Didactic Principles and Importance PDF

DIDACTIC definition AND importance GENESIS ASHQUI CLARA PINCAY MARIAJOSÉ ROBALINO WENDY YUGSI What’s didactics?  According to Gutiérrez (2001), didactics is the science that studies teaching-learning phenomena as prescriptive aspects of an efficient methodology. Alves (1962) conside...

DIDACTIC definition AND importance GENESIS ASHQUI CLARA PINCAY MARIAJOSÉ ROBALINO WENDY YUGSI What’s didactics?  According to Gutiérrez (2001), didactics is the science that studies teaching-learning phenomena as prescriptive aspects of an efficient methodology. Alves (1962) considers that didactics is the pedagogical discipline of a practical and normative nature, the systemic set of principles, norms, resources, and specific procedures that serve to learn the contents in close connection with the proposed educational objectives.  It can be defined Didactics deals with the formal aspects of teaching, the methodology, and all the elements that interact within the classroom. Importance of Didactics 1.-Improvement 2.- Promotes 3.-Evaluation 4.-Innovation of teaching and motivation and of the learning and pedagogical learning participation process updating processes Pedagogy vs Didactics Pedagogy paidós “child” agogía “to guide” Etymologically Didactics didaskein “to teach” tekne “art of” Etymologically  Differences between Pedagogy and Didactics Pedagogy Didactics Is focused on all Is focused on people, regardless children and of their age adolescents WHAT TYPE OF DIDACTIC DO YOU THINK IT IS ?  TYPES GENERAL OF DIDACTIC DIDACTICS TRADITIONAL DIDACTIC ESPECIAL DIDACTIC INTEGRATIVE DIDACTIC DIFFERENTIAL DIDACTIC THANK YOU! DIDACTICS PRINCIPLES OF DIDACTICS PRINCIPLE OF PRINCIPLE OF ACTIVE INDIVIDUALIZATION: PARTICIPATION: DIFFERENTIATE AMONG IT IS THE ACTIVE STUDENTS AND SEEKS PARTICIPATION OF STUDENTS TEACHING METHODS AND IN THE TEACHING-LEARNING STRATEGIES TO MEET THEIR PROCESS. NEEDS. PRINCIPLES OF DIDACTICS CONTEXTUALIZATION PRINCIPLE: MOTIVATION PRINCIPLE: ESTABLISHES MEANINGFUL INTEREST AND INTRINSIC CONNECTIONS IN STUDENTS AND MOTIVATION OF STUDENTS, FACILITATES THE THROUGH DIDACTIC UNDERSTANDING OF STRATEGIES. KNOWLEDGE. PRINCIPLES OF DIDACTICS PRINCIPLE OF FEEDBACK: PRINCIPLE OF DIVERSITY: PROVIDES CONSTANT AND RECOGNIZES AND VALUES FORMATIVE FEEDBACK TO THE DIVERSITY OF STUDENTS, STUDENTS, BOTH TO CORRECT PROMOTES INCLUSION AND ADAPTS TEACHING METHODS MISTAKES AND TO REINFORCE AND RESOURCES. SUCCESSES. OBJECT OF DIDACTICS Object of Didactics as a science Is to study the dynamics, complex and changing of the teaching-learning process and the dialectical, personal, group and collective relationships that are established and developed between teacher and students.  OBJECT OF DIDACTICS CHROBAK, AND LEIVA (2008) DIDACTICS IS RESPONSIBLE FOR KORNER (2002) EXPLAINING THE BELIEVES THAT TEACHING AND DIDACTICS FOCUS LEARNING PROCESSES ON THE STUDY OF IN THE FIELD FOR THE PARCERISA (2007) THE ART AND FIELD OF THE TEACHER BELIEVES THAT SCIENCE OF DIDACTICS DEALS TEACHING AND WITH STUDYING THE LEARNING TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESSES IN AN ORGANIZED ENVIRONMENT OF RELATIONSHIP  OBJECT OF DIDACTICS TEACHING LEARNING FORMATION ELEMENTS IN ORIGINALITY FORMAL TEACHER SELF APPRAISAL KNOWLEDGE HUMAN STUDENTS INTERACTIVE SKILLS AND SKILL INFORMAL SUBJECT ACTIVITY VALUES OBJECTIVES REFLECTION GEOGRAPHICAL ACTIVITY ENVIRONMENT ACTIVITY RULES, ELEMENTS OF DIDACTICS STUDENT THE STUDENT IS THE ONE WHO LEARNS IT'S FOR WHOM THE SCHOOL EXISTS THE TEACHER IS THE GUIDE OF TEACHING. ELEMENTS OF DIDACTICS OBJECTIVES THE SCHOOL MUST HAVE OBJECTIVES THAT ACHIEVE A CHANGE IN THE STUDENT AND HELP THEM TO MEET GOALS THE SUBJECT IS THE CONTENT OF THE TEACHING.  ELEMENTS OF DIDACTICS TEACHING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES THEY ARE ESSENTIAL IN TEACHING THESE MUST BE ADAPTED TO THE WAY OF LEARNING OF THE STUDENTS. CHARACTERISTICS OF DIDACTICS INTENTIONAL SENSE HISTORICAL CONFIGURATION It refers to the fact that In Bruner's words, teaching and learning "learning and thinking are have been a connatural always situated in a part of human existence cultural context and and that learning has an always depend on the use important social of cultural resources". dimension. CHARACTERISTICS OF DIDACTICS EXPLANATORY, NORMATIVE INTERVENTIONAL PURPOSE AND PROJECTIVE MEANING Medina refers to this It is theoretical knowledge aspect, saying that it is a that explains and gives discipline of great rules, that interprets and practical projection linked applies, and artistic and to the concrete problems creative knowledge that of teachers and students adjusts to the past, present and possible reality. in order to achieve the improvement of both. CHARACTERISTICS OF DIDACTICS INTERDISCIPLINARITY INDETERMINACY Educational Sciences, Is a consequence of the which constitute a complexity of the subject multidisciplinary system and object of Didactics, as that scientifically supports well as of the socio-cultural it and with which it contexts in which it establishes relations of develops, which justifies its mutual scientific artistic and innovative cooperation. dimension. References Webscolar, & Webscolar. (2013). Principios, características y elementos de la didáctica | Webscolar. Webscolar | Portal De Recursos Educativos, Tareas, Apuntes, Monografías, Ensayos. https://www.webscolar.com/principios-caracteristicas-y-elementos-de-la-didactica (S/f). Issf-sports.org. Recuperado el 15 de mayo de 2023, de https://www.issf- sports.org/getfile.aspx?mod=docf&pane=1&inst=490&file=4.Practical_didactics.pdf https://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718- 50062018000600075#:~:text=El%20objeto%20de%20la%20Did%C3%A1ctica,en%20un%20marco %20amplio%2C%20integrador%2C  UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DEL ECUADOR FACULTAD DE FILOSOFÍA, LETRAS Y CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACIÓN PEDAGOGÍA DE LOS IDIOMAS NACIONALES Y EXTRANJEROS INGLÉS Didactics Its object of study and principles MEMBERS: Jorge Gomez Zammyr Gonzaga Melissa Ortiz  ject of stu b dy O TEACHING-LEARNING Principles What is a principle?  Scientific 1 principle 3 Teaching with real knowledge The teacher must take advantage of every moment to teach 2 Relationship between scientific knowledge and didactics  Principle of systematization  Principle of the relationship between Principle of cognitive theory and practice independence  5. Principle of understanding 6. Principle of the individual and the group Matt Dani Cia Kim  i d a c t i c p r i n c i p l e D TECHNIQUES s Individualization Principle of principle creativity Principle of Principle of socialization activity ZG  i d a c t i c p r i n c i p l e D s Individualization principle INDIVIDUALIZATION TECHNIQUES: The cards, the individual work, the programmed teaching, etc. ZG  i d a c t i c p r i n c i p l e D s Principle of socialization: SOCIALIZATION TECHNIQUES The dynamics techniques, the project method, research, communication, etc. ZG  i d a c t i c p r i n c i p l e D s Principle of activity: ACTIVE TEACHING TECHNIQUES Research, experimentation, projects, exercises, discussion and debate, direct observation, case studies, etc. ZG  i d a c t i c p r i n c i p l e D s Principle of creativity: TECHNIQUES FOR THE BEGINNING OF CREATIVITY The game, poetry and literature, painting, the plastic arts, group dynamics, decision- making individually or in groups, theater, etc. ZG Thank You! Any Question? September 2010, Volume 7, No.9 (Serial No.81) Sino-US English Teaching, ISSN 1539-8072, USA The didactic principles and their applications in the didactic activity Eşi Marius-Costel (The Department for Teachers Training, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Suceava 720229, Romania) Abstract: The evaluation and reevaluation of the fundamental didactic principles suppose the acceptance at the level of an instructive-educative activity of a new educational paradigm. Thus, its understanding implies an assumption at a conceptual-theoretical level of some approaches where the didactic aspects find their usefulness by relating to value principles. This situation expresses in fact focus on the formative side specific to the process of didactic communication. Therefore, the understanding of the didactic principles emphasizes concrete modalities of completing the educational activities. Key words: the pedagogical/didactic principles; the conceptual understanding; the methodological innovation; the didactic normativity; the characteristics of the didactic principles; the functions of the didactic principles 1. Introduction The problem of the didactic principles is a complex one, meaning that promoting a didactic methodology at an educational level depends on the selection, the organization and the pragmatism of the informational content. It is obvious that such principles appeared as a result of a whole reflexive approach through which one especially focused on the dimension of the educational practice. Moreover, the existence and the recognition at an instructive-educative level of some didactic principles emphasize dynamic actions, possible in different circumstances and which have at their basis the most various specific motivations. That is why, a pertinent analysis, from a methodological point of view, of the didactic principles does not mean their absolute perception as fundamental in the didactic activity approach. 2. Didactic principles vs. pedagogical principles These didactic principles would rather take into account the obedience in a unitary way of some imperatives/norms/rules connected to the educational activity, the way in which the process of knowledge is perceived, the peculiarities of age where this process becomes concrete, the systemic coherence of the transmitted/received information and the level of performance achieved. In this context, one needs a specification as far as the specific of the didactic principles is concerned, that is the role of support in the epistemological development of the instructive-educative activities rather depends on pragmatic reasoning than on aspects that aim at the aesthetic of such an educational architectonics. Thus, at the moment of assuming some actions with a didactic specific, the educational authority involved in such approach must relate to epistemic structures which could afford a (re)evaluation of a conceptual nature. Eşi Marius-Costel, Ph.D., lecturer of The Department for Teachers Training, Ştefan cel Mare University of Suceava; research fields: the intercultural sciences, didactic methodology, epistemology of didactics, educational communication, logics/educational logics, philosophy of the mind, linguistics. 24  The didactic principles and their applications in the didactic activity Of course, the conceptual stratification of the educational process does not completely solve the problem of conceptual understanding1 characteristic to the principles of the process of education. The author can mention here that in the reference literature the analysis of such principles emphasizes a conceptual identity relationship between the didactic and the pedagogical principles. This is the source of the hermeneutic vice after all through which one supports the idea according to which the didactic principles are the same with the pedagogical ones. It is considered that this error can be prevented/averted if one studies the etymology of the concepts that aim at such analysis. Also, the author thinks that this error is exactly caused by the fact that the didactics is regarded as the nucleus of pedagogy. Thus, if one accepts that between the 2 dimensions (the pedagogical one and the didactic one), there is a correspondence (ranking: over-ranking/subordination), then according to the logical law which “justifies” it, the principles of pedagogy apply within the didactic dimension as well. However, the author can stress out the fact that at the level of the epistemic understanding2, one must make a distinction between the didactic and the pedagogical principles, a distinction that aims especially at the practical part of an educational approach. 2.1 The pedagogical principles The pedagogical principles are the general norms with a strategic, pragmatic and operational value through which the planning, the organization, the development of the activities and the process of education concentrate on the axiological dimension of education. The pedagogical principles relate to the functional-structural dimension of the system and of the education process aiming at “the necessity of the pedagogical communication, the pedagogical increase, the pedagogical creativity” (Cristea, 1998, p. 369). Therefore, the pedagogical principles have as a goal of the optimization of the system and of the process of education. In the system of the pedagogical principles one can find: the principle of the pedagogical communication, the principle of the pedagogical knowing, the principle of the pedagogical creativity and the principle of the pedagogical materialization. 2.1.1 The principle of the pedagogical communication The principle of the pedagogical communication is the one that reminds of the organization and functioning of the educational action. Such a principle emphasizes the correlation between the subject of education (S), that is the one who educates (the educator, generally), the one who is “responsible” for transmitting the information and the object of education (O) and the person who receives the education (the educated). This correlation subject-object reminds of a specific process of communication, through which the educational activity is built, focused, “perfected” and valued in a given pedagogical context. Therefore, the principle of didactic communication does nothing but stimulate the capacity of the socio-educational actors involved in an instructive-educative approach. 2.1.2 The principle of the pedagogical knowing The principle of the pedagogical knowing represents a specific educational norm, through which the transmitted message acquires meaning by relating to the epistemic interpretations on the system and process of education. Through this principle of the pedagogical knowing, the educational pragmatism emphasizes a system of knowledge which ensures the checking of some hypotheses referring to the going on of the pedagogical 1 In this context we have in mind the existence and necessity of a conceptual system in accordance with which the specific theoretical connections should be made. However, we think that the availability to make and accept a conceptual educational map must suppose formalisms specific to an educational logic. 2 This situation makes us claim that at the educational level it is necessary to have a didactic epistemology, through which one can clarify structures and cognoscible meanings of a new paradigm assumed on performance and competitiveness criteria. 25  The didactic principles and their applications in the didactic activity activities. Thus, the epistemic interpretations on the pedagogical activities exactly result from the theoretical- applicative connections obvious within the educational reality itself. 2.1.3 The principle of the pedagogical creativity The principle of the pedagogical creativity is the one which supposes the assumption of some objectives/competences in accordance with innovative strategies and methodologies. In other words, through creativity the socio-educational actors involved in a pedagogical approach are responsible for the results obtained as a result of a whole process of methodological innovation. In this way, the author thinks that the appearance of a new educational paradigm is justified. At the same time, the element of newness resulted from a creative approach validates the professional practices which support the quality of an educational act. In conclusion, the principle of pedagogical creativity emphasizes ways of accomplishing the pedagogical finalities in the context of some social values more or less assumed by the actors employed in an educational system. 2.1.4 The principle of the pedagogical materialization The principle of the pedagogical materialization is the one which highlights the benefit of the informational content at the level of the educational activities. From this perspective, one has in mind from a methodological point of view that the relevance and the quality of the assumed strategies concerning the making of some specific educational competences. Thus, one proposes such principle and supports its necessity within the systems of pedagogical principles exactly in order to emphasize the educational pragmatism at a social level. All in all, one can admit that the increased pedagogical potential allows functional correlations resulted from some methodological actions where their architectonics becomes concrete in accordance with value—based on the criteria of selecting the informational content. 2.2 The didactic principles The didactic principles are general norms through which are projected, organized and put the activities of teaching-learning-evaluating into practice, so that the functioning of the objectives/competences should become efficient at the level of the educational dimension. The didactic principles relate to an applicative, concrete dimension of the system and process of education. Thus, the didactic principles reflect the specific of the educational activities which become concrete at the level of the formative-informative correlations. In the system of the didactic principles one can find: the principle of the conscious and active participation of students in the education process, the principle of thorough acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, the principle of accessibility and individuality, the principle of connecting theory with practice, the principle of systematization and continuity, the principle of intuition (of the unity between concrete and abstract, of the unity between sensorial and rational) and the principle of reverse connection (of feedback or retroaction). 2.2.1 The principle of the conscious and active participation of students in the education process This principle can be found in a first formulation at Jan Amos Komensky (Comenius) and afterwards is also mentioned by Jean Jacques Rousseau, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, and so on. According to this principle, the educated ones must have conscious attitudes and participate effectively in the didactic activity. In other words, the content approach must come into a comprehensive dimension, so that one can do an interactive and efficient activity. A conscious participation of students within the process of education supposes, on the one hand, the capacity to understand the informational content clearly and deeply, and on the other hand, the capacity to make conceptual-theoretical correlations. Respecting this principle supposes respecting the following conditions: (1) The objectives and the competences of the didactic activity must be presented and explained clearly; 26  The didactic principles and their applications in the didactic activity (2) The previously built information must be correlated with the newly acquired information efficiently; (3) The support of a strong motivation as far as the development of the educational activities is concerned must represent a basic criterion in the learning activity; (4) The stimulation of the research activities must be encouraged so that the educated should acquire by himself/herself the capacity of independence in such an approach; (5) The school tasks must be accomplished consciously, practising the operation and processing of information, practising all the operations of thinking, also adopting critical attitudes referring to the use of learning strategies. 2.2.2 The principle of thorough acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities This principle reminds of the idea that the educated ones must not be offered all the information at once, but gradually on different levels of increasing complexity. In this way, one can avoid the discouragement and the boredom the moment the knowledge is presented. Thus, the educators must be preoccupied with the process of acquiring and consolidating the taught information. Respecting this principle supposes respecting the following conditions: (1) The revision of the informational content must not have a rigid character or become a routine; (2) The practice and use of different didactic strategies must take into consideration a whole process of reevaluating and re-meaning the process of information acquisition; (3) The consolidation of the taught materials must be durable in time and prove their usefulness; (4) The answers considered correct must be strengthened in proximate time checkings which should confirm them; (5) The thorough acquisition of knowledge must be checked through an optimum/adequate feedback. Respecting this principle supposes: mechanical memory, logical memory and conceptual-theoretical connections. The author recommends that the thorough and durable acquisition should be made in accordance with the rigorous systematization through practical applications but also through their diversifications. 2.2.3 The principle of accessibility and individuality This principle supposes that the organization of the didactic activities “should be made taking into account the peculiarities of age and the individual ones characteristic to students, of their real intellectual and physical possibilities: age, sex, level of anterior training, physical and intellectual potential, motivational level, their attitude towards discipline” (Bocoş & Jucan, 2008, p. 54). It is obvious from this perspective that the organization of the didactic activity depends on a series of factors, which from an epistemic point of view can be corroborated with the type of individualization of the learning activities and the socio-educational actors. As a result, the priority given to the accessibility becomes exemplary towards the adopted and assumed strategies at an educational level. Respecting this principle supposes respecting the following conditions: (1) The motivational level must fit the dimensions of a well-consolidated didactic activity which should generate beneficial learning experiences; (2) The communication blockages and the difficulties of understanding/learning must not be eliminated but on the contrary, must situate in the research and constructive discussions area with the goal of putting into value a positive knowing; (3) The checking of an anterior training must be part of the organization of the didactic activity; (4) The informational content must be formed, so that between the intellectual potential and the peculiarities 27  The didactic principles and their applications in the didactic activity of age there should be a certain correspondence; (5) The process of knowing must depend to a great extend on the functioning of the teaching-learning act; Here are some examples (see Example 1 and Example 2) referring to the possible applications of the principle of accessibility and individuality in the didactic activity: Example 1: At the subject “economics” after the pupils (students) succeed in assimilating and understanding the concepts of “demand”, “offer” and “price”, they can afterwards assimilate and understand easily other concepts, such as “equilibrium price”, “offer surplus” and “demand surplus”. Example 2: As long as the concept of “punishment” is defined from the very beginning (according to the article specific to the Penal Code) and after its goal is also specified, then one can show (accessibilize) what the modalities of application and execution of that particular punishment are. 2.2.4 The principle of connecting theory with practice This principle reminds of the idea that everything that is acquired from a theoretical point of view can be put into value at a practical level. This fact supposes that the (intrinsic) motivation should be stronger. Also, one should have the 2 forms in mind through which the assurance of the connection between theory and practice becomes possible as long as there are cognitive transfers taking place: the specific transfer (the putting into value of the information specific to a subject within the same subject) and the non-specific transfer (the putting into value of the information of a subject into another subject) (Ibidem, 2008, p. 56). Consequently, on the one hand, the principle of connecting theory with practice supposes, some adequate understanding of the concepts, and theories and on the other hand, a wide applicability in the practical field. Respecting this principle supposes respecting the following conditions: (1) The new information must relate to the anterior experience of those who acquire it; (2) The putting into value of the informational content must emphasize the practical valences that the latter supposes; (3) The cognitive transfers must have an important role in ensuring the connection of theory with practice; (4) The intrinsic motivation must be cultivated in order to put into value in the best and most efficient way the informational content. The practical putting into value of theory supposes the diversification of the action situations, here is an example (see Example 3) as far as the possible applications of this principle in the didactic activity are concerned. Example 3: At the subject “economics”, during a didactic activity, the principle of connecting theory with practice can “operationalize” by simulating the giving of a credit in a bank, where there are specified and explained the formulae specific to the calculation of the simple interest (Ds) and the composed/capitalized interest (Dc). Of course, the making of this simulation can also suppose the consulting of a real “planning” from a bank, where there are presented the installments through which the respective credit is going to be paid back in time. 2.2.5 The principle of systematization and continuity This principle claims that it is necessary for the units of informational content to be structured into an educational logic. Therefore, through some cognitive plans, one can ensure a systematic acquisition of information. Moreover, the strategies assume at an instructive level and the acceptance of some new educational paradigms can ensure an efficient continuity of the education process. In conclusion, a coherent, logical hierarchy of the informational content emphasizes the pragmatism of the systematization and continuity at a socio-educational level. Respecting this principle supposes respecting the following conditions: (1) The process of the educational acts must be conditioned by the implementation of the new 28  The didactic principles and their applications in the didactic activity conceptual-theoretical paradigms at the level of the didactic process; (2) An efficient systematization is given, on the one hand, by a teaching-learning activity form the perspective of the educational paradigms, and on the other hand, by the perseverance of the educated ones and their capacity to make cognoscible connections; (3) A (positive) continuity in the education process is obvious from a didactic point of view as long as there is a coherent, logical succession of the discourses initiated in the teaching-learning-evaluating activities; (4) In a didactic activity the architectonics of the initiated course of action must have in mind the pragmatic development of the systemic didactic components and the subsystemic didactic ones; (5) In keeping the systematization and the continuity of the didactic activity, one must follow along the didactic coherence a certain scientific rigor as far as the use of concepts and theories is concerned. The organization of the didactic activity supposes putting the informational content in logical sequences (themes, subchapters, chapters, etc.), which have a certain coherence concerning the process of understanding. It is about a sequential organization of the methodological activity, which should become concrete in accordance with the exigencies of the assumed strategies and the “scientific” morality identified with the methodological practice itself (Segerstrale, 2000, p. 224). In this way, the didactic action specific to the teaching, the teacher will follow the informational content “systematically” and rigorously. The systematization starts from planning and the continuity results from schematic structures of assimilation and understanding. 2.2.6 The principle of intuition This principle has been theorized by Comenius in “Didactica Magna” and by Pestalozzi in some of his works. Thus, according to this principle, “the student’s teaching has to be focused on an intuitive basis, concretely sensorial, that is the direct perception or intermediated by substitutes of reality” (Frumos, 2008, p. 168). Thus, through this principle, one supports the process of abstractization and one focuses mainly on an imagistic verbalization. Respecting this principle supposes respecting the following conditions: (1) The consolidation of the main didactic rules resides in accepting the inductive reasoning; (2) The intuition supposes the use of some specific methods based on different anticipations; (3) The correspondence between the mental image and the word is given by representations; (4) The intuitive didactic materials must be selected and used in accordance with the students’ level of preparation. In applying the principle of intuition one should take into consideration the learning behaviors through successive trials and repeated errors (Frumos, 2008, p. 170). The principle of intuition can be emphasized through a series of examples from different subjects. For instance, relating to the economic field, one should build and analyze the law of (chocolate) offer from the following table (see Table 1). Table 1 The law of (chocolate) offer Unitary price (monetary units) Quantity (bars) 10 5 8 4 6 3 4 2 2 1 29  The didactic principles and their applications in the didactic activity Starting from these data, one can easily create a diagram specific to the law of offer, through which one can identify the relationship price-quantity (see Figure 1). 12 10 8 Price (P) 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 Quantity (Q) Figure 1 The law of offer From the graphical representation of the law of offer, the students/trainees can easily infer that: An increase of the unitary price of an economic good ( in this case, chocolate) determines the increase of the quantity offered from that certain good (the extension of offer), this situation can be expressed symbolically and intuitively through P ↑ , Q ↑ (when the price increases, the quantity increases). (1) A reduction of the unitary price determines a decrease in the quantity offered (the contraction of offer), this situation can be expressed symbolically and intuitively through P ↓ , Q ↓ (when the price decreases, the quantity decreases); (2) Also, in the didactic approach of this didactic course of action, one uses certain symbols (P, Q) through convention which in fact express the logical operation of synthesis. 2.2.7 The principle of reverse connection (of feedback or retroaction) The didactic activity, seen as a systemic/systematic and continuous process, must benefit from a feedback through which one can emphasize the understanding, the assimilation, the efficiency and the utility of the informational content. This principle consists in the fact that the learning activity supposes sequential evaluations and reevaluations through successive coming backs to the informational content. In other words, the assurance of the reverse connection (feedback in English: feed=to nourish, back=rear) means to regulate and confirm immediately a certain type of behaviour. To sum up, the principle of the reverse connection proves its usefulness in the learning activity especially. Respecting this principle supposes respecting the following conditions: (1) The immediate confirmation of behaviour supposes that at the beginning of the activity itself there should be an objective to reflect this course of action; (2) The making of an efficient feedback offers pertinent information regarding the quality of the learning-teaching act; (3) The existence of a permanent feedback at the level of the didactic communication avoids certain difficulties on the information reception; (4) The regulation and self-regulation of behaviour allows certain modifications, adjustments from a systematic point of view of the acquired informational contents; (5) The feedback must offer information referring to the educational message so that the application of checking methods should support the quality of the instructive-educative process. Referring to the gradual analysis of the feedback process, one should emphasize the idea of the existence of a 30  The didactic principles and their applications in the didactic activity first degree feedback (when the attention concentrates on transmitting the information to the receiver, represented by the pupil/student to the sender, represented by the teacher) and also a second degree feedback when the transmission of information can be evaluated from theory to applications (one has in mind here the explanation of the theoretical aspects after that one goes, taking the latter into consideration, to the solving of exercises and problems) and from applications to theory (anticipated retroaction) 3. Also, one focuses from an educational perspective on the distinction positive retroaction-negative retroaction. The positive retroaction/the complex (self-regulation) aims at the success of the didactic activity. From this point of view, through this form of feedback one can establish the priorities, such as (1) the optimization of the didactic activity; (2) the making efficient of the didactic script; (3) the encouragement of some new approaches of the educational paradigms (of the types of lessons); and (4) the assurance of a pragmatic motivational optimum referring to the binomial pupil/student- teacher. The negative retroaction/or the simple (self)regulation aims at those aspects that are at the opposite part of the didactic success. Thus, the existence of some negative aspects in the didactic activity must generate from the perspective of the actors involved in the instructive-educative approach priorities, such as (1) the improvement of the structural-functional process of the didactic activity; (2) the promotion of a didactic criticism of a constructive nature; (3) the adaptation of some informational contents to specific ways of assimilation taking into account the principle of accessibility and individuality (one has in mind the peculiarities of age and the individual ones of the pupils/students, their physical and intellectual potential and the attitudes that the educational actors have towards certain learning situations); and (4) the justification of the didactic strategies adopted and rejected at the level of the instructive-educative activities. In the reference literature, it is also mentioned the principle of political-ideological and scientific orientation of the school education, the principle of integrating the education into production and research, the principle of combining collective actions with the individual work in the organization of the educative influences (Bunescu & Giurgea, 1982, pp. 92-110); or the principle of the componential and hierarchical construction of the intellectual structures, the principle of stimulation and development of motivation for learning, the psychogenetic principle of the stimulation and acceleration of the stage development of intelligence, the principle of learning through action (Preda, 2001, pp. 66-80). In conclusion, the pedagogical principles can be found in an individual or combined form in formulations specific to the didactic principles and reversely, the didactic principles can be reduced, synthesized to forms of the pedagogical principles (see Figure 2). In other words, the system of the didactic/pedagogical principles has a unitary character. From these principles’ standpoint, the relevance is to see how they can operationalize at the level of the education system and process (see Table 2). Pedagogy Pedagogical principles Didactic Didactic principles Figure 2 The relationship between didactic and pedagogy corroborated with the relationship between the didactic and the pedagogical principles 3 This aspect supposes first the solving of some exercises and problems going gradually, through pertinent explanations, to aspects of a theoretical nature. 31  The didactic principles and their applications in the didactic activity Table 2 The principles of the education system and the education process Pedagogical principles Didactic principles They are general norms. They are general norms. They relate to the structural-functional dimension of the They relate to the applicative, concrete dimension of the education system and process. education system and process. They aim at optimization of the education system and They aim at the efficiency of the education system and process. process. (1) The principle of the conscious and active participation in the education process (2) The principle of thorough acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities (1) The principle of communication (3) The principle of accessibility and individuality (2) The principle of knowing (4) The principle of connecting theory with practice (3) The principle of creativity (5) The principle of systematization and continuity (4) The principle of materialization (6) The principle of intuition (of the unity between concrete and abstract, of the unity between sensorial and rational) (7) The principle of reverse connection (of feedback or retroaction) 3. The didactic principles and qualitative education 3.1 The characteristics of the didactic principles The characteristics of the didactic principles reflect an image through which the education system and process involve a didactic attitude towards the projecting and the evaluation of the educational activities. In this context, in the reference literature, it is underlined the fact that the typology of the didactic principles relate a coordination of the capacities acquired at the level of the disciplinary correlations. Therefore, the didactic principles generate a conceptual-pragmatic understanding and they are characterized by objectivity, systemicity, generality, dynamism and pragmatism. 3.1.1 The action of the didactic principles The objectivity of the didactic principles is given by that coherent approach of the didactic action. Hence, the explaining of the didactic principles from the perspective of the educational paradigms (multi-, pluri-, inter-, trans- disciplinarity) reflects their solid foundation within the education process. Consequently, the existence of a logic expression at the level of the didactic communication which allows “the putting into order” of the functional and action contents at the level of the education process generates the objective character of the didactic principles. 3.1.2 The systemicity of the didactic principles The systemicity of the didactic principles is generated by the way, in which the norms, the laws and the rules specific to the activities of teaching-learning-evaluation interact in order to ensure the efficiency and the quality of the education process. It is obvious in this context that the systemic/systemized valences of the didactic principles emphasize methodological realities, which subordinate to the process of knowing. In these conditions, one can conclude that the explanation and explication of the systemic character of the didactic principles suppose a “coherent”, “logical” educational organization of the contents, the strategies, the methods and the forms of organizing the teaching-learning-evaluating activity meant to support the complexity of the educational act in general. 3.1.3 The generality of the didactic principles The generality of the didactic principles resides in the fact that it relates to all structural and functional entities specific to the education process. In this way, the planning, the making and the evaluation of a didactic action does not suppose relating especially to the informational content, but also taking into consideration a whole activity, which supposes a teaching-learning-evaluating process, possible to become concrete at the system level. 32  The didactic principles and their applications in the didactic activity Therefore, the general and global character of the didactic principles results from the fact that each structural-functional component and sub-component contributes to the making of the education system and process more efficient. 3.1.4 The dynamism of the didactic principles The dynamism of the didactic principles is conferred by the continuous, permanent, historical process of reevaluation and restructuring both the informational content and the strategies assumed at an educational level. This situation supposes the sending of the informational content at different levels of organization, in accordance with the didactic strategies to which the latter relate. In this way, an educational culture which takes into account and accepts different and innovative models of teaching-learning-evaluating justifies the existence of the dynamic character of the didactic principles. 3.1.5 The pragmatism of the didactic principles The pragmatism of the didactic principles stresses out the fact that in connection with a socio-educational model the didactic theories can be systematized and even scientifically legitimized. Through this, the author wants to underline that the didactic principles allow the making/solving of some problems of an educational nature. All in all, the pragmatic character of the didactic principles relates to understand forms specific to the socio-educational system. 3.2 The functions of the didactic principles 3.2.1 The sense of the education process The orienteering function consists in giving a functional sense to the education process. So, through this function the teacher can justify the assuming and taking of a strategy at a didactic level. Therefore, the orienteering function allows a coordination regarding the teaching-learning-evaluating activity. 3.2.2 The didactic activities and evaluation process The regulation and adaptation function of the instructive-educative activity refers to the fact that the didactic principles become operational and efficient as long as there are criteria of eligibility specific to the educational activity in general. In other words, the didactic activities done by the teacher must be subordinated both to an evaluation process and a self-evaluation one. Consequently, the adaptation and regulation of the didactic activity must suppose validity criteria on which one can appreciate and measure the quality of the educational act itself. 3.2.3 Legitimacy of the educational actions and the pragmatic character of the didactic principles The normative function comes from the pragmatic character of the didactic principles and refers to the legitimacy of the educational actions of the actors involved in the instructive-educative course of action. The author has in mind, on the one hand, the educators’ actions (teachers, teacher trainers, trainers, and so on) and on the other hand, the actions of the educated ones (pupils, students, adults, and so on). Consequently, the didactic normativity represents a fundamental component of the educational structure. 4. Conclusion The methodological approaches related to a qualitative education aim at the way in which the attitudes of the educational actors transpose at the level of the social norms. Thus, a social reality where the fundamental activities remind of educational responsibilities illustrates a perspective where the reorganization of the value systems is more than necessary. Moreover, the assumed context depends exactly on the values that relate to the system where they are part of. Therefore, the benefit of such opening emphasizes the freedom of movement and speech at the 33  The didactic principles and their applications in the didactic activity level of the social and educational course of action. This way of understanding the main components of an educational system determines people to argument in favor of the point of view which supports the performance at a social-educational level, where, in fact the motivation is fundamental in the learning process (Russell, 2003, pp. 413-429). Furthermore, the development of a conceptual apparatus which should support a new educational paradigm reminds of the idea that the trial to explain the socio-educational reality becomes concrete by assuming a conceptual relativism. In other words, there is no perfect conceptual apparatus that would explain the objective reality. However, the scientific consistency reflects the idea of a new educational methodology which must relate to certain criteria of eligibility. Consequently, at a social level, the conventional education is obvious, through which, the peculiarities referring to the relationship theory-practice favor the process of learning in general. The scientific perspective is visible at a conceptual-theoretical level and concentrates specific methodological strategies at an educational level. In this way, the epistemic capacity of understanding offers pedagogical openings meant to support the attitude of the social actors involved at the level of the educational reality. In these conditions, a scientific model can be understood and interpreted at an axiological level. Therefore, the significances of an exiological nature play a fundamental role in making the specific competences of a professional nature. The materialization of a universal conceptual model depends on the private understanding that the social actors show. The theoretical-applicative connections generate scientific interpretations which relate to educational epistemic structures. Concerning the assumption of the new paradigm of an educational type at a social level, people can consider that the social actors’ attitude and the strategies promoted by the latter represent fundamental elements in the educational architectonics. They take into consideration a situational context corresponding to some diversified psychosocial requirements. All in all, the educational objectives proposed at a certain level of organization become efficient as long as the new assumed paradigm turns legitimate from a scientific point of view. References: Bocoş, M. & Jucan, D.. 2008. The fundaments of pedagogy: The theory and the methodology of the curriculum. Didactic reference points and instruments for the training of teachers. Piteşti: Paralela 45 Publishing House. (in Romanian) Bunescu, V. & Giurgea, M.. 1982. Principles of organization of the education process. In: Salade, D. (Ed.). Didactica. Bucharest: Didactic and Pedagogical Publishing House. (in Romanian) Cristea, S.. 1998. Dictionary of pedagogical terms. Bucharest: Didactic and Pedagogical Publishing House. (in Romanian) Frumos, F.. 2008. Didactica: Fundaments and cognitive developments. Iaşi: Polirom Publishing House. (in Romanian) Preda, V.. 2001. The principles of didactics—in the vision of psychology of education and development. In: Radu, I. & Ionescu, M. (Eds.). Modern didactics. Cluj-Napoca: Dacia Publishing House. (in Romanian) Russell, B.. 2003. The aims of education. In: Robert, E. E. & Lester, E. D. (Eds.). The basic writings of bertrand russell. London and New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Segerstrale, U.. 2000. Defenders of the truth. New York: Published by Oxford University Press. (Edited by Chris and Suky) 34  Universidad Central del Ecuador Facultad de Filosofía, Letras y Ciencias de la Educación Carrera de Pedagogía de los Idiomas Nacionales y Extranjeros Didactics Group 2 Elizabeth Estrada Lizeth López Adriana Peñaherrera Biqui Salazar Guissella Sarango  THE OBJECT FORMAL MATERIAL OBJECT OBJECT Approaches or Teaching THE TEACHI NG- perspectives. LEA RNING Methods and PROCESS. strategies. Teaching - Learning Process Using to student-teacher interaction. Teachers Selection of different techniques and pedagogical approaches. Evaluation methods. Inclusive practices. General norms, imperatives, and rules connected to the educational activity. 1.-Scientific principle All teaching must have a scientific character supported by reality. Acurracy of Knoledge.- True and correct knowledge Science education. - Knowledge of the subject matter Lifelong learning. - Teaching situation for learning 2.- Systematization principle Systematization implies the systematic training of the student based on the curricular contents. Sequential teaching Gathers previous concepts Design appropriate methodologies Application in different situations Good attitude and environment 3.THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEORY AND PRACTICE THEORY PRACTICE Contents, curriculum Physical activity Intellectual activity  4.OF THE UNITY BETWEEN CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT DIRECT INDIRECT ORAL EXPL AN AT I ON OBSERVATION OBSERVATION BY THE TEAC H ER Didactics plays a very important role, The student learns new ideas and especially in basic education. remembers and relates new knowledge. 5. Principle of cognitive independence Educational task Established objectives Intellectual restlessness Make presentations Scientific curiosity Provide activities Discipline towards study. Conduct discussion Ask questions  6. Principles of affordability or comprehensibility Student's capacity Information Knowledge  7. PRINCIPLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE GROUP WORK Integration and teamwork as well as independent work. THE TEACHER SHOULD KEEP IN MIND Employ appropriate individual assistance procedures. Know the skills, attitudes, and interests of the students to determine their role in the group.  8. THE PRINCIPLE OF SOUNDNESS OF KNOWLEDGE The key function of teaching is to ensure that students assimilate knowledge, internalize it, store it in long-term memory, and apply it. THE TEACHER SHOULD KEEP IN MIND Principles of systematization. Design activities to constantly assess the consolidation of knowledge in students. CONCLUSION The teaching-learning is a dynamic process that must be constantly evolving. Teachers must be prepared to adapt their teaching methods to the needs of students and the changes occurring in the world.  BIBLIOGRAFY Mallart. J. (2001). Didáctica: concepto, objeto y finalidades. En Didáctica para psicopedagogos. https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/76157478/MALLART_J_Didactica-libre.pdf?1639297373=&response-content- disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DMALLART_J_Didactica.pdf&Expires=1699743004&Signature=gY571wQSuPLLfIZ1QMoreKnSd2L5UIKFpI89pnYuaSxw3VuYaHwFXt5Ecp VPf80AxJ4tWU~ArysxI3d8U5CKclNgF-ZYWvI3jZjLae1X4sudJPTc83uIgBeglS-sAc6fQlktoP0tOT7g85lb- HhO1JjstrOHlsiV9ihxKyfcFxlOGKebFkk02b8gqYSYHeniUNT2zuZhl1Ss~MxWM120dxgHOwdATK6EQLtPcKat~fczR4MsB3jWgBuJbWWqr1tIAnrcZvE6cBi7SjJugTlBaLZY7E YtQsrhKQReP5~PmMHmn8461y9bR7x7T5SF14JfflqvG4lCTNhGRJuPpk7dCw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA Riskulova, K. & Yuldoshova, U. (2020). THE ROLE OF DIDACTICS IN TEACHING PROCESS. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Umida-Yuldashova-2/publication /342161000_THE_ROLE_OF_DIDACTICS_IN_TEACHING_PROCESS/links/612e632238818c2eaf72eea5/THE-ROLE-OF-DIDACTICS-IN-TEACHING-PROCESS.pdf Costel. E. (2010). The didactic principles and their applications in the didactic activity. 7 (9). SSN 1539-8072, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED514739.pdf Herminia, P., & Flores, R. (n.d.). Los principios didácticos en la enseñanza E P E D A G O G Í A. https://www.unap.cl/prontus_unap/site/docs/20111013/20111013115255/los_principios_did_cticos_en_la_ense_anza.pdf PRINCIPIOS DIDACTICOS DE LA ENSEÑANZA. (2017). Slideshare.net. https://es.slideshare.net/EdukaCastro/principios-didacticos-de-la-enseanza Flores, Herminia Ruvalcaba. «Los principios didácticos en la enseñanza», s. f. https://www.unap.cl/prontus_unap/site/docs/20111013/20111013115255/los_principios_did_cticos_en_la_ense_anza.pdf Martínez , C. (diciembre de 2004). Independencia cognitiva. Obtenido de Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona: https://www.tdx.cat/bitstream/handle/10803/4754/chm1de1.pdf DIDACTICS Participants: Mabel Veliz Misael Quiroz Britany Morales  WHAT IS ? Is the science that studies teaching learning phenomena Is the pedogogical discipline as prescriptive aspects of of a practical and an efficient methodology normative nature, the systemic set of principles, norms and resources IMPO R TA N CE OF DIDA CT IC S 1. Improument of teaching and learning processes. 2. Promates motivation and participation. IMPO R TA N CE OF DIDA CT IC S 3. Evaluation of the learning process 4. Innovation and pedagogical updating  PRINCIPLES OF DIDACTICS INDIVIDUALIZATION ACTIVE PARTICIPATION CONTEXTUALIZATION Differentiate among Participation of the students and seeks teaching students in teaching - Establishes momngful methods. learning process connections in students and facilitates  PRINCIPLES OF DIDACTICS MOTIVATION FEEDBACK DIVERSITY Interest and intrinsic Provides constant and for Recognizes and values the motivation of studennt, motive feedback to diversity of students through didactics students TEACHING - LE AR NING PRO CES SE S Active application of knowledge. Effective communication. Careful planning. AFFECTIVE SYSTEM EXPRESSIVE SYSTEM SYSTEMS COGNITIVE SYSTEM  ELEMENTS OF DIDACTICS STUDENTS OBJECTIVES In the one who learns. Achieve a chabge in the student and help them. The teacher is the guide Is the student of the teaching.  GROUP 6 COGNOSCITIVISM -Resources and assesment -Strategies and techniques in the classroom Members: Allauca Viviana Guapucal Marshury Landeta Adriana  WHAT IS COGNOSCITIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM? Is the mental operations that are based on experience and the processing of information that makes the individual from this, assimilates knowledge and gives a response. Student's role: Learning is not acquired, but constructed and discovered. Educator: Stimulate and facilitate the process of analysis, reflection and joint construction of knowledge  RESOURCES There are several resources that help to promote cognitive development, it is advisable that the educator takes advantage of activities of daily life, the experiences of the students, the activities have to include the most basic self-care skills. PUZZLES SCIENCE EXPERIMENT KITS CONSTRUCTION SETS AND MODELS ART AND CRAFT MATERIALS ROLE-PLAY MATERIALS GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS INTERACTIVE BOOK KITS: HISTORICAL ARTIFACT KITS  EVALUATIONS In a cognitivist approach to education, evaluation or assessment is typically focused on measuring the understanding and acquisition of knowledge, as well as the application of cognitive processes.  FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT Teachers can use formative assessment techniques during class to gauge students' understanding as they learn. Techniques such as quizzes, discussions.  SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT: Although less focused on cognitivism, summative assessment is important for evaluating performance at the end of a term or course. SELF-ASSESSMENT AND CO-ASSESSMENT: Allowing students to evaluate themselves and each other encourages reflection and the development of metacognitive skills.  RUBRIC ASSESSMENT The use of rubrics with clear and specific criteria helps students understand what is expected of them in terms of understanding and applying cognitive concepts. COGNITIVE STRATEGIES ARE: A set of processes of control that allows the student the correct management of attention processes, correct learning, remembering and thinking.  ENCODING (OR STORAGE) ACQUISITION RETRIEVAL (OR EVOCATION) Dialogue FELLOWSHIP  COGNOSCITIVE STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES Repetition and practice Mental Imagery Relate it to previous Make examples knowledge Simulations and Problem Based Games Learning (PBL) Thinking  Take notes Categories Hierarchy Mnemonics Mind maps Feedback Organization  REFERENCES INECO (2018). EVALUACIÓN COGNITIVA ESTÁNDAR. RETRIEVED FROM HTTPS://WWW.INECO.ORG.AR/PACIENTES/ADULTOS/SERVICIOS/CONSULTAS/DIAGNOSTICOS/NEUROPSICOLOGIA/EVA LUACION-COGNITIVA-ESTANDAR/#:~:TEXT=LA%20EVALUACI%C3% DE JESÚS, T., AGUILAR, C., DE JESÚS, M., CARRILLO, M., & CHAPA, M. (N.D.). HTTPS://REDIE.MX/LIBROSYREVISTAS/LIBROS/ACTOYPROC8.PDF GASKINS, I & ELLIOT, T. (2023). CÓMO ENSEÑAR ESTRATEGIAS COGNITIVAS EN LA ESCUELA. HTTPS://WWW.RESEARCHGATE.NET/PUBLICATION/268338549_COMO_ENSENAR_ESTRATEGIAS_COGNITIVAS_EN_LA_ES CUELA/CITATION/DOWNLOAD GIL, W & OSEDA, D. (2017). ESTUDIO DE ESTRATEGIAS COGNITIVAS, METACOGNITIVAS Y SOCIOEMOCIONALES: SU EFECTO EN ESTUDIANTES. VÓL 33(84) (PP. 557-576) HTTPS://WWW.REDALYC.ORG/JOURNAL/310/31054991020/MOVIL / PRESSBOOKS.(S.F).WHAT IS COGNITIVISM.PRESSBOOKS BLOG.ACCESSED NOVEMBER 29, 2023. HTTPS://PRESSBOOKS.PUB/CEAD/CHAPTER/2-4-COGNITIVISMO/ THANKS  Principles of Instructed Language Learning Rod Ellis University of Auckland m, Bio Data: Chair, Graduate School of Education; Professor, Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages; Applied language studies and Linguistics dept. Professor Ellis, a renowned linguist, received his Doctorate from the University of London and his Master of Education from the University of Bristol. A former professor at Temple University both in Japan and the US. Prof. Ellis has taught in numerous positions in England, Japan, the US, Zambia and New Zealand. Dr. Ellis, who is known as the "Father of Second Language Acquisition", has served as the Director of the Institute of Language Teaching and Learning at the University of Auckland. Author of numerous student and teacher training textbooks for Prentice Hall and Oxford University Press, Prof. Ellis's textbooks on Second Language Acquisition and Grammar are core textbooks in TESOL and Linguistics programs around the world. Introduction Second Language Acquisition (SLA), as a sub-discipline of applied linguistics, is still a very young field of study. While it may not be possible to identify its precise starting point, many researchers would agree that the late sixties marked the onset of an intense period of empirical and theoretical interest in how second languages are acquired. Much of this research has been directed at understanding and contributing to more effective instructed language learning. In addition to the numerous studies that have investigated the effects of instruction on learning (Norris and Ortega’s meta-analysis published in 2000 identified 79 studies), much of the theorizing about L2 instruction has been specifically undertaken with language pedagogy in mind, for example Krashen’s Monitor Model (Krashen, 1981), Long’s Interaction Hypothesis (Long, 1996), DeKeyser’s skill-learning theory (DeKeyser, 1998), VanPatten’s input processing theory (VanPatten, 1996; 2002) and my own theory of instructed language learning (Ellis, 1994) all address the role of instruction in L2 acquisition. However, the research and theory do not afford a uniform account of how instruction can best facilitate language learning. There is considerable controversy (see Ellis, forthcoming). In particular, there is no agreement as to whether instruction should be based on a traditional focus-on-forms approach, involving the systematic teaching of grammatical features in accordance with a structural syllabus, or a focus-on-form approach, involving attention to linguistic features in the context of communicative activities derived from a task-based syllabus or some kind of combination of the two. Nor is there agreement about the efficacy of teaching explicit knowledge or about what type of corrective feedback to provide or even when explicit grammar teaching should commence. These controversies reflect both the complexity of the object of enquiry (instructed language acquisition) and also the fact that SLA is still in its infancy. Given these controversies, it might be thought unwise to attempt to formulate a set of general principles of instructed language acquisition. Hatch’s (1978a) warning – ‘apply with caution’ – is as pertinent today as it was some thirty years ago. Nevertheless, I think there is a need to try to draw together a set of generalisations that might serve as the basis for language teacher education, and I am not alone in this, for Lightbown (1985; 2000) has felt and responded to a similar need. If SLA is to offer teachers guidance, there is a need to bite the bullet and proffer advice, so long as this advice does not masquerade as prescriptions or proscriptions (and there is always a danger that advice will be so construed) and so long as it is tentative, in the form of what Stenhouse (1975) called ‘provisional specifications’. I have chosen to present my own provisional specifications in the form of ‘principles’. I do not expect that all SLA researchers or all language teachers will agree with them. I hope, though, that they will provide a basis for argument and for reflection. Principle 1: Instruction needs to ensure that learners develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions and a rule-based competence. Proficiency in an L2 requires that learners acquire both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions, which cater to fluency, and a rule-based competence consisting of knowledge of specific grammatical rules, which cater to complexity and accuracy (Skehan, 1998). There is now widespread acceptance of the importance played by formulaic expressions in language use. Native speakers have been shown to use a much larger number of formulaic expressions than even advanced L2 learners (Foster, 2001). Formulaic expressions may also serve as a basis for the later development of a rule-based competence. N. Ellis (1996), for example, has suggested that learners bootstrap their way to grammar by first internalising and then analyzing fixed sequences. Classroom studies by Ellis (1984), Myles, Mitchell & Hooper (1998; 1999) and Myles (2004) demonstrate that learners often internalize rote-learned material as chunks, breaking them down for analysis later on. Traditionally, language instruction has been directed at developing rule-based competence (i.e. knowledge of specific grammatical rules) through the systematic teaching of pre- selected structures – what Long (1991) has referred to as a focus-on-forms approach. While such an approach certainly receives support from the research that has investigated direct intervention in interlanguage development, curriculum designers and teachers need to recognize that this type of instruction is as likely to result in students learning rote- memorized patterns as in internalizing abstract rules (Myles, 2004). This need not be seen as an instructional failure however as such patterns are clearly of value to the learner. It points instead to an acknowledgement of what can be realistically achieved by a focus-on- forms approach, especially with young, beginner learners.  If formulaic chunks play a large role in early language acquisition, it may pay to focus on these initially, delaying the teaching of grammar until later, as I have proposed in Ellis (2002). A notional-functional approach lends itself perfectly to the teaching of prefabricated patterns and routines and may provide an ideal foundation for direct intervention in the early stages. Clearly, though, a complete language curriculum needs to ensure that it caters to the development of both formulaic expressions and rule-based knowledge. Principle 2: Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus predominantly on meaning. The term ‘focus on meaning’ is somewhat ambiguous. It is necessary to distinguish two different senses of this term. The first refers to the idea of semantic meaning (i.e. the meanings of lexical items or of specific grammatical structures). The second sense of focus on meaning relates to pragmatic meaning (i.e. the highly contextualized meanings that arise in acts of communication). To provide opportunities for students to attend to and perform pragmatic meaning, a task-based (or, at least, a task-supported) approach to language teaching is required. It is clearly important that instruction ensures opportunities for learners to focus on both types of meaning but, arguably, it is pragmatic meaning that is crucial to language learning. There is an important difference in the instructional approaches needed for semantic and pragmatic meaning. In the case of semantic meaning, the teacher and the students can treat language as an object and function as pedagogues and learners. But in the case of pragmatic meaning, they need to view the L2 as a tool for communicating and to function as communicators. In effect, this involves two entirely different orientations to teaching and learning. The opportunity to focus on pragmatic meaning is important for a number of reasons: 1. In the eyes of many theorists (e.g. Prabhu 1987; Long 1996) , only when learners are engaged in decoding and encoding messages in the context of actual acts of communication are the conditions created for acquisition to take place. 2. To develop true fluency in an L2, learners must have opportunities to create pragmatic meaning (DeKeyser, 1998). 3. Engaging learners in activities where they are focused on creating pragmatic meaning is intrinsically motivating. In arguing the need for a focus on pragmatic meaning, theorists do so not just because they see this as a means of activating the linguistic resources that have been developed by other means, but because they see it as the principal means by which the linguistic resources themselves are created. This is the theoretical position that has informed many highly successful immersion education programmes around the world (see Johnson and Swain, 1997). However, in advocating this principle, I do not wish to suggest that instruction needs to be directed exclusively at providing learners with opportunities to create pragmatic meaning, only that, to be effective, instruction must include such opportunities and that, ideally, over an entire curriculum, they should be predominant. Principle 3: Instruction needs to ensure that learners also focus on form. There is now a widespread acceptance that acquisition also requires that learners attend to form. Indeed, according to some theories of L2 acquisition, such attention is necessary for acquisition to take place. Schmidt (1994), for example, has argued that there is no learning without conscious attention to form. Again, though, the term ‘focus on form’ is capable of more than one interpretation. First, it might refer to a general orientation to language as form. Schmidt (2001) dismisses this global attention hypothesis, arguing that learners need to attend to specific forms. Second, it might be taken to suggest that learners need to attend only to the graphic or phonetic instantiations of linguistic forms. However, theorists such as Schmidt and Long are insistent that focus on form refers to form-function mapping (i.e. the correlation between a particular form and the meaning(s) it realises in communication). Third, ‘focus on form’ might be assumed to refer to awareness of some underlying, abstract rule. Schmidt, however, is careful to argue that attention to form refers to the noticing of specific linguistic items, as they occur in the input to which learners are exposed, not to an awareness of grammatical rules. Instruction can cater to a focus on form in a number of ways: 1. Through grammar lessons designed to teach specific grammatical features by means of input- or output processing. An inductive approach to grammar teaching is designed to encourage ‘noticing’ of pre-selected forms; a deductive approach seeks to establish an awareness of the grammatical rule. 2. Through focused tasks (i.e. tasks that require learners to comprehend and process specific grammatical structures in the input, and/or to produce the structures in the performance of the task). 3. By means of methodological options that induce attention to form in the context of performing a task. Two methodological options that have received considerable attention from researchers are (a) the provision of time for strategic and on-line planning (Yuan and Ellis, 2003; Foster and Skehan, 1996) and (b) corrective feedback (Lyster, 2004). Instruction can seek to provide an intensive focus on pre-selected linguistic forms (as in a focus-on-forms approach or in a lesson built around a focused task) or it can offer incidental and extensive attention to form through corrective feedback in task-based lessons. There are pros and cons for both intensive and extensive grammar instruction. Some structures may not be mastered without the opportunity for repeated practice. Harley (1989), for example found that Anglophone learners of L2 French failed to acquire the distinction between the preterite and imparfait past tenses after hours of exposure (and presumably some corrective feedback) in an immersion program, but were able to improve their accuracy in the use of these two tenses after intensive instruction. However, intensive instruction is time consuming (in Harley’s study the targeted structures were taught over an 8-week period!) and thus there will be constraints on how many structures can be addressed. Extensive grammar instruction, on the other hand, affords the opportunity for large numbers of grammatical structures to be addressed. Also, more likely than not, many of the structures will be attended to repeatedly over a period of time. Further, because this kind of instruction involves a response to the errors each learner makes, it is individualized and affords the skilled teacher on-line opportunities for the kind of contextual analysis that Celce-Murcia (2002) recommends as a basis for grammar teaching. Ellis et al (2001) reported that extensive instruction occurred relatively frequently in communicative adult ESL lessons through both pre-emptive (i.e. teacher or student- initiated) and reactive (i.e. corrective feedback) attention to form. Loewen (2002) showed that learners who experienced such momentary form-focused episodes demonstrated subsequent learning of the forms addressed in both immediate and delayed tests. However, it is not possible to attend to those structures that learners do not attempt to use (i.e. extensive instruction cannot deal with avoidance). Also, of course, it does not provide the in-depth practice that some structures may require before they can be fully acquired. Arguably, then, instruction needs to be conceived of in terms of both approaches. Principle 4: Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit knowledge. Implicit knowledge is procedural, is held unconsciously and can only be verbalized if it is made explicit. It is accessed rapidly and easily and thus is available for use in rapid, fluent communication. In the view of most researchers, competence in an L2 is primarily a matter of implicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge ‘is the declarative and often anomalous knowledge of the phonological, lexical, grammatical, pragmatic and socio-critical features of an L2 together with the metalanguage for labelling this knowledge’ (Ellis, 2004). It is held consciously, is learnable and verbalizable and is typically accessed through controlled processing when learners experience some kind of linguistic difficulty in the use of the L2. A distinction needs to be drawn between explicit knowledge as analysed knowledge and as metalingual explanation. The former entails a conscious awareness of how a structural feature works while the latter consists of knowledge of grammatical metalanguage and the ability to understand explanations of rules. Given that it is implicit knowledge that underlies the ability to communicate fluently and confidently in an L2, it is this type of knowledge that should be the ultimate goal of any instructional programme. How then can it be developed? There are conflicting theories regarding this. According to skill-building theory (DeKeyser, 1998), implicit knowledge arises out of explicit knowledge, when the latter is proceduralized through practice. In contrast, emergentist theories (Krashen, 1981; N. Ellis, 1998) see implicit knowledge as developing naturally out of meaning-focused communication, aided, perhaps, by some focus on form. Irrespective of these different theoretical positions, there is consensus that learners need the opportunity to participate in communicative activity to develop implicit knowledge. Thus, communicative tasks need to play a central role in instruction directed at implicit knowledge. The value in teaching explicit knowledge of grammar has been and remains today one of the most controversial issues in language pedagogy. In order to make sense of the different positions relating to the teaching of explicit knowledge, it is necessary to consider two separate questions: 1. Is explicit knowledge of any value in and of itself? 2. Is explicit knowledge of value in facilitating the development of implicit knowledge? Explicit knowledge is arguably only of value if it can be shown that learners are able to utilize this type of knowledge in actual performance. Again, there is controversy. One position is that this is very limited. Krashen (1982) argues that learners can only use explicit knowledge when they ‘monitor’ and that this requires that they are focused on form (as opposed to meaning) and have sufficient time to access the knowledge. Other positions are possible. It can be argued that explicit knowledge is used in both the process of formulating messages as well as in monitoring and that many learners are adroit in accessing their explicit memories for these purposes, especially if the rules are, to a degree, automatized. However, this does require time. Yuan and Ellis (2003) showed that learners’ grammatical accuracy improved significantly if they had time for ‘on-line planning’ while performing a narrative task, a result most readily explained in terms of their accessing explicit knowledge. Irrespective of whether explicit knowledge has any value in and of itself, it may assist language development by facilitating the development of implicit knowledge. This involves a consideration of what has become known as the interface hypothesis, which addresses whether explicit knowledge plays a role in L2 acquisition. Three positions can be identified. According to the non-interface position (Krashen, 1981), explicit and implicit knowledge are entirely distinct with the result that explicit knowledge cannot be converted into implicit knowledge. This position is supported by research that suggests that explicit and implicit memories are neurologically separate (Paradis, 1994). The interface position argues the exact opposite. Drawing on skill-learning theory (DeKeyser, 1998), it argues that explicit knowledge becomes implicit knowledge if learners have the opportunity for plentiful communicative practice. The weak interface position (Ellis, 1993) claims that explicit knowledge primes a number of key acquisitional processes, in particular ‘noticing’ and ‘noticing the gap’ (Schmidt, 1994). That is, explicit knowledge of a grammatical structure makes it more likely learners will attend to the structure in the input and carry out the cognitive comparison between what they observe in the input and their own output. These positions continue to be argued at a theoretical level. The three positions support very different approaches to language teaching. The non- interface position leads to a ‘zero grammar’ approach, i.e. one that prioritizes meaning- centred approaches such as task-based teaching. The interface position supports PPP – the idea that a grammatical structure should be first presented explicitly and then practised until it is fully proceduralized. The weak interface position has been used to provide a basis for consciousness-raising tasks (Ellis, 1991) that require learners to derive their own explicit grammar rules from data they are provided with. This principle, then, asserts that instruction needs to be directed at developing both implicit and explicit knowledge, giving priority to the former. However, teachers should not assume that explicit knowledge can be converted into implicit knowledge, as the extent to which this is possible remains controversial. Principle 5: Instruction needs to take into account the learner’s ‘built-in syllabus’. Early research into naturalistic L2 acquisition showed that learners follow a ‘natural’ order and sequence of acquisition (i.e. they master different grammatical structures in a relatively fixed and universal order and they pass through a sequence of stages of acquisition on route to mastering each grammatical structure). This led researchers like Corder (1967) to suggest that learners had their own ‘built-in syllabus’ for learning grammar as implicit knowledge. Krashen (1981) famously argued that grammar instruction played no role in the development of implicit knowledge (what he called ‘acquisition’), a view based on the conviction that learners (including classroom learners) would automatically proceed along their built-in syllabus as long as they had access to comprehensible input and were sufficiently motivated. Grammar instruction could contribute only to explicit knowledge (‘learning’). There followed a number of empirical studies designed to (1) compare the order of acquisition of instructed and naturalistic learners (e.g. Pica, 1983), (2) compare the success of instructed and naturalistic learners (Long, 1983) and (3) examine whether attempts to teach specific grammatical structures resulted in their acquisition (Ellis, 1984). These studies showed that, by and large, the order and sequence of acquisition was the same for instructed and naturalistic learners, a finding supported by later research (e.g. Ellis, 1989; Pienemann, 1989); that instructed learners generally achieved higher levels of grammatical competence than naturalistic learners and that instruction was no guarantee that learners would acquire what they had been taught. This led to the conclusion that it was beneficial to teach grammar, but that it was necessary to ensure it was taught in a way that was compatible with the natural processes of acquisition. How, then, can instruction take account of the learner’s built-in syllabus? There are a number of possibilities: 1. Adopt a zero-grammar approach, as proposed by Krashen. That is, employ a task- based approach that makes no attempt to predetermine the linguistic content of a lesson. 2. Ensure that learners are developmentally ready to acquire a specific target feature. However, this is probably impractical as teachers have no easy way of determining where individual students have reached and it would necessitate a highly individualized approach to cater for differences in developmental level among the students. Also, as we noted earlier, such fine-tuning may not be necessary. While instruction in a target feature may not enable learners to ‘beat’ the built-in syllabus, it may serve to push them along it as long as the target structure is not too far ahead of their developmental stage. 3. Focus the instruction on explicit rather than implicit knowledge as explicit knowledge is not subject to the same developmental constraints as implicit  knowledge. While it is probably true that some declarative facts about language are easier to master than others, this is likely to reflect their cognitive rather than their developmental complexity, which can more easily be taken into account in deciding the order of instruction. Traditional structural syllabuses, in fact, are graded on the basis of cognitive complexity. Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning requires extensive L2 input. Language learning, whether it occurs in a naturalistic or an instructed context, is a slow and laborious process. Children acquiring their L1 take between two and five years to achieve full grammatical competence, during which time they are exposed to massive amounts of input. Ellis and Wells (1980) demonstrated that a substantial portion of the variance in speed of acquisition of children can be accounted for by the amount and the quality of input they receive. The same is undoubtedly true of L2 acquisition. If learners do not receive exposure to the target language they cannot acquire it. In general, the more exposure they receive, the more and the faster they will learn. Krashen (1981; 1994) has adopted a very strong position on the importance of input. He points to studies that have shown that length of residence in the country where the language is spoken is related to language proficiency and other studies that that have found positive correlations between the amount of reading reported and proficiency/ literacy. For Krashen, however, the input must be made ‘comprehensible’ either by modifying it or by means of contextual props. Researchers may disagree with Krashen’s claim that comprehensible input (together with motivation) is all that is required for successful acquisition, arguing that learner output is also important (see Principle 7 below) but they agree about the importance of input for developing the highly connected implicit knowledge that is needed to become an effective communicator in the L2. How can teachers ensure their students have access to extensive input? In a ‘second’ language teaching context, learners can be expected to gain access to plentiful input outside the classroom, although, as Tanaka (2004) has shown in a study of adult Japanese students learning English in Auckland, not all such learners are successful in achieving this. In a ‘foreign’ language teaching context (as when French or Japanese is taught in schools in the United Kingdom or United States), there are far fewer opportunities for extensive input. To ensure adequate access, teachers need to: 1. Maximize use of the L2 inside the classroom. Ideally, this means that the L2 needs to become the medium as well as the object of instruction. A study by Kim (forthcoming) revealed that foreign language teachers of French, German, Japanese and Korean in Auckland secondary schools varied enormously in the extent to which they employed the L2 in the classroom (i.e. between 88 and 22 percent of the total input). 2. Create opportunities for students to receive input outside the classroom. This can be achieved most easily be providing extensive reading programs based on carefully selected graded readers, suited to the level of the students, as recommended by Krashen (1989). Elley (1991) reviewed studies that showed that L2 learners can  benefit from both reading and from being read to. Also, ideally, if more resources are available, schools need to establish self-access centers which students can use outside class time. Successful FL learners seek out opportunities to experience the language outside class time. Many students are unlikely to make the effort unless teachers (a) make resources available and (b) provide learner-training in how to make effective use of the resources. It can be claimed with confidence that, if the only input students receive is in the context of a limited number of weekly lessons based on some course book, they are unlikely to achieve high levels of L2 proficiency. Principle 7: Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for output. Contrary to Krashen’s insistence that acquisition is dependent entirely on comprehensible input, most researchers now acknowledge that learner output also plays a part. Skehan (1998) drawing on Swain (1995) summarizes the contributions that output can make: 1. Production serves to generate better input through the feedback that learners’ efforts at production elicit; 2. it forces syntactic processing (i.e. obliges learners to pay attention to grammar); 3. it allows learners to test out hypotheses about the target language grammar; 4. it helps to automatize existing knowledge; 5. it provides opportunities for learners to develop discourse skills, for example by producing ‘long turns’; 6. it is important for helping learners to develop a ‘personal voice’ by steering conversation on to topics they are interested in contributing to. Ellis (2003) adds one other contribution of output: 7. it provides the learner with ‘auto-input’ (i.e. learners can attend to the ‘input’ provided by their own productions). The importance of creating opportunities for output, including what Swain (1985) has called pushed output (i.e. output where the learner is stretched to express messages clearly and explicitly), constitutes one of the main reasons for incorporating tasks into a language program. Controlled practice exercises typically result in output that is limited in terms of length and complexity. They do not afford students opportunities for the kind of sustained output that theorists argue is necessary for interlanguage development. Research (e.g. Allen et al, 1990) has shown that extended talk of a clause or more in a classroom context is more likely to occur when students initiate interactions in the classroom and when they have to find their own words. This is best achieved by asking learners to perform oral and written tasks. Principle 8: The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2 proficiency. While it is useful to consider the relative contributions of input and output to acquisition, it is also important to acknowledge that both co-occur in oral interaction and that both computational and sociocultural theories of L2 acquisition have viewed social interaction as the matrix in which acquisition takes place. As Hatch (1978b) famously put it ‘one learns how to do conversation, one learns how to interact verbally, and out of the interaction syntactic structures are developed’ (p. 404). Thus, interaction is not just a means of automatizing existing linguistic resources but also of creating new resources. According to the Interaction Hypothesis (Long, 1996), interaction fosters acquisition when a communication problem arises and learners are engaged in negotiating for meaning. The interactional modifications arising help to make input comprehensible, provide corrective feedback, and push learners to modify their own output in uptake. According to the sociocultural theory of mind, interaction serves as a form of mediation, enabling learners to construct new forms and perform new functions collaboratively (Lantolf, 2000). According to this view, learning is first evident on the social plane and only later on the psychological plane. In both theories, while social interaction may not be viewed as necessary for acquisition, it is viewed as a primary source of learning. What then are the characteristics of interaction that are deemed important for acquisition? In general terms, opportunities for negotiating meaning and plenty of scaffolding are needed. Johnson (1995) identifies four key requirements for interaction to create an acquisition-rich classroom: 1. Creating contexts of language use where students have a reason to attend to language 2. Providing opportunities for learners to use the language to express their own personal meanings 3. Helping students to participate in language-related activities that are beyond their current level of proficiency 4. Offering a full range of contexts that cater for a ‘full performance’ in the language. Johnson suggests that these are more likely to occur when the academic task structure (i.e. how the subject matter is sequenced in a lesson) and the social participation structure (i.e. how the allocation of interactional rights and obligations shapes the discourse) are less rigid. Once again, this is more likely to be provided through ‘tasks’ than through exercises. Ellis (1999) suggests that a key to ensuring interaction beneficial to acquisition is giving control of the discourse topic to the students. This, of course, is not easily achieved, given that teachers have a duty to ensure that classroom discourse is orderly, which, in turn, is most easily achieved by taking control of the discourse topic by means of IRF (teacher initiate - student respond - teacher feedback) exchanges. Thus, creating the right kind of interaction for acquisition constitutes a major challenge for teachers. One solution is to incorporate small group work into a lesson. When students interact amongst themselves, acquisition-rich discourse is more likely to ensue. However, there are a number of dangers in group work which may militate against this (e.g. excessive use of the L1 in monolingual groups). Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners. While there are identifiable universal aspects of L2 acquisition, there is also considerable variability in the rate of learning and in the ultimate level of achievement. In particular, learning will be more successful when: 1. The instruction is matched to students’ particular aptitude for learning. 2. The students are motivated. It is probably beyond the abilities of most teachers to design lessons involving the kind of matching instruction employed in Wesche’s (1981) study, which used language aptitudes tests to identify different learning styles and then sought to match the kind of instruction provided to the learners’ preferred approach to learn