Earth Science Reviewer PDF

Earth Science Reviewer: Caused by erosion or unloading of overlying Sand Dunes: material. Accumulation of sand grains Frost Wedging: shaped into mounds or ridges by wind and gravity....

Earth Science Reviewer: Caused by erosion or unloading of overlying Sand Dunes: material. Accumulation of sand grains Frost Wedging: shaped into mounds or ridges by wind and gravity. Water seeps into cracks, expands on freezing, Exogenic Processes: eventually enlarging the cracks. Processes occurring on Earth's The effectiveness relates to surface due to the influence of the frequency of freezing and external forces. thawing Interconnected with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and Root Wedging: biosphere. Includes weathering, erosion, Plant roots work into cracks, and deposition. prying bedrock apart as they grow. Weathering: Salt Wedging (Honeycomb): Breakdown or dissolution of rocks and minerals at or near Saltwater seeps into rocks, and the Earth's surface. then evaporates, and salt On-site breakdown of rock, crystals grow within the eventually transforming it into cracks, causing the rock to sediments. weaken and break. Two Types of Weathering: Thermal Expansion: Mechanical Weathering: Rock expands when exposed to high temperatures, and Physical disintegration and contracts as it cools. reduction without changing Repeated heating and cooling their chemical composition. cause rigid substances to Involves exfoliation, frost crack and separate. wedging, root wedging, salt wedging, thermal expansion. Other Ways: Exfoliation: Burrowing animals, human activities (digging, blasting). Uplift causes top hard rock to split into layers. Chemical Weathering:  Interaction of rock with mineral Fungi, lichens, and bacteria solutions to change secrete organic acids. composition. These acids dissolve minerals Involves dissolution, hydrolysis, in rocks, and the released oxidation, hydration, and nutrients are absorbed by the biological weathering. organisms. Certain bacteria consume Dissolution: certain minerals Happens in certain minerals dissolve in water. Halite (NaCL) dissolves rapidly Erosion: in pure water Calcite (CaCO3) dissolves Erosion is the separation and rapidly in acidic water removal of rocks and soil by (rainwater) gravity or transporting agents, Limestone (calcite) such as wind, ice or water. Involves abrasion, plucking, Hydrolysis: scouting, and dissolution. Water reacts with minerals, Transport: breaking them down. Example include Amphibole, The process where sediments Pyroxene, and Feldspar are moved from the source to the site of deposition Oxidation: Wind Erosion: Reaction of oxygen with minerals, forming oxides. Natural process moving soil Biotite + Oxygen = Hematite from one location to another (Iron Oxide) by wind power. Pyrite + Oxygen = Geotite (Iron Common in flat, bare areas, or Hydroxide) dry, sandy, and loose soils. Results in soil loss, dryness, Hydration: deterioration of soil structure. Causes soil nutrient and Water is absorbed into the productivity losses. And mineral structure, causing contributes to air pollution. expansion. Example: Paoay, Ilocos Norte. Types of Clay Glacier: Biological Weathering:  Large, perennial accumulation Difference in elevation (height) of crystalline ice, snow, rock, between two places, creating sediment, and liquid water. slopes. Originates on land and moves Gravity pulls materials from downslope under its own higher elevations to lower weight and gravity. elevations. Water: Slope Stability: Most common erosion agent. Involves the balance between Sediments are moved in four the downslope force (gravity) ways: Traction, Saltation, and resistance force (friction). Suspension, Solution. Slope failure occurs when downslope force exceeds Traction: resistance. Rolling or dragging of large Fragmentation and Weathering: grains aided by smaller grains' push. Intact rock held by chemical bonds, mineral cement, and Saltation: interlocking grains. Fragmented rock held by Bouncing of sand grains as friction between fracture they are picked up, carried planes and weak electrical along, and dropped repeatedly. charges between grains. Suspension: Mass Wasting: Movement of fine particles like Types of Material silt and clay. Earth - predominantly fine Solution: materials Debris - predominantly coarse Movement of soluble minerals. soil Mass Wasting: Types of Motion: Downslope movement of rock, Fall - Free fall movement, soil, and ice due to gravity. bouncing, and rolling of 3 Factors: Relief, Slope materials on a slope. Stability, Fragmentation, and Topple - Forward rotation out Weathering. of the slope of a soil or rock mass. Relief:  Rotation axis is usually at the Classified as very slow to base of the moving mass, extremely slow slope below its center of gravity movement. Slide - Downslope movement along a well-defined surface of Rockslide-Debris Avalanche: rupture Involves extremely rapid Could form a planar or curve movement of materials down a sliding surface slope. Spread - Lateral extension and featuring of a coherent mass Slides and Flows: Could occur as silt layers liquefy during an earthquake Can have moderate to very Flow - Happens when the rapid rates of movement. material moves downslope as Rate depends on the amount a viscous fluid. of water present in the Complex - Combination of deforming mass. several types of movement. Falls: Classification of Mass Wasting: Typically dry but can exhibit Established by Varnes in 1978, rapid to extremely rapid later modified by Cruden and movement. Varnes in 1996. The British Geological Survey Deposition: introduces a new classification considering both material type Process where sediments and motion type. settle out of the transporting medium. Examples of Deposition: When a glacier melts, rocks are deposited on the ground. Decrease in the velocity of water or wind leads to the deposition of particular-sized grains. Types of Sedimentary Environments: Other kind of Slope Movements: Glacial Environment: Creep:  Found in high-altitude Rivers in flat areas carry an mountains and polar regions assortment of pebbles, sand, where glaciers and ice sheets silt, and mud. are found. Coarse sediments tumble along the riverbed, while finer Mountain Stream Environment: ones move in suspension. Turbulent streams carry large Delta Environment: sediments like boulders and cobbles, forming thick layers Happens when a river enters of gravel and boulders. the sea, deposits its loads in a delta, which extends to the Mountain Front Environment: shallow coastal area The upper part of the delta Stream enters a flat area at the consists of coarse sand and base of a mountain, where it gravel, while the middle loses its energy and decreases contains fine sand and silt and in velocity the basal portion contains Alluvial Fan - is a landform mostly silt and clay. primarily composed of sand to boulder-sized sediments Beach Environment: Desert Environment: Tidal currents transport sands along the coastline, forming Wind carries sand and silt well-sorted and well-rounded materials, forming sand dunes sand grains that create ripples. and accumulating silts as Loess deposit. Shallow Marine Environment: Evaporites form from solutions in temporary desert lakes. Mud and silt removed from shorelines and river mouths Lake (Lacustrine) Environment: are transported by tidal currents, forming a well-sorted Quiet lake environment where and well-rounded layers streams deposit coarse inhabited by various organisms sediments on lake margins, such as worms and mollusks. while silt and clay settle in deeper parts of the lake. Shallow Water Carbonate Environment: River (Fluvial) Environment: Found in shallow marine areas with limited sediment supply.  Which leads to the development of coral reefs and carbonate sediments, such as Endogenic Processes: limestones. Are geological processes that Deep Marine Environment: occur beneath the Earth's surface Characterized by slope failures Associated with the energy from the steep slopes of from the interior of the solid submarine canyons. Earth Which generate submarine Movement of the ground is landslides that create caused by endogenic sediments of varying sizes. processes Diagenesis: Types of Endogenic Processes: Process involving compaction, Magma, Volcanism, cementation, and Earthquake, Deformation, recrystallization. Metamorphism Described as a "double birth" or a "process of change" that Magma: converts loose sediments into Mixture of molten rock, solid rock. suspended mineral grains, and Combination of consolidation dissolved gasses. (squeezing out water) due to Composed of abundant increasing pressure from elements such as: silicon, overlying deposits and the aluminum, iron, calcium, formation of mineral cement magnesium, sodium, between grains. potassium, hydrogen, and Cement: oxygen. Dissolved chemicals in water Compositional Variation of Magma occupying pore spaces (Oxides): between grains. 1. SiO2 (45% to 75% by weight) Precipitates and forms new 2. Al2O3 minerals 3. CaO Cementation: 4. MgO 5. FeO Process binding together 6. H2O individual grains.  7. Dissolved gases (water vapor Partial Melting: Only certain and carbon dioxide) 0.2% to minerals within a rock are 3% by weight. melted. Fractionation: Separation of Magma: magma from rock that hasn't completely melted, resulting in Has a very high temperature components with different (800°C to 1400°C) melting temperatures. Viscosity - the degree of resistance to flow Crystallization of Magma: Higher silica content leads to higher viscosity. Occurs as magmas cool, Gas content increases with leading to the formation of temperature, making magma mineral grains. less viscous. Decreasing temperature Common Minerals in Igneous Rocks: results in more viscous lava Quartz and eventually stops flowing. Amphibole Formation of Magma: Orthoclase, Plagioclase (Feldspar) Decompression Melting: Muscovite, Biotite (Mica) Upward movement of the Pyroxene Earth’s mantle to Olivine lower-pressure areas. Flux Melting: Occurs when Composition of Rocks: water or carbon dioxide is Ultramafic: Igneous rock with added to rock, lowering its an extremely low silica (SiO2) melting temperature. composition, primarily Takes place around subduction composed of olivine (MgO) zones. and pyroxene (FeO). Heat Transfer Melting: Mafic: Rock with a Surrounding rocks melt due to composition where the the introduction of very hot proportion of MgO and FeO is magma. slightly less than SiO2. Occurs in rift valleys, Felsic: Rich in silica (SiO2). mid-ocean ridges, volcanic Intermediate: Proportion of hotspots, and subduction MgO and FeO is approximately zones. similar to SiO2. Eutectic Temperature: The melting temperature of the Grain Size of Rocks and Cooling rock. Rate: Phaneritic: Describes the temperature at which minerals crystallize Formed underground with a during cooling or melt during very slow rate of cooling. heating. Coarse-grained minerals. Sequential order of mineral Individual crystals (large crystallization of igneous crystals) of each mineral are rocks. visible to the naked eye. Intrusive rock. Igneous Intrusions: Aphanitic: Formed when magma cools and solidifies before reaching Solidifies near the surface with the surface. a fast rate of cooling. Fine-grained minerals. Types of Igneous Intrusions Crystals are visible only using a hand lens or microscope. 1. Dike - Wall-like sheet. Extrusive rock. 2. Sill - Tabular layer. 3. Pluton - Blob-like Porphyritic: configuration. 4. Batholith - Amalgamation of Igneous rock texture with large many plutons. crystals set in a finer-grained Occupies a very large area, or glassy groundmass. ranging from tens to hundreds Occurs in coarse, medium, and of square kilometers. fine-grained igneous rocks. Larger crystals (phenocrysts) Volcano: formed earlier in the crystallization sequence of the An opening in the Earth's crust magma. through which lava, volcanic ash, and gasses escape. Vent: The surface location where volcanic materials such as lava, tephra, and gasses are expelled. Crater: A bowl- or funnel-shaped Bowen's Reaction Series: depression located above the  vent, from which volcanic Cinder are granular materials material is ejected. formed by lava foundations. Eruption: An explosion of steam and lava from a volcano. Stratovolcanoes/Composite Types of Eruptions: Volcanoes: Effusive Eruption: Composed of alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic Dominated by the flow of lava materials. and the formation of fountains Typically made of intermediate and lakes. to felsic rocks. Lavas with low silica content Tends to build large and high are less viscous, allowing them volcanic structures. to flow more rapidly. Cinder Volcanoes: Explosive Eruption: Small cone formed by the Involves the ejection of ash spattering of lava. and larger fragments of Composed of cinder with pyroclastic materials. mafic composition. Forms ash clouds that Formed by pyroclastic eventually collapse and cover fragments like volcanic ashes, the slopes of the volcano. solidified lava pieces, volcanic Associated with lavas having clinkers, pumice, and hot high silica content, making gasses. them more viscous and less Examples include Binintiang able to flow easily. Malaki within Taal Volcano and Smith Volcano in Babuyan Types of Volcanoes: Island. Shield Volcanoes: Types of Lava: Forms a broad dome with a Pahoehoe: gentle slope, covering a wide area. Lava with a smooth, shiny, or Mostly made of alternating swirled surface. layers of basaltic lava and Named after the Hawaiian verb cinder accumulation. "hoe," meaning "to paddle." Aa:  Hawaiian term for lava flows A vibration on the Earth's with a rough, rubbly surface. surface resulting from the Composed of broken lava sudden release of energy. blocks called clinkers. Causes of Earthquakes: Types of Materials: Movement of magma Obsidian - Pure volcanic glass. underneath a volcano. Pumice - Volcanic glass with a Explosion of a volcano. frothy texture characterized by Large landslide. lots of open spaces caused by Meteorite impact. gas bubbles. Underground nuclear bomb Pyroclastic Debris - test. Fragmental materials of various grain sizes produced Elastic Rebound Theory: by a volcano. Describes how energy is Lapilli - pea-to marble sized spread during earthquakes. fragments of lava Rocks bend until their strength Volcanic Ash - Very fine is exceeded. particles composed of glass Rupture occurs, and rocks shards, crystals, and quickly rebound to an fragments of existing rocks. undeformed shape. Tuff - Lithified volcanic ash. Energy is released in waves Bombs - Blobs of lava thrown that radiate outward from the into the air, developing a fault. streamlined and smooth shape. Fault: Blocks - Larger non-streamlined chunks of A fracture discontinuity along lava or preexisting rocks. which rocks on either side Pyroclastic Flow Deposit - The have moved past each other. aggregate of pyroclastic debris that flows on the slope of a Focus/Hypocenter: volcano. The place where rock ruptures Ignimbrite - A pyroclastic and slips. deposit predominantly composed of pumice. Epicenter: Lahar - Muddy-like slurry formed when pyroclastic The point at the surface debris mixes with water. directly above the focus. Earthquakes: Seismic Waves:  Caused by the sudden Love Waves: movement of materials within the Earth, such as slip along a Surface waves cause the fault during an earthquake. ground to move back and forth Can also result from volcanic in a snake-like movement. eruptions, explosions, Seismograph: landslides, avalanches, and rushing rivers. A device that detects and records the force and duration Types of Seismic Waves: of ground motion from an Body Waves: earthquake. Waves that travel within the Seismogram: interior of the Earth. The recording of ground Primary Waves (P-Waves): shaking at a specific location. Particles of the material move Horizontal axis - represents time back and forth parallel to the (measured in seconds). direction of wave motion. Vertical axis - represents ground Fastest seismic waves. displacement (usually measured in Is a compressional wave. millimeters). Secondary Waves (S-Waves): Magnitude: Particles of the material move Indicates the relative size of back and forth perpendicular energy released in an to the direction of wave earthquake. motion. Determined from the Slowest seismic waves. maximum amplitude of ground Also known as shear waves. motion recorded in a Surface Waves: seismogram. A single increase in Waves that travel along the earthquake magnitude is Earth’s surface. equivalent to a 30-fold increase in energy released. Types of Surface Waves: Rayleigh Waves: Surface waves cause the ground to ripple up and down. Intensity: The amount of damage brought about by an earthquake, usually denoted as Roman numerals. Represents the strength of an earthquake perceived and felt by people in a specific locality. Intensity is generally higher near the epicenter. The Mercalli Intensity Scale Deformation: (MMI), developed by the Tectonic forces operating Philippine Institute of inside Earth cause rocks to Volcanology and Seismology undergo changes in shape, (PHIVOLCS), is used to report size, location, tilt, or break due earthquake intensities. to squeezing, or shearing. Dominant process in the formation of mountain belts. Stress: Quantity describing the magnitude of forces causing deformation. Generally defined as force per unit area. Tensile stress occurs when forces pull on an object and cause its elongation, similar to  the stretching of an elastic Squeezes rocks, causing band. shortening parallel to the direction of stress and Types of Stress: elongation perpendicular to the Uniform Stress: stress direction. Forces acting uniformly from Shear Stress: all directions. Two dominant forces directed Confining Stress: toward each other but not along the same axis. Occurs as the weight of all Results in slippage and overlying rock pushes down on translation. a deeply buried rock. The rock is compressed from Strain: all sides, leading to Resulting change in rocks due compression. to different types of stress. Confining stress can cause Represents the change in size, phenomena like sinkholes. shape, or volume of the rock subjected to stress. Differential Stress: Types of Strain: Unequal force from all Stretching: directions. Object becomes longer. Types of Differential Stress: Shortening/Contraction: Tensional Stress: Object becomes shorter. Dominant force directed away Shear Strain: from each other. Stretches rocks, causing Occurs when a sideways force elongation parallel to the is exerted on a medium, direction of stress and leading to a change in angles shortening perpendicular to between features. the stress direction. Elastic Strain: Compressional Stress: Rocks can temporarily change Dominant force directed shape when subjected to toward each other. stress but can change back  into their original form when Ductile Materials: the stress is removed. Ductile materials have a large 3 Successive Stages of Deformation: region of ductile behavior prior to fracture but only a small Elastic Deformation: region of elastic behavior. First stage, reversible strain. Ductile behavior occurs at high Temporary deformation of a temperature, high confining material's shape that is stress, and low strain rate. self-reversing after removing Rocks at a depth of about 15 the force or load. km below the surface deform in a ductile manner due to increasing temperature and pressure. Ductile Deformation: Structural Geology: The strain is irreversible. Indicates shape change The branch of geology through bending or flowing, concerned with the study of during which chemical bonds rock deformation. may become broken and subsequently reformed into Orientation of a Geologic Structure: new bonds. Strike: High amounts of water can influence ductile deformation. Compass direction (reckoned from the north) of the line Brittle Materials: formed by the intersection of an inclined plane and the Brittle materials have a small horizontal plane. region of ductile behavior before fracture. Dip: May have a small or large region of elastic behavior. Angle between the inclined Brittle behavior is associated plane and the horizontal plane. with low temperature, low Direction of dip is confining stress, and high perpendicular to the strike. strain rate. Dry rocks and rocks in the Joints: upper part of the crust often Natural cracks in rocks behave in a brittle manner due produced by brittle to low temperature and deformation. pressure.  Rocks on both sides of a joint A thrust fault is a reverse fault do not slide past each other. with a dip of 45° or less, a very Formed due to tensional low angle. stress in brittle rocks. Moves similarly to a steeper-angle reverse fault. Faults: Planar structures resulting from brittle deformation, Strike-Slip Fault: involving sliding between rocks. Blocks slide past each other, Active faults are capable of and shear stress develops moving again in the future and strike-slip faults. generating earthquakes. Two Types of Strike-Slip Fault: Types of Faults: 1. Right-Lateral Strike-Slip Fault Inclined Fault: - Block on the opposite side moves toward the right. The block of rock on top of the 2. Left-Lateral Strike-Slip Fault - fault is the hanging wall, and Block opposite the fault moves the block below is the footwall. to the left. Oblique Slip Fault - Movement Normal Fault: of the blocks along the fault plane is diagonal. The block above the fault (hanging wall) moves down Folds: relative to the block below the fault (footwall). Produced by the deformation Tensional stress forms normal of ductile materials, and faults, resulting in extension. compressional stress forms folds. Reverse Fault: Folds are contortions of rock The block above the fault layers forming wavelike (hanging wall) moves up curves. relative to the block below the Parts of a Fold: fault (footwall). Compressional stress forms Hinge Line/Fold Axis - reverse faults, resulting in Curvature is greatest. shortening. Limbs - Sides of the folds with the least curvature. Thrust Fault (Dip-Slip Fault): Axial Plane - Fold axis of each folded layer. Types of Folds: Recrystallization: Anticline: Changes in the shape and size of minerals without altering Limbs of the folds incline away their identity. from the hinge, forming an arch-like shape. Phase Change: Oldest beds are at its core, and it is convex upwards. Transformation of a grain of one mineral into a grain of Syncline: another mineral with the same composition but a different Limbs are inclined toward the crystal structure. hinge, forming a trough-like Example: Quartz changing into shape. coesite (both SiO2). Youngest beds are at its core, and it is concave upwards. Neocrystallization: Monocline: Growth of new minerals that differ from those in the original A bend in a generally flat-lying rock (protolith). rock layer. Monoclines consist of two Pressure Solution: horizontal (or nearly so) limbs connected by a shorter Dissolution of mineral grains inclined limb. when a rock is squeezed dominantly in one direction, Overturned: typically at relatively low temperature and pressure, and When the axial plane is in the presence of water. inclined, and one limb is steeper than the other. Plastic Deformation: Metamorphism: Some minerals become flattened or elongated without Metamorphism is the process changing their composition or that occurs when a rock crystal structure, exhibiting undergoes changes in shape, plastic behavior when exposed size, and mineral composition to high temperature and without melting or pressure. disintegration. Types of Metamorphism: Processes of Metamorphism: Contact Metamorphism:  Occurs when rock minerals Typically occurs along and texture are changed by mid-ocean ridge spreading heat due to contact with centers where heated magma. seawater interacts with hot, Produces non-foliated fractured basalt. metamorphic rocks like Results in the formation of new marble, derived from minerals like chlorite. limestone protolith. Shock Metamorphism: Burial Metamorphism: The process in which materials Results from the increase in are permanently changed as a pressure and temperature as result of the passage of sediments pile up and become high-pressure shock-waves thicker. Extraterrestrial objects like Occurs as buried sedimentary meteorites can cause changes rocks undergo increased in surface rocks. weight and temperature. Quartz can transform into a coesite under shock Dynamic/Cataclastic metamorphism. Metamorphism: Results from very high shear stress, such as along fault zones. Involves only shearing and does not necessarily require changes in temperature or pressure. Mylonite is an example with foliation parallel to the fault. Regional Metamorphism: Occurs over a large region due to heat and pressure generated at convergent boundaries where plates collide. Often produces foliated rocks Hydrothermal Metamorphism: