Psychology Past Paper PDF

Aims: An aim is defined as a general statement to describe what the researcher(s) intend to find out in an experiment. It gives a broad overview of the topic being explored without making specific predictions on the outcome of the experiment. Any investigation will start as a theory then be fo...

Aims: An aim is defined as a general statement to describe what the researcher(s) intend to find out in an experiment. It gives a broad overview of the topic being explored without making specific predictions on the outcome of the experiment. Any investigation will start as a theory then be followed by an aim. In Psychology, an aim starts with, "To investigate..." Hypothesis: ○ A hypothesis is a testable and precise statement in a study that clearly states the relationship between 2 variables. There are 2 types of hypothesis psychologists use, directional and non-directional hypothesis. Directional hypotheses ○ A directional hypothesis (otherwise known as a one tailed hypothesis) - is where the researcher states clearly that there will be a difference expected between 2 conditions or groups of people used in an experimental study. ○ They include words like, 'more' ; 'less ; 'higher' ; 'lower' etc. ○ An example is: 'Participants who are sleep-deprived will perform worse at sports than those who aren't'. Non-directional hypothesis ○ A non-directional hypothesis (otherwise known as a two-tailed hypothesis) - is where the researcher states that there will be a difference between the conditions or groups used in the experimental study, but the nature of the difference isn't defined. ○ They include words like, 'differ' ; 'depending'. ○ For example, 'There will be a difference in sports performance between sleep-deprived participants than those who have slept'. Variables: ▪ A variable is defined as: any 'thing' that can change within an investigation. They are used to determine if changes in one 'thing' results in a change in another. ▪ There are a few variables used in psychology when we are conducting an experiment, the independent variable (IV), dependent variable (DV), extraneous variables (EV) and finally confounding variables (CV). Independent variable ▪ Something that the experimenter manipulates or changes in order to record the effect on the DV. ▪ For example, in a study about sleep and sports performance, the amount of sleep is the independent variable. Dependent variable ▪ The variable that is being recorded by the researcher based on any change in the IV. ▪ For example, in the same study, how fast they run a mile would be the dependent variable. Extraneous variables ▪ They are any conditions that could affect the DV other than the IV. ▪ These extraneous variables need to be controlled so it doesn't affect the causal relationship between the IV and the DV. ▪ For example, in the same study, differences in a person's diet or physique could interfere with the relationship between the IV and DV. ▪ Many can be controlled such as the age of participants taking part in a lab experiment. They are called 'nuisance' variables and don't systematically change with the IV. Confounding variables ▪ An external factor that effects the causal relationship between the IV and the DV and potentially affect the results of the experiment. ▪ However, you can't control weather them. ▪ Confounding variables, unlike extraneous variables moves systematically with the IV. ▪ For instance, in the same study, if participants' caffeine consumption isn't controlled, it can affect the results of the experiment and thus becomes a confounding variable. Other examples include: personality, weather the participant has a mental health problem like depression, gender, ethnicity, weather they are an extrovert or introvert etc. What is correlation? Ø It is a systematic association between 2 continuous variables. Ø There are different types of correlations: ○ A positive correlation - when one variable increases, the other variable increases - running and fitness level. As the amount you run increases, your fitness level will increase. ○ A negative correlation - when one variable increases, the other decreases. For example, age and memory. As you grow older, your memory will decrease. ○ Zero correlation - no relationship between 2 variables. For example, there is no relationship between the amount of wine you drink and the level of intelligence. What is the correlation coefficient and how do you calculate it? ² The correlation coefficient is a statistical test psychologists use to measure the extent of correlation that exists between the co-variables. It is often denoted as the letter 'r'. ² It is a number psychologists use --> +1 = Maximum value - perfect positive correlation. --> A value between +1 and -1.  --> -1 = Minimum value - perfect negative correlation. ² The number tells us how closely co-variables are related. What is a correlational hypothesis? This states the expected association between the co-variables we use in an experimental study. - If we use running and fitness level as our co-variables, then we can say: ® Running and fitness are positively correlated (positive correlation, directional hypothesis) - As people run more, they get more fit (positive correlation, directional hypothesis). ® Running and fitness are negatively correlated (negative correlation, directional hypothesis) - As people run less, they get less fit (negative correlation, directional hypothesis). ® Running and fitness are correlated (positive or negative correlation) ® Running and fitness aren't correlated (zero correlation) What are the strengths of correlations? ► Used to investigate trends in data - correlation is large, further investigations/analysis can happen / correlation is small, most likely no causal relationship between variables. ► Correlations can be easily replicated - findings can be confirmed by others who repeat the experiment. What are the weaknesses of correlations? Simply measured - therefore, no change is made to one of the variables --> no conclusion saying that one variable affects the other. People assume that there is a causal relationship between 2 variables - misjudgement of correlations and data --> create false conclusions based on false information. Causal relationship can be due to intervening variables - which are unknown variables that psychologists can use to try and suggest why the co-variables we are studying in the experimental study are linked. They also lack internal and external validity. How to plot correlations on a graph? The data can be plotted on a scattergram with a line of best fit drawn. ® In a positive correlation, the line of best fit will a straight line/curve up. ® Similarly, in a negative correlation, the line of best fit will be a straight line/curve downwards. ® Finally, when there is zero correlation, there will be no line/curve of best fit. What is a graph? ▪ A graph is a visual representation of the relationship between numbers or quantities. What are the different representations of data from a given study? There are multiple ways we can present data. These are: - Tables - Bar charts - Scattergrams - Histograms - Line graphs - Normal/Positive/Negative distribution What is a table? ® A table is where quantitive data is converted to descriptive statistics. ® Comments and/or conclusions are drawn from the table of results and summarised in a short paragraph. What is a bar chart? ¯ A bar chart is a graph that psychologists use to represent the frequency of data. ¯ The quantity on the x-axis doesn't follow a strict order. What are scattergrams? } A graph that shows the strengths and relationships between co-variables. } Usually, we plot data from correlations on a scattergram. What are histograms? ► It is a type of frequency distribution in which the no. of scores in each category are represented by vertical columns. ► They are used for continuous data. ► There is no spacing between the bars like there are in a bar graph. What are line graphs? v Line graphs are used to graph quantitative/continuous data. What are normal distributions? ○ A symmetrical bell shaped curve showing frequency distribution. ○ Distributions occur here when variables are being measured like fitness level or IQ. ○ The data presented on the graph are distributed in a way that most scores lie close to the mean, median and mode. ○ Also, it is when we are taking into account an equally likely set of results we will get. ○ The 'tails' will meet at the x-axis. What is a positive skewed distribution? v Most scores/data points are branching to the left when drawn on a graph. v Mode is to the left of the graph and the mean since the mean will be affected by outliers to the right. v The 'tail' of the graph is to the right and shorter when most data points are larger. What is a negative skewed description? > Most scores/data points are branching to the right when drawn on a graph. > The mode is to the right of the mean when it is drawn on a graph. > The 'tail' of the graph is to the left and longer when most data points are smaller. What is statistical testing? Statistical testing is where psychologists provide a way to determine whether a hypothesis should be accepted or rejected. We can see if differences in the causal relationship between 2 variables are significant or due to chance. What is a sign test? It is a statistical calculation psychologists use to determine if the difference found between the relationship of the 2 variables used in the investigation is significant. A sign test is one of many statistical tests psychologists use. To use a sign test, you need to: 1. Look for a difference between 2 variables. 2. You need to use a repeated measures design. 3. You need to organise nominal data into categories. What is probability? Ø It is a concept used widely in maths to determine the chances of an event occurring. The findings we collect, come from a sample of participants who took part in the experiment and the concept of probability is applied when we are understanding the data we have collected. Ø In psychology, probability (which we denote with a P) is defined as, 'how likely are the findings, from an experiment, if the null hypothesis is true?' (A null hypothesis states that there is no difference in the population). Ø However, if we have a null hypothesis and we do find a difference in our sample of the population we used, then are we sure that in this case we can say that the sample we used is 'true' or whether we should accept the alternative hypothesis instead of the null one? Ø In psychology, there is a specific accepted level of probability we use, which is 0.05 or 5% - here the researcher will declare that the findings are significant and reject the null hypothesis. Ø Sometimes, however, a higher level of significance is used, which is 0.01 or 1% - here, there is the possibility of human cost, for example when new drugs are being tested and no probability that it can be retested in the future. What is the critical value used? - Once statistical test is complete, the calculated value left with the researcher afterwards is compared to the critical value. - In order to compare the calculated value to the critical value, 3 things are required: ○ Significance level (usually 0.05/5%). ○ No. of participants who took part in the investigation. ○ Weather the hypothesis given is directional or non-directional. When conducting a sign test, the calculated value = critical value/calculated value < critical value. If one of these conditions are met, then the difference between the relationship between the 2 variables are significant. What is Peer review? Before a journal/article can be published, other experts (usually 2 or 3) in a specific field should conduct an objective review. This is a peer review, an assessment of scientific work by specialists in the field. It is usually done to make sure that any work/research conducted is to high quality before it is put out to the public. Peer review serves 3 main processes: 1. Allocation of research funding - The research is paid for my multiple charitable organisations and the government. 2. Publication of research in academic journals and books - These allows scientists to share their results and peer review is used here to ensure that no incorrect/bad results are released to the public. 3. Assessing the research rating of university departments - All uni departments in the sciences are required to conduct research and will be assessed in term of quality according to the REF system used in the UK. Evaluations of peer reviews L Not always easy to find an expert to peer review your work. This is a weakness since it increases the chance that poor research can be passed and published as was found by the study conducted by (Smith, 1999). K Researchers may have to keep their identity a secret. This is a strength since it allows for them to honest and objective in their reports. However, this is also a weakness since researchers may use this chance of anonymity to bury contradicting research or get back at rival researchers. L Publication bias - researchers may publish positive results so that the publishers can increase the standing of their research and their reputation. This is a weakness as it can lead to misconceptions of the actual results of the study. L Preserving the status quo - research that goes with existing work, not unconventional work. This is a weakness that studies may be accepted into society, but it may not be true/valid. L Can't go against/deal with existing work - results are kept in public even if they are proven wrong. This is a weakness since it shows that not all data we have is valid. Psychology and the economy ² The key question we intend to answer is, 'How does what we learn from findings of psychological research influence, affect, benefit or devalue the economy?' What is behavioural economics? § It is where the fields of psychology and economics come into play and work together to better understand human behaviour and economic decision making. § It was established by Noble Prize winner, Richard Thaler who first came up with behavioural economics. What did he actually notice? § There is a distorted view on human behaviour. For instance, the crash of the market/economy in 2008 showed us that now we can no longer believe that markets work perfectly, even if they do. ² Richard Thaler wrote a book on behavioural economics and what he noticed, called, 'Nudge' (Done by a choice architect, and is defined as any small feature in the environment that attracts our attentions and influences the decision we make). ² A perfect example of this is the cafeteria example: Cafeteria's puts salad before the burgers so that consumers get the salad and the burgers, because if the salad bar was after the burger, they would skip the salad and just take the burger. What is the framing effect? § Consumer' decisions differ depending on weather the choice is wither a loss or a gain. There are 5 main changes brought to different fields by Psychology 1. Social change - Positive change as it shows how social influences is used to improve our behaviour. E.g. A campaign to reduce drunk driving. 2. Improving memory - Positive change as it improves the accuracy of eye witnesses. E.g. Improving crime detection 3. Attachment - Positive change as we can see the importance of emotional care. E.g. The Attachment Theory (highlights the importance of a child's emotional bond with their father/mother). 4. Mental health - Positive and Negative change as it takes a lot of time, but it reduces costs. E.g. Research into effective drug therapies. 5. Biopsychology - Positive change as we invent money saving intelligent machines. E.g. Positive psychology (positive self-talk, gratitude exercises is effective in reducing depression and anxiety.