends upon climate. iv) Multiplication on large scale is difficult i.e. storage not possible. v) The work cannot be restricted at a particular area. vi) If alternate hosts are present it may not give desired effect. vii) Work of biological agents may affect due to the Hyperparasites. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 29 LEGAL METHODS  Definition: It is defined as way of controlling pests by imposing various legal restrictions in order to prevent the entry of foreign pest or to prevent the spread of pests within country. Pests Accidentally Introduced into India (Exotic pests) 1. Pink bollworm - Pectinophora gossypiella 2. Cotton cushion scale - Icerya purchasi 3. Wooly aphid of apple - Aphelinus mali 4. San Jose scale - Quadraspidiotus perniciosus 5. Potato tuber moth - Gnorimoschima operculella 6. Cyst (Golden) nematode of potato - Globodera sp. 7. Giant african snail - Acatina fullica 8. Subabul psyllid - Heteropsylla cubana 9. Spinalling whitefly - Aleyrodicus dispersus Foreign Pests from Which India is Free- 1. Mediterranean fruit fly, 2. Cotton boll weevil & 3. Codling moth of apple. Quarantine - Isolation to prevent spreading of infection. Plant Quarantine - Legal restriction of movement of plant materials between countries and between states within the country to prevent or limit introduction and spread of pests and diseases in areas where they do not exist. Pest Legislations 1905 - ‘Federal Insect Pest Act’ - first Quarantine act against San Jose scale in USA. 1912 - ‘US Plant Quarantine Act’ 1914 - ‘Destructive Insects and Pests Act’ of India (DIPA) 1919 - ‘Madras Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act’ 1968 - ‘The Insecticides Act’ Different legislative measures: i) Legislation to prevent the introduction of new pest, diseases & weeds from foreign countries. ii) Legislation to prevent the spread of already established pest, diseases & weeds from one part of country to another. iii) Legislation to enforce upon the farmers for application of effective control measures to prevent the damage by already established pest, diseases & weeds. iv) Legislation to prevent the adulteration & misbranding of insecticides & to determine the permissible residue tolerances in food stuffs. v) Legislation to regulate the activities of pest control operations & the application of hazardous insecticide. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 30 Categories of legal Methods/Different Classes of Quarantine: 1) Foreign quarantine:  Legislation to prevent the introduction of new pest, diseases & weeds from foreign countries.  To prevent the entry of foreign pests, in the world have restrictions on the import of infested or infected plant materials under the provisions of quarantine laws. These plants materials examined at each seaports like Mumbai, Calcutta, Cochin & Chennai and airport like Amritsar, Mumbai, Calcutta, and Chennai & New Delhi.  These stations operate under the provision made under the Government of India’s Destructive Insects and Pests Act of 1914.  The “Phytosanitary Certificate” should be issued by the officer of Department of Agriculture of exporting country as to their freedom from pest & diseases.  The Central Directorate of Plant Protection and Quarantine was established in 1946. 2) Domestic quarantine:  Legislation to prevent the spread of already established pest, diseases & weeds from one part of country to another.  “The Bombay Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act” was passed in 1947 and accordance with this the domestic quarantine in the state is being implemented.  The Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and storage is overall Incharge for this work and it operates through several Inter-State check posts.  So far Cottony cushion scale and San Jose scale were covered under this type of quarantine. 3) Pest Act:  Legislation to enforce upon the farmers for application of effective control measures to prevent the damage by already established pest, diseases & weeds.  Under the provision of “The Bombay Agricultural Pests and Diseases Act” State Government may declared that certain pest is injurious in given area & carry out preventive and remedial measures in order to eradicate the pest within a specified period. 4) Insecticides Act:  Legislation to prevent the adulteration & misbranding of insecticides & to determine the permissible residue tolerances in food stuffs.  The manufacture of insecticides should resister themselves stating the name and address of the manufacturer, the brand and trade name of the insecticide, active ingredient and other constituents of the product to be manufactured, its net contents in an unit pack which should also carry in detailed directions for use including the antidote against the insecticide in case of poisoning. The container should carry “poison label” with warning or caution statement. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 31  The Government of India passed the Insecticide Act, 1968 (No. 46 of 1968) on 2nd September, 1968 to regulate the import, manufacture, sale, transport, distribution and use of insecticides with a view to prevent risk to human beings and animals.  The Insecticides Rules framed under the Insecticide Act, 1968 (46 of 1968) came in to force in 1st Jan, 1971.  Licensing authority - In Maharashtra the commissioner of Agriculture, M.S. Pune is the Licensing authority. However on behalf of him, Chief Plant Protection Officer, MH State, Pune act as licensing officer for manufacture and formulation of pesticides and for sale and stock concerned Divisional Superintending Agriculture Officer acts as licensing officer. Appellate Authority - any appeal against any decision of the licensing officer is made to Appellate Authority. In MH, Joint Director of Agriculture (Extension), Department of Agriculture M. S. Pune acts as Appellate Authority. Insecticides Inspectors (Quality Control Officers) - The District Agriculture Officer of Z.P. & Sub-divisional Agricultural Officers of Department of Agriculture can collect the insecticides samples from the shops to ascertain their purity through insecticidal residue laboratories. Objectives: 1. To prevent the adulteration & misbranding of insecticides. 2. To regulate the import, manufacture, sale, transport, distribution and use of insecticide. 3. To help and guide farmers for the use of insecticides. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 32 CHEMICAL CONTROL  Chemical Control: Management of insect pests using chemical pesticides is termed as chemical control. Or Pest control with the help of various chemicals is called as chemical control.  Pesticides: - The chemicals which applied for control of insect pests are called as pesticides.  History of insecticides development Year Chemicals Discovered 900 Arsenites used in China (Inorganic compound) 1690 Tobacco extract used in Europe (Plant/natural product) 1787 Soaps used in Europe 1858 Pyrethrum was first time used for insect control in USA 1867 Paris Green in US 1874 DDT synthezized by Zeidler 1883 Bordeaux Mixture used in France 1892 Lead arsenate was used for control of Gypsy moth in USA 1925 Dinitro compounds used (First synthetic organic insecticide) 1939 Discovered of insecticidal property of DDT by Paul Muller in Switzerland. (Awarded Nobel Prize in 1948) 1941 BHC used or discovered the insecticidal property in France and UK (in 1942) (BHC is presently called as HCH) 1944 Parathion (Organophosphate) discovered by Gerhard Schrader in Germany 1945 Chlordane (Cyclodian compound) used in Germany 1947 Carbamate insecticides in Switzerland 1962 Miss Rachel Carson’s wrote the book name ‘Silent Spring’ in US which gives the impact of insecticides on environment. 1967 First JH mimic (Juvenile Hormone mimic) used in US (Insect growth regulator) 1970 Development of synthetic pyrethroids (UK) (Fast degradation) (Effective at very low doses) 1980 Discovery of avermectins (derived from bacteria). Effective at low dose. Fast degradation. 1990 Discovery of newer groups like (1) Neonicotinoids (Imidacloprid), similar to natural nicotine, (2) Spinosyns (e.g. Spinosad) derived from actinomycet Various generations of insecticides Generation Year Compounds 1. First generation insecticide 1939-1942 BHC and DDT 2. Second generation insecticide 1944-1947 Organophosphates and Carbamate 3. Third generation insecticide 1967 Hormonal insecticides, JH mimic insect growth regulators 4. Fourth generation insecticide 1970s Synthetic pyrethroids Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 33  Classification of Pesticides/Pesticides Groups  The pesticides are generally classified into various groups based on pest organism against which the compounds are used, their chemical nature, mode of entry and mode of action. 1. Based on organism against which the compounds are used Sr. Name of insecticides Definition No. 1 Insecticides Chemicals used to kill or control insects. E.g. Carbaryl, malathion 2 Rodenticides Chemicals used to kill the rodents called rodenticides. E.g. Zinc phosphide 3 Acaricides/Miticides Chemicals used to kill the mites, ticks and spider called acaricides. E. g. Dicofol, Properguite 4 Avicides Chemicals used to repel the birds. E.g. Anthraquionone 5 Molluscicides Chemicals used to kill the snails and slugs. E.g. Metaldehyde 6 Nematicides Chemicals used to control nematodes E.g. Ethylene dibromide 7 Fungicides Chemicals used to control plant diseases caused by fungi. E.g. Copper oxychloride 8 Bactericide Chemicals used to control plant diseases caused by bacteria. E.g. Streptomycin sulphate 9 Herbicide Chemicals used to control weeds. E.g. 2,4,D 10 Algicides Chemicals used to control algae. 11 Arboricides Chemicals used to control trees or shrubs. 12 Piscicides Chemicals used to control harmful fishes. 2. Classification based on Mode of entry a) Stomach poison –  Insecticides applied on leaves and other parts of plants when ingested get entry in insects & act on digestive system to cause death of the insect. This type of chemicals is limited mainly to the chewing type of insects like grasshopper, beetles, caterpillar etc.  The stomach poison should be sufficiently stable, cheap, and palatable for the pest, available in large quantities.  These chemicals may be applied in the form of dust or spray or in poison bait.  E.g. Bt, Organochlorine and organophosphates insecticides etc. b) Contact poison –  The toxicant which causes death of insect by means of contact with insecticide. Insecticides get absorb by the sutures, membrane & tracheal system on insect body. This is achieved by direct application of insecticides on pest species.  E.g. Nicotine, Pyrethrum, quinolphos, Malathion, synthetic pyrethroids etc. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 34 c) Fumigants –  Toxicant which in its gaseous state or in vapour form penetrate in insect through the tracheal system (respiratory poison) through spiracles & kills the insect.  Their application is limited to plants or plant products in air-tight enclosures.  E.g. Methyl Bromide, Hydrogen cyanide (HCN), ethylene dibromide, DDVP, Lindane. d) Systemic poison -  Chemicals when applied to plant or soil are absorbed by foliage (or) roots and translocated through vascular system and cause death of insect feeding on plant.  It is effective against the pest having sucking type of mouth parts such as aphid, jassid, thrips, white fly etc.  E.g. Dimethoate, Imadaclopirid, Phorate, carbofuran etc. 3. Classification based on mode of action: - a) Physical poison – Chemical which can kill insects by following three ways;  Asphyxiation – A physical poison kill the insects exert by physical effect through asphyxiation i.e. exclusion of air called physical poison. E.g. effect of heavy oil & Tar oil on scale insects.  Moisture stress – Loss of moisture from insect body by inert dust, charcoal, activated clay, ash etc.  Mechanical injury – Epicuticle of insect gets lacerated by abrasive dust like aluminum oxide & this may cause water loss. b) Protoplasmic poison –  Toxicant responsible for precipitation of protein, destruction of midgut epithelium called as protoplasmic poison.  E.g. Heavy metals like mercury, copper, Fluorine. c) Respiratory poison –  The chemical which block cellular respiration, inactivation of respiration & respiratory enzymes. This is known as anoxia.  E.g. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN), Carbon monoxide (CO). d) Nerve poison –  The chemicals which affect the nervous system of the insect or Chemicals inhibit the production of acetylcholinesterase enzyme in insects called as nerve poison.  E.g. organophosphate, carbamate, organochlorines, pyrethrum and nicotine. e) Chitin inhibition - Chemicals inhibit chitin synthesis. E.g. Diflubenzuron Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 35 1. Classification based on the Chemical nature of insecticide Inorganic compounds Organic compounds 1. Arenicals 2. Fluorine Hydrocarbon Animal origin Plant origin Synthetic organic compounds oils (Nereis toxin) 1. Nicotine compounds 3. Sulphur Petrol, Kerosin alkaloids Organoclorines 4.Lime & oil, Coal tar oil 2. Pyrethroids Organophosphates sulphur etc. 3. Rotenoids Carbamates 5. Barium 4. Neem extract Synthetic carbonate pyrethroids 6. Zinc phosphoid A) Inorganic Compounds: -  The insecticides derived from naturally occurring elements which do not contain carbon.  It comprises compounds of mineral origin and element Sulphur and phosphorus.  They are stable, non-volatile and soluble in water.  Many of them are persistent and because of their residual persistent high mammalian toxicity it’s a limited used.  Both boric acid and silica used in baits for controlling the household pests like cockroaches and ants. 1) Arsenicals -  These are stomach poisons formed of toxic compounds of non-toxic elements arsenic.  They are phytotoxic & not applied on plants.  It is used in poison baits.  They kill the insects due to the inhibition of respiratory enzyme.  They are more stable and not harmful to plants.  E.g. lead arsenate, Calcium arsenate, Sodium arsenate, etc. 2) Fluorine compounds -  They kill the insects more rapidly than arsenicals. They are cheaper & less toxic to higher animals.  They are stomach & contact poison.  They are irritating to the appendages of insects.  These are cheaper and non-toxic to plants and animals.  E.g. Sodium fluoride, Sodium fluosilicate. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 36 3) Sulphur -  It is a contact poison.  It is available in the form of both formulation dust as well as Wettable powder.  It is used as acaricide as well as fungicide. 4) Lime Sulphur -  It is prepared by boiling lime & Sulphur together in water (1:2).  It is used against aphids, mites, San Jose Scale etc. 5) Zinc-phosphide -  It is rodenticide used to control rat.  It is heavy dark grey powder with disagreeable odour.  Baits containing 2 % zinc phosphide are recommended for control of rats. In rats the chemicals reacts with the hydrochloric acids present in the stomach and release phosphine gas which is lethal to the rats. 6) Barium carbonate-  It is also acts rodenticide.  After ingestion internal bleeding of intestinal tract & kidneys occurred. B] Organic Compounds: -  These are man-made or extracted pesticides consisting of carbon, hydrogen and chlorine, oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus and nitrogen. a) Hydrocarbon oils:  Oils composed of hydrogen & carbon. It has two groups viz.  1) Mineral oils – These are petroleum oils derived from secondary rocks. E.g. Kerosene, Petrol, Lubricants oil etc.  2) Coal-tar oils – These are creosol oil & green oils are useful for insecticidal purpose. E.g. summer oils, dormant oils, spray oils, supreme spray oils and Borer solution to control bark borer, stem borer. b) Animal origin insecticides:  A toxin isolated from Marine annelids, Lumbrineris heteropoda & Lumbrineris vicirra. i.e. Nereis toxin.  Insecticidal properties of Nereis toxin has been found by Nitta in 1934 and it is given by Sakai in 1964.  Common name of Nereis toxin is Cartap and Trade name is Padan.  It is effective against rice stem borer & cabbage diamond moth. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 37 c) Plant origin insecticides: (Botanicals insecticides/Natural insectcides)  Toxicants derived from plants & used in insect control.  It includes nicotine, pyrethrum, rotenone, Azadirachtin, Scilliroside, Pongram, Rynia, Sabadilla.  Certain plant products also used as a nematicides, insect attractants and repellants and as diluents in insecticidal formulation. 1) Nicotine -  Tobacco was used in insect control as early as 1763, the principal alkaloid Nicotine was discovered in 1828.  The chief source is Nicotiana tabaccum & Nicotiana rustica. 12 alkaloids have been isolated from tobacco and alkaloid Nicotine constitutes 97% of the total alkaloids.  Nicotine in leaves of N. tabacum is 2-5%. Nicotine is obtained from leaves and stem of waste tobacco by steam sterilization.  It is nerve poison & highly toxic when absorbed through cuticle/trachea.  The commercial product is Nicotine sulphate containing 40% alkaloid.  It is water soluble. It may be used as a spray or dust.  It is effective against soft bodies insects like thrips, hoppers, etc.  It is also a neuro-muscular poison in man and animal hence its used is discouraged. 2) Neem -  The neem tree i.e. Azadirachta indica which is indigenous to India having the various medicinal and insecticidal values. Now days it is assuming as an International Tree.  All parts of neem possess insecticidal activity but seeds are main source which is most effective.  Neem bark leaves and neem oil as well as extracts with various solvents like ethanol are found effective.  Azadirachtin is the main active ingredient present in neem with other alkaloids like limonoids and protolimonoids which shown repellent, antifeedants and insecticidal activity.  The antifeedants activity against desert locust which is shown by Pradhan et al. in 1962.  It is used as growth inhibitor, cause egg sterility & adverse effect on fecundity.  It is effective against American bollworm, leaf eating caterpillar, Diamond back moth, and armyworm and sucking pest like leaf hoppers, thrips.  Many commercial formulations are available in market like Achook, Bioneem, Econeem, Neemark, Neemazal, Neem oil.  5% Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE) is mostly used in IPM programmes. 3) Pyrethroids/Pyrethrums/Pyrethrins -  These are extracted from Chrysanthemum flower which contain active ingredients pyrethrin I and II & cinerin I and II.  Pyrethrums are dried flower powder of Chrysanthemum, Pyrethrins are all the active toxins of pyrethrum and Pyrethroids are synthetic derivatives of pyrethrin.  All pyrethroids are lipophilic (Fat loving) compounds and insoluble in water. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 38  It show higher toxicity against insects & very safe to mammals.  These are contact poisons.  Synthetic Pyrethroids like Cypermethrine, Permethrin, Deltamethrin, Decamethrine and fenvalerate are effective against soft bodies & lipidopterous insects which are contact and stomach poisons.  Allethrin was the first synthetic analogue of pyrethrum developed in 1949. 4) Rotenone -  It is derived from roots of bean legumes, Derris eliptica.  Used in 1848 against leaf eating caterpillar.  The active ingredient i.e. rotenone is isolated by the scientist Geoffroy I 1882.  It is a contact and stomach poison.  It inhibits respiratory metabolism‟.  It is extremely toxic to fish hence used as a piscide (The chemical which is used to kill the fishes). 5) Scilliroside -  These are obtained from the bulb of Red Squill, Urginea maritime.  The active ingredient presents i.e. Scilliroside which is generally used as rodenticides.  It is a stomach poison.  It is used to control the rats and mice. 6) Pongramm -  These are derived from the plant Pongamia pinnata (Karanj).  The active ingredient presents i.e. Pongram has been identified as ‘karanjin’.  Karanj oil applied as surface protectant and repellent.  It is used against pulse beetle and sucking pests. 7) Sabadilla -  It is an alkaloid extracted from seeds of Schoenocaulon officinale. 8) Rynia -  It is extracted from stem, roots, leaves and stalks of tropical shrub of Ryania speciosa. Salicaceae, South American plant.  It is water soluble powder.  Extract contains several structurally related ryanoids including –ryanodine and 9, 21- dehydroryanodine.  The extract has a very low acute toxicity to mammals.  Used for control of both adults and larval Lepidoptera. Compiled by Prof. A. S. Mochi & Prof. T. B. Ugale (K. K. Wagh College of Agriculture, Nashik)  Insect Ecology and IPM Including Beneficial Insects 39 d) Synthetic organic insecticides: -  These are dominating the field of pest control today.  Historically Denitrophenols come first in 1925.  It includes organochlorine, organophosphate, carbamates and synthetic pyrethroids. 1) Dinitrophenols: ((DNOC)  They are Stomach poison with ovicidal effect on eggs of certain insects.  E.g. Dinocap 2) Organic Thyocinates:  It cause quick knock down effect.  It is contact poison.  E.g. Loro - Used against thrips, mites and aphids. Thanite - Used against housefly and cattle pests. 3) Chlorinated hydrocarbons or organochlorines compounds:  It includes DDT, BHC and Cyclodiene compound.  DDT- (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane)  It was synthesized by a German chemist Zeidlar in 1874.  Its insecticidal properties were given by Paul Muller in 1939.  The proper chemical name of DDT is 2, 2-bis (P-chlorophenyl) 1, 1, 1- (trichloroethane).  It was very effective against flies, mosquitoes, lice and fleas and also used in agriculture and horticulture sector.  It has long residual life and persistence in the soil in aquatic environment and also accumulates in plant and animal tissue hence it’s used is banned in