Lecture 8 - Development PDF

Development 2 Lecture Objectives What is Development? Cognitive Development Theory Psychosocial Development Psychosexual Development Attachment Stages of Lifespan Development 3 1  What is Develop...

Development 2 Lecture Objectives What is Development? Cognitive Development Theory Psychosocial Development Psychosexual Development Attachment Stages of Lifespan Development 3 1  What is Development Development is a pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span The lifespan perspective holds that development is lifelong, multidimensional, plastic, multidisciplinary and contextual. It involves growth, maintenance, and regulation, and is constructed through biological, socio-cultural and individual factors working together 4 The Lifespan Perspective - Characteristics Characteristic Detail Lifelong No age period dominates development Multidimensional Development consists of several dimensions Multidirectional Throughout life, some dimensions expand and others shrink Plastic Our abilities to change Multidisciplinary Key aspects of human development are of interest to a range of disciplines Contextual Individuals are changing beings in a changing world Growth, We need to manage the conflicts of growth, maintenance, and maintenance and regulation of loss as we enter middle and late adulthood regulation Biology, Culture We are shaped and shape both our culture and our environment and the Individual 5 2  Human Developmental Theories 6 Cognitive Development Jean Piaget (1896-1980) “if we examine the intellectual development of the individual or the whole of humanity, we shall find that human spirit goes through a certain number of stages, each different from the other” 7 3  Jean Piaget & Cognitive Development Cognition: mental activities (thinking, reasoning, knowing, remembering, communicating) Cognitive Our intellectual progression reflects our struggle to understand our world Development We develop in a series of stages Children reason and think differently from adults 8 Cognitive Development Development of schemas “Cow!” “Cow!” a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information Theories about the This child has formed a schema called “COW” physical & social world which he uses to think about animals of a certain shape and size. 9 4  Cognitive Development Assimilation Encounter of novel situation/thing → assimilation Interpreting new experience in terms of existing schemas 10 Cognitive Development Accommodation Adapting current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information New experience does not fit schema → accommodation 11 5  Cognitive Development Organisation: Piaget’s concept of grouping isolated behaviours and thoughts into a higher-order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system Disequilibrium: cognitive conflict as a result of the process of assimilation and accommodation A growing/developing child would assimilate, accommodate, adjust their old schemas, develop new schemas and organise and recognise the old and new schemas 12 Sensorimotor stage – birth to 2 years Infants know their world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor Cognitive activities Development Infants start with simple reflexes At the end of this stage, they can produce complex patterns 13 6  Cognitive Development Discovery of Object Permanence The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived 14 Cognitive Development Preoperational Stage – 2 to 7 years The child learns to use language but does not comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Conservation is the principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape 15 7  Cognitive Development Egocentrism is the inability of the child to distinguish between their perspective and someone else’s perspective 16 Concrete Operational Stage – 7 to 11 years Cognitive Children gain the mental operations Development that enable them to think logically about concrete events Can perform simple mathematical calculations mentally 17 8  Cognitive Development Formal Operational – Begins at age 12 Thinking expands beyond concrete experiences Concrete experiences no longer serve as anchors for our thought Abstract thinking capabilities is evident in our use of verbal problem solving If A = B, and B = C, then A =C 18 People’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states – about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviours these might predict Cognitive Development – Children are capable of understanding how Theory of Mind their actions would affect others Children begin to understand that others may hold false beliefs 19 9  Piaget’s stages of cognitive development served as a foundation for Kohlberg’s stages of moral development Lawrence Kohlberg Our development gives us the opportunities to - Moral experience conflict between one’s current stage of moral thinking and the reasoning of Development someone at a higher stage From his research, he devised 3 levels of moral development 20 Kohlberg's 3 Levels, 6 Stages 21 10  Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) “The playing adult steps sideward into another reality; the playing child advances forward to new stages of mastery” 22 Erikson’s Stages of Development Stage Crisis Detail Infancy Trust v Mistrust Needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust Toddler (1 to 3) Autonomy v Shame and Toddler exercise will and do things for themselves or experience doubt Doubt Preschool (3 to 6) Initiative v Guilt Child learns to initiate tasks and carry out plans or feel guilt about attempts to be independent Elementary school Competence v Child learns pleasure by applying self or feels inferior (6 to 12) Inferiority Adolescence (12 to Identity v Role Trying to develop a sense of self, challenges to do so results in confusion 20) confusion about one’s identity Young adulthood Intimacy v Isolation Struggle to form social relationships or feel isolated (20s to 40s) Middle Adulthood Generativity v Feeling that one has contributed to the world or not (40s to 60s Stagnation Late Adulthood Integrity v Despair Reflection on life leads to satisfaction or despair and failure (60+) 23 11  Emphasis on Identity Identity is our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles Identity is the understanding and acceptance of both the self and one’s society This challenge is most prevalent during the adolescent period Social identity is the “we” aspect of our self-concept, it is the part of who the self is that comes from group membership 24 Psychosexual Development Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) “Children are completely egotistic; they feel their needs intensely and strive ruthlessly to satisfy them” 25 12  Freud’s Stages of Development Stage Detail Oral (birth to 1 year) Oral experiences introduces the baby to both pleasure and pain in the world. Libidinal energy is invested in the oral erogenous zones Anal (1 to 3 years) Frustration arises from the need to regulate bodily functions Phallic stage (3 to 5 Sexual desires directed to the parent of the opposite sex. Child learns to repress these years) desires and incorporate the parent’s values, attitudes, and beliefs. Latency (5 to Sexual desires are at rest and the focus is on cognitive development and assimilating puberty) cultural values Genital Stage The person becomes more altruistic and less focused on their pleasure. The adult (Adolescence) personality is fully formed and stable 26 Social Development -Attachment Attachment is an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation Stranger anxiety is a fear for strangers Babies cannot assimilate the new face into their schema for familiar faces 27 13  Social Development - Attachment The Harlow’s created two artificial mothers: One a bare cylinder with a wooden head and a feeding bottle attached The other covered with cloth The infant monkeys gravitated to the cloth mother and used her as a base from which they explored their environment 28 Social Development - Attachment Human infants form attachment with caregivers who are warm and would rock the baby Emotional attachment in infant humans occurs through touch Infants use their caregiver as a safe base from which to explore their environment 29 14  Attachment Babies and caregivers are biologically predisposed to form an attachment A new born would engage in certain types of behaviour to elicit a response which would foster that bonding and attachment Attachment develops in a series of phases which covers the period of birth to 24 months on 30 Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Experiment An observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant move Social through a series of introduction, separations and reunions with the caregiver and a stranger in a prescribed sequence Development - Attachment From this experiment, 4 attachment styles were identified: Secure attachment Insecure avoidant Insecure resistant Insecure disorganised 31 15  Babies would explore the room with the caregiver in there Securely When the caregiver exists the room, the infant may attached babies mildly protest On the caregiver’s return the infant would coo and smile The babies have little interaction with the caregiver Does not protest or seem distressed when the caregiver Insecure Attachment avoidant babies leaves On the caregiver’s return, the infant does not seek to re- Styles establish contact Initially clingy but then resist contact by fighting against closeness Insecure They do not explore the room resistant babies On the caregiver’s return, they cry loudly and resist any attempt for contact They may appear dazed and confused Insecure These babies must display strong patterns of avoidance disorganised and resistance or display certain specified behaviours babies such as extreme fearfulness around the caregiver 32 Parenting Styles Parenting is a complicated activity It is more than just the quantity of time spent, but also the quality of time spent Parenting styles can be described as a combination of how responsive and how demanding parents are Baumrind (1971) devised four parenting styles 33 16  Baumrind’s Parenting Style - Authoritarian This is a very restrictive and punitive style Children are told to follow directions and to respect the work and effort of parents They are forced to follow rules without any explanation provided These children tend to be fearful, have weak communication skills, are anxious and fail to initiate activity 34 Baumrind’s Parenting Style - Authoritative Authoritative parents encourage independence within certain limits and controls of their child’s behaviour They tend to be warm and nurturant and are supportive of children’s constructive behaviour They expect mature, independent and age- appropriate behaviour from children The children are self-reliant, cheerful, self-controlled and achievement oriented 35 17  Baumrind’s Parenting Style - Neglectful The parent is very uninvolved The child begins to think that the other aspects of the parent’s life is more important The child has poor self-control, cannot manage independence, low self-esteem, immature and socially incompetent As an adolescent, they may be prone to delinquency 36 Baumrind’s Parenting Style – Indulgent Parenting The indulgent parent is highly involved in the child’s life but places very few if any controls and limits on the child’s behaviour Children raised under this style never learn to control their behaviour Some parents have a misconception that the combination of warmth and little controls fosters creativity and confidence These children tend to be dominant, egocentric, noncompliant and have difficulties with peer relations 37 18  Stages of Lifespan Development 39 Prenatal Prenatal Development Zygote - fertilized egg – 2 weeks –Rapid cell division Embryo - 2 weeks - 2nd month Fetus - 9 weeks - birth 40 19  Newborn - primed to survive Rooting Reflex – tendency to open mouth, and search for nipple when touched on the cheek New-born Preferences – human voices and faces face like images – smell and sound of mother 41 Infancy and childhood Brain development – Few neural networks at birth Rapid development by 15 months Infancy and Childhood Maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior relatively uninfluenced by experience 42 20  Motor Development Infancy and Roll-over→ sit-up→ crawl→ walk Childhood Developmental milestones: 43 Adolescence Adolescence – sexual maturation – capable of reproduction Primary Sex Characteristics – Dev of body structures that make sexual reproduction possible ovaries--female testes--male external genitalia 44 21  Middle Adulthood Middle Adulthood - midlife transition Menopause Cessation of menstruation Other biological changes a woman experiences as ability to reproduce declines Physical activity 45 Old Age - Changes in physical & cognitive development Some diminishment in: Vision Muscle strength, reaction time, smell Neural processing slows Changes in memory Old Age 46 22  End of Lecture Questions? 47 23