Earth Science Final Exam Coverage Notes PDF

Earth Science Final Examination Coverage Notes Chapter 1: Weathering and Erosion 1. Weathering o Definition: The process of breaking down and corroding solid rocks into sediments. o Types: ▪ Physical (Mechanical) Weathering: Breakdown of rocks witho...

Earth Science Final Examination Coverage Notes Chapter 1: Weathering and Erosion 1. Weathering o Definition: The process of breaking down and corroding solid rocks into sediments. o Types: ▪ Physical (Mechanical) Weathering: Breakdown of rocks without chemical change (e.g., freeze-thaw cycles, thermal expansion). ▪ Chemical Weathering: Breakdown of rocks through chemical reactions (e.g., oxidation, hydrolysis, carbonation). o Examples: ▪ Dissolution: Minerals dissolve in water. ▪ Oxidation: Minerals react with oxygen, forming oxides (e.g., rust). ▪ Hydration: Minerals absorb water, causing expansion and weakening. 2. Erosion o Definition: The process of moving sediments from one place to another. o Main Forces: ▪ Water Erosion: Rivers, rainfall, and surface run-off. ▪ Wind Erosion: Formation of sand dunes. ▪ Ice Erosion: Glaciers and ice sheets. ▪ Coastal Erosion: Waves and tides. Chapter 2: Earth’s Layers and Plate Tectonics 1. Earth’s Layers o Inner Core: Solid sphere composed mainly of iron and nickel. o Continental Crust: Approximately 35–70 km thick. o Lithosphere: About 100 km thick, composed of the crust and the uppermost mantle. o Asthenosphere: Plastic and partially molten layer beneath the lithosphere. 2. Plate Tectonics o Alfred Wegener's Continental Drift Theory (1912): Proposed that continents were once a single landmass (Pangaea) and have drifted apart. o Seafloor Spreading: Creation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges, pushing tectonic plates apart. o Key Contributions: ▪ Henry Hess: Proposed the theory of seafloor spreading. ▪ Mid-Ocean Ridges: Formed as a result of seafloor spreading. ▪ Geomagnetic Reversals: Occur every 200,000 to 300,000 years, last major event was the Matuyama-Brunhes transition. Chapter 3: Folding and Faulting 1. Folding o Anticline: Convex upward fold with the oldest rocks at the core. o Syncline: Concave upward fold with the youngest rocks at the core. o Monocline: Step-like fold in rock strata. o Plunging Fold: Fold with a non-horizontal axis. 2. Faulting o Normal Fault: Block above the fault moves downward relative to the block below. o Reverse Fault: Block above the fault moves upward over the block below. o Strike-Slip Fault: Horizontal sliding of rock blocks. Chapter 4: Volcanism and Magmatism 1. Magma and Magma Chambers o Components: Gases, minerals, and liquid rock. o Magma Chamber: Stores magma before it erupts. o Solidification: Magma cools and crystallizes into igneous rock. 2. Volcanic Activity  o Importance of Study: Provides insights into volcanic activity and crust formation. o Effects on Environment: Volcanic eruptions can significantly alter landscapes and impact climate. Chapter 5: Geological Processes and Landforms 1. Erosion and Deposition o Deposition: Builds up layers of sediment, creating new landforms. o Landform Formation: Trenches form due to tectonic plate interactions (e.g., subduction). 2. Plate Boundaries o Transform Boundaries: Earthquakes occur due to the buildup of stress as plates grind against each other. o Continental-Continental Boundaries: Create large mountain ranges through the crumpling and thickening of the crust. o Oceanic-Continental Boundaries: Result in subduction of the denser oceanic plate beneath the less dense continental plate. o Divergent Boundaries: Associated with seafloor spreading and creation of new oceanic crust. Essay Topics 1. Importance of Studying Erosion and Weathering o Explains the processes that shape Earth's surface. o Helps predict geological changes and manage natural resources. 2. Study of Fossils in Understanding Earth’s History o Provides insights into past life forms and environments. o Helps in understanding evolutionary processes and geological time scales. 3. Effects of Volcanic Eruptions on the Environment o Can cause immediate and long-term changes to climate. o Impact ecosystems and human activities.