Rational Choice Theory & Institutionalism PDF

RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY Rational choice theory states that individuals make decisions by rationally calculating the costs, benefits, and risks of their actions to maximize their personal advantage and self-interest. The theory assumes that people are in control of their decisions and try to optimize...

RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY Rational choice theory states that individuals make decisions by rationally calculating the costs, benefits, and risks of their actions to maximize their personal advantage and self-interest. The theory assumes that people are in control of their decisions and try to optimize rewards using their available resources. The main ideas behind rational choice theory originated with philosopher and economist ADAM SMITH in the 18th century. Smith proposed that human nature's tendency toward self-interest results in prosperity through the "invisible hand" - the collective actions of self-interested individuals. CHARACTERISTICS OF RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY - All actions are rational and made by considering costs and rewards - The reward of an action must outweigh the cost for it to be completed - When the reward value diminishes below the cost, the person will stop the action - Individuals use their resources to optimize rewards APPLICATIONS OF RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY Rational choice theory is used to understand behavior in various fields: - Economics and business: to explain market behavior - Psychology: to explain addictive behaviors - Political science: to explain government policies and voting behavior LIMITATIONS OF RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY While rational choice theory can help explain individual and collective behaviors, it has some limitations: - It assumes people always make fully rational decisions, but in reality emotions, social factors, and cognitive biases often influence choices - It focuses too narrowly on individual action and doesn't account for larger social structures - For split-second decisions involving survival, there may not be time to weigh costs and benefits rationally EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY The Tragedy of the Commons - When resources are scarce, individuals may make choices that benefit themselves but harm others. If everyone consumes without restriction, resources can become depleted. The Prisoner's Dilemma - Two suspects are separated and each given the choice to betray the other by confessing or remain silent. If one betrays while the other stays silent, the betrayer goes free while the silent one gets a long sentence. If both betray, they get a medium sentence. If both stay silent, they get a short sentence. Rationally, both should betray to minimize their own sentence, but if they cooperated and stayed silent, they'd get the best outcome. 1 INSTITUTIONALISM Institutions are defined as organizations and formal social structures that govern various fields of action, such as education. The study of society through the lens of institutions is known as institutionalism. This approach emphasizes the role of institutions in shaping social behavior and interactions, highlighting how they influence individuals and vice versa. KEY CONCEPTS IN INSTITUTIONALISM INTERRELATION OF INSTITUTIONS AND INDIVIDUALS - Institutions are constructed through human interactions, and while they shape individual behavior, individuals also have the capacity to influence and reform these institutions. This reciprocal relationship is crucial for understanding social change. To effectively drive social change, one must comprehend the behaviors and functions of existing institutions. TRADITION AND AUTHORITY IN INSTITUTIONS Max Weber's contributions emphasize that institutions become traditions as more individuals adopt them. People often adhere to institutional norms as part of their societal traditions. Authority figures, such as teachers or religious leaders, play a pivotal role in implementing these institutional norms and practices, reinforcing their significance within society. TYPES OF INSTITUTIONS FORMAL INSTITUTIONS These are established through explicit social interactions and include: - HABITS: Repeated actions that become integral to an individual's identity (e.g., daily exercise). - CUSTOMS: Shared habits within a group that incorporate social aspects (e.g., cultural eating practices). - CONVENTIONS: Agreed-upon procedures that promote social stability (e.g., language rules, laws). INFORMAL INSTITUTIONS These consist of widely accepted norms and behaviors that lack formal codification but are generally followed within a society. For instance, cultural practices like "utang na loob" (a Filipino concept of gratitude) exemplify informal institutions that guide behavior without explicit legal frameworks. APPLICATIONS OF INSTITUTIONALISM RELIGION AS AN INSTITUTION - It unites members through shared values. - It maintains societal order by prohibiting certain behaviors. - It provides meaning to individuals' lives through rituals and customs (e.g., wearing specific garments or performing religious gestures). FAMILY AS AN INSTITUTION - The family is the primary site for socialization, imparting values and norms to children. Customs such as "pagmamano," a gesture of respect towards elders, illustrate how familial practices reinforce community bonds. LAW AS AN INSTITUTION - Laws reflect the collective values of society, protecting fundamental rights such as freedom of speech. The institutionalization process embeds these principles into societal norms and legal frameworks. 2 FEMINISM FEMINISM: STRIVING FOR GENDER EQUALITY - is a social movement and ideology that aims to achieve equality between women and men. It is rooted in the awareness of women's oppression and the collective action against gender inequality in various spheres of life, including the workplace, media, and politics. TYPES OF FEMINIST THEORIES LIBERAL FEMINISM - Liberal feminists believe that gender inequalities are largely rooted in social and cultural attitudes, which translate into discrimination against women in different areas such as the workplace, media, and politics. They focus on securing women's legal, economic, and social rights. RADICAL FEMINISM - Radical feminists assert that gender inequality is the result of patriarchy (a system of society or government in which the father or eldest male is head of the family and descent is reckoned through the male line.: "the thematic relationships of the ballad are worked out according to the conventional archetypes of the patriarchy) , which is the systematic domination of women by men in all aspects of social and economic life. They argue that men exploit women by relying on their unpaid domestic labor at home and denying them access to positions of power and influence in society. BLACK FEMINISM - Black feminism focuses on the oppression and disadvantagement of nonwhite women. It acknowledges the intersectionality of gender, race, and class in shaping women's experiences and positions in society. POSTMODERN FEMINISM - Postmodern feminists challenge previous theories by rejecting the idea of a unifying theory that can explain women's position in society. They consider sex and gender as flexible spectrums rather than definite, concrete categories. Postmodern feminism embraces the "otherness" and welcomes standpoints from various experiences, such as those of heterosexuals, homosexuals, lesbians, black women, and working-class women. PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY IN MEDIA Feminists have long criticized the power asymmetry and the male gaze in media, particularly in film. To promote gender equality, media should: - Avoid perpetuating harmful gender stereotypes and sexist portrayals of women. - Increase representation of women in leadership roles and decision-making positions in the media industry. - Ensure equal pay and opportunities for women in media professions. - Promote media literacy programs that challenge gender biases and promote positive, empowering representations of women and girls 3 HERMENEUTIC PHENOMENOLOGY HERMENUETIC PHENOMENOLOGY: UNDERSTANDING LIVED EXPERIENCES - is a qualitative research method that seeks to interpret the essence of lived experiences. It combines two philosophical traditions: phenomenology, which studies subjective experiences, and hermeneutics, which focuses on interpretation. This approach aims to uncover the meanings embedded in human experiences by analyzing how individuals perceive and articulate their realities. - Literal meaning of the experience without jumping into conclusions. KEY CONCEPTS PHENOMENOLOGY - Originating from the work of philosophers like Edmund Husserl, phenomenology emphasizes understanding experiences as they are lived, considering reality as subjective. It seeks to explore how individuals experience phenomena without preconceived notions. HERMENEUTICS - Hermeneutics, developed by thinkers such as Hans-Georg Gadamer, is the study of interpretation. It involves discovering meaning through the interpretation of texts and language that describe experiences. The hermeneutic cycle is a fundamental concept in this field, where understanding is achieved through a continuous interplay between parts and wholes. THE HERMENEUTIC PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD FOUR PHASES: 1. Removal of Preconceptions: Researchers must recognize their biases and preconceptions influenced by social norms, ethics, and personal beliefs. This phase aligns with Husserl’s concept of epoché (suspension of judgment),, which involves suspending judgments to perceive phenomena more clearly. 2. Collecting Lived Experiences: This phase involves gathering data through methods such as interviews and observations to capture individuals' experiences related to the phenomenon being studied. 3. Reflecting on the Experiences Gathered: Researchers analyze the collected data to identify key themes and meanings that emerge from participants' narratives. 4. Writing and Discussing the Reflection of the Lived Experience: Finally, researchers synthesize their findings into a coherent narrative that provides a rich description of the participants' lived experiences. APPLICATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCES - Hermeneutic phenomenology is particularly valuable in disciplines like psychology, sociology, and pedagogy. It allows researchers to delve deeply into human subjectivity and explore how individuals construct meaning in their lives. By focusing on lived experiences, this method offers insights into complex social phenomena that quantitative methods may overlook. 4 HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEMS HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEMS: UNDERSTANDING INTERACTIONS - refer to the symbiotic relationship between humans and their environment, where each influences and shapes the other. This approach provides a framework for analyzing how human activities impact the environment and how environmental changes affect human societies. KEY CONCEPTS HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS - Human activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and industrialization can lead to significant environmental changes, including deforestation, pollution, and climate change. Conversely, environmental factors such as natural disasters, resource availability, and climate conditions can influence human behavior, cultural practices, and societal structures. THE DPSIR MODEL (DRIVERS, PRESSURES, STATE, IMPACTS, RESPONSES) - is a structured framework used to analyze the interactions between human activities and environmental changes. Each component of the model plays a critical role in understanding these dynamics: - DRIVERS: These are underlying social, economic, or technological forces that lead to changes in the environment (e.g., population growth or economic development). - PRESSURES: These refer to the direct effects of drivers on the environment, such as pollution or resource depletion. - STATE: This describes the current condition of the environment resulting from pressures (e.g., air quality or biodiversity levels). - IMPACTS: These are the consequences of changes in environmental state on ecosystems and human health (e.g., loss of species or health issues from pollution). - RESPONSES: These are actions taken by society to address environmental impacts (e.g., regulations, conservation efforts). APPLICATION IN THE PHILIPPINE CONTEXT - In the Philippines, human-environment systems are particularly relevant due to the country's rich biodiversity and vulnerability to natural hazards. Issues such as deforestation for agriculture or urban development can lead to increased flooding and landslides. The DPSIR model can be applied to analyze these relationships: DRIVERS: Population growth and economic development increase demand for land and resources. PRESSURES: Deforestation and pollution from agricultural practices. STATE: Deteriorating forest cover and declining water quality. IMPACTS: Increased natural disasters and health problems related to pollution. RESPONSES: Implementation of sustainable land management practices and reforestation initiatives. 5