Developmental Psychology PDF

**physical development** - growth during middle childhood slows considerably. Still, although day- by- day changes may not be obvious, they add up to a starting difference between 6 years old, who are still small children, and 11 years old, many of whom are now beginning to resemble adult **height...

**physical development** - growth during middle childhood slows considerably. Still, although day- by- day changes may not be obvious, they add up to a starting difference between 6 years old, who are still small children, and 11 years old, many of whom are now beginning to resemble adult **height and weight** - Children grow about 2 to 3 inches each year between ages 6 and 11 and approximately double their weight during that period (Table 1). Girls retain somewhat more fatty tissue than boys, a characteristic that will persist through adulthood **sleep** - needs decline from 10 to 13 hours a day SLEEP for 3- to 5-year-olds to 9 to 11 hours a day for ages 6 to 13 (Sleep Foundation, 2020). However, many children do not get enough sleep. A variety of correlates seem to be at play, including exposure to media screens, physical inactivity, secondhand smoke, poor housing, vandalism, and a lack of parks and playgrounds (Singh & Kenney, 2013 **brain development** - A number of cognitive advances occur in middle childhood that can be traced back to changes in the brain's structure and functioning. In general, these changes can be characterized as resulting in faster, an increased ability to ignore distracting information **chronic medical conditions** - When illness does occur in middle childhood, it tends to be brief. Acute medical conditions---occasional, short- term conditions, such as infections and warts---are common. Six or seven bouts a year with colds, flu, or viruses are typical as germs pass among children at school or at play (Behrman, 1992) **cognitive development** **piagetian approach** - At about age 7, according to Piaget, children enter the stage of concrete operations when they can use mental operations, such as reasoning, to solve concrete problem Children can think logically because they can take multiple aspects of a situation into account. However, their thinking is still limited to real situations in the here and now **PIAGETIAN APPROACH** 1. **seriation** - ability to order items along a dimension for example (In the sensorimotor stage, for example, infants and toddlers learn to sort objects based on simple attributes like size. In the preoperational stage, children develop seriation skills by being able to order objects in a logical sequence based on a single dimension, such as size or quantity. In the concrete operational stage, children develop more complex seriation skills, such as ordering) 2. **deductive reasoning** - Type of logical reasoning that moves from particular observations about members of a class to a general conclusion about that class. for example (Therefore, peacocks lay eggs. In this example, the premises are that all birds lay eggs and that peacocks are birds. By applying logical reasoning, the conclusion is drawn that peacocks must also lay eggs, as they fall under the category of birds.) 3. **transitive inference** - Understanding the relationship between two objects by knowing the relationship of each to a third object. for example ( Let\'s say a child is presented with three objects: A, B, and C. First, the child is told that object A is larger than object B. Next, the child is told that object B is larger than object C. Finally, the child is asked which object is larger, object A or object C. If the child can correctly infer that object A is larger than object C based on the transitive relationship between the three objects, they have demonstrated transitive inference.) 4. **class inclusion** - Understanding of the relationship between a whole and its parts. for example ( if a child is shown a drawing of a large circle that includes several smaller circles inside of it, a child who understands class inclusion would understand that the larger circle represents the whole, while the smaller circles represent the parts that make up the whole. This understanding is an important aspect of the child\'s developing logical thinking capabilities.) 5. **inductive reasoning** - Type of logical reasoning that moves from a general premise about a class to a conclusion about a particular member or members of the class. for example (if I observe that all the apples in a basket are red, I may infer that the next apple I take from the basket will also be red. This inference is based on the observed pattern of red apples and the generalization that applies to the entire class of apples in the basket.) **COGNITIVE DEVELOPEMENT** - **information processing approach** - As children move through the school years, they make steady progress in the abilities to regulate and sustain attention, process and retain information, and plan and monitor their behavior and strategies. All of these interrelated developments contribute to executive function, the conscious control of thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish goals or solve problems - **psychometric approach** - in this section, we discuss how intelligence (IQ) has been measured, its relationship to IQ, and some of the important influences on intelligence **PIAGETIAN APPROACH** - **selective attention** - School-age children can concentrate longer than younger children and can focus on the information they need and want while screening out irrelevant information - **executive functioning** - The gradual development of executive function from infancy through adolescence is the result of developmental changes in brain structure. The prefrontal cortex, the region that enables planning, judgment, and decision making, shows significant development during this period (Lamm et al., 2006) **INTELLIGENCE TESTS** 1. **wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence, revised (WPPSO-lV)** - Individual intelligence test for children, which yields verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score 2. **standford binet intellegence scales** - intelligence tests for ages 2 and up used to measure fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory 3. **otis- lennon school ability (OLSATB)** - group intelligence test for kindergarten through 12th grade 4. **kaufman assessment battery for children (K-ABC-ll)** -non traditional individual intelligence test designed to provide fair assessments of minority children and children with disabilities **INTELLIGENCE** - t**heory of multiple intelligences** - Gardner's theory that each person has several distinct forms of intelligence - **culture free tests** - Intelligence tests that, if they were possible to design, would have no culturally linked content. - **culture fair test** - Intelligence tests that deal with experiences common to various cultures, in an attempt to avoid cultural bias **EIGHT INTELLIGENCES, ACCORDING TO GARDNER** 1. **linguistic** - ability to use and understand words and nuances of meaning (writing, editing and translating) 2. **logical - mathematical** - ability to manipulate numbers and solve logical problems (science, business, medicine) 3. **spatial** - ability to find one's way around in an environment and judge relationships between objects in space (architecture, carpentry, city planning) 4. **musical** - ability to perceive and create patters of pitch and rhythm (musical composition, conducting) 5. **bodily kinesthetic** - ability to move with precision ( dancing, athletics, surgery) 6. **interpersonal** - ability to understand and communicate with others (teaching, acting, politics) 7. **intrapersonal** - ability to understand the self (counseling, psychiatry, spiritual leadership) 8. **naturalist** - ability to distinguish species and thier characteristics (hunting, fishing, farming, gardening, cooking) **STERNBERG'S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE** -Sternberg's (1985, 2004) triarchic theory of intelligence identifies three elements, or aspects, of intelligence: componential, experiential, and contextual - componential element - element is the analytic aspect of intelligence; it determines how efficiently people process information - contextual element - is practical; it helps people deal with their environment. It is the ability to size up a situation and decide what to do. - experiential element - is insightful or creative; it determines how people approach novel or familiar tasks **LANGUAGE AND LITERACY** - -Language abilities continue to grow during middle childhood. Areas of particular importance during this age stage are vocabulary, grammar, syntax, pragmatics, and literacy **LEARNING PROBLEMS WITH CHILDREN (intellectual disability)** - -is significantly subnormal cognitive functioning. - -It is indicated by an IQ of about 70 or less, coupled with a deficiency in age-appropriate adaptive behavior (such as communication, social skills, and self-care), appearing before age 18 (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). - -Intellectual disability is sometimes referred to as cognitive disability **learning disability** - -It interferes with specific aspects of school achievement, such as listening, speaking, reading, writing, or mathematics, resulting in performance substantially lower than would be expected given a child's age, intelligence, and amount of schooling. - -Dyslexia is the most commonly diagnosed of the learning disabilities **attention - deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)** - -is a chronic condition usually marked by persistent inattention, distractibility, impulsivity, and low tolerance for frustration. - -ADHD affects an estimated 5 to 7.2 percent of school-age children worldwide (Smith, 2017 **PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT** - -The cognitive growth that takes place during middle childhood enables children to develop more complex concepts of themselves and to gain in emotional understanding and control **SELF CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT** - -Earlier in development, young children have difficulty with abstract concepts and with integrating various dimensions of the self. Their self concepts focus on physical attributes, possessions, and global descriptions. - -However, at around age 7 or 8, children reach the third stage of self-concept development. - -At this time, judgments about the self become more conscious, realistic, balanced, and comprehensive as children form representational systems: broad, inclusive self-concepts that integrate various aspects of the self (Harter, 1998) **INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY** - -According to Erikson (1982), a major determinant of self-esteem is children's view of their capacity for productive work, which develops in his fourth stage of psychosocial development: - -children must learn the productive skills their culture requires or else face feelings of inferiority **EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT** - -As children grow older, they are more aware of their own and other people's feelings. They can better regulate or control their emotions and can respond to others' emotional distress (Saarni et al., 2006) **FAMILY ATMOSPHERE** - -To understand the child in the family, we need to look at the family environment---its atmosphere and structure---and examine it within the context of the modern world. - -Key influences in the family are how parents respond to emerging control of behavior; whether or not they work in or outside the home; and the family's socioeconomic status **FAMILY STRUCTURE** - Divorce - Overall, divorce has become more common across the globe (Wang & Schofer, 2018). 1. -Adjusting to Divorce 2. -Custody, Visitation, and Co- parenting [-outcomes of divorce] - One-parent families - can result from divorce or separation, unwed parenthood, or death - children in single-parent families do fairly well overall but tend to lag socially and educationally behind peers in two-parent families (Brown, 2010) **SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS** - -Sibling relations have both positive and negative aspects to them. Having a warm and supportive sibling relationship is associated with better adjustment, social competence, prosocial behavior, and empathy **PEER GROUPS** - -Peers can function as sources of information about appropriate behavior, and norms developed within the context of the peer group can influence development. - -Peer groups may reinforce prejudice: unfavorable attitudes toward outsiders, especially members of certain racial or ethnic groups. **AGGRESSION AND BULLYING (BULLIES AND VICTIMS)** - -Aggression becomes bullying when it is deliberately, persistently directed against a particular target: a victim. - -Bullying can be physical (hitting, punching, kicking, or damaging or taking of personal belongings), verbal (name-calling or threatening), or relational or emotional (isolating and gossiping, often behind the victim's back) **MENTAL HEALTH** - -Although many people believe young children do not experience mental health issues, in reality, they can suffer from a variety of disruptive conduct disorders, anxiety disorders, and depression. - -Approximately 56 percent of children diagnosed with emotional, behavioral and developmental problems have disruptive conduct disorders: aggression, defiance, or antisocial behavior. Almost all the rest, 43.5 percent, have anxiety or mood disorders: feeling sad, depressed, unloved, nervous, fearful, or lonely (Bethell et al., 2005) **DISRUPTIVE CONDUCT DISORDERS** - -Temper tantrums and defiant, argumentative, hostile, or deliberately annoying behavior typically are outgrown by middle childhood as children get better at controlling these behaviors. - -When such a pattern of behavior persists until age 8, children (usually boys) may be diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), a pattern of defiance, disobedience, and hostility toward adult authority figures lasting at least 6 months and going beyond the bounds of normal childhood behavior **ANXIETY DISORDERS** -About 7.1 percent of children aged 3 to 17 have an anxiety disorder; One in 3 of children with an anxiety disorder also suffers from depression (Ghandour et al., 2019) - separation anxiety disorder - school phobia/ social phobia - generalized anxiety disorder - obsessive compulsive disorder **CHILDHOOD DEPRESSION** - -Childhood depression is a disorder of mood that goes beyond normal, temporary sadness. Symptoms of depression include inability to have fun or concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy, crying, sleep problems, weight change, physical complaints, feelings of worthlessness, a prolonged sense of friendlessness, or frequent thoughts about death or suicide **TREATMENT TECHNIQUES** - -Only about half of all children in the United States who need services for mental health issues currently receive the help they need. Psychological treatment for emotional disturbances can take several forms **TREATMENTS** 1. **BEHAVIOUR THERAPY** or behavior modification, is a form of psychotherapy that uses principles of learning theory to eliminate undesirable behaviors or to develop desirable ones. 2. **ART THERAPY** describe what is troubling them without the need to put their feelings into words. The child may express deep emotions through his or her choice of colors and subjects to depict 3. **PLAY THERAPY** in which a child plays freely while a therapist occasionally comments, asks questions, or makes suggestions, has also been demonstrated to be effective for a variety of emotional, cognitive, and social problems 4. **DRUG THERAPY** The use of drug therapy--- antidepressants, stimulants, tranquilizers, or antipsychotic medications---to treat childhood emotional disorders is controversial **RESILIENCE** - Resilient children are those who weather circumstances that might blight others, who maintain their composure and competence under challenge or threat, or who bounce back from traumatic events. - The two most important protective factors that help children and adolescents overcome stress and contribute to resilience are good family relationships and cognitive functioning (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998)