General Chemistry PDF

Module 1: GENERAL CHEMISTRY Prepared By: Ryan James A. Bawasanta, RPh, LE Pharmacy Boards Review Lecturer College Instructor - Far Eastern Univeristy - Dr. Nicanor Reyes Medical Foundation  Chemistry - Study of matter Matter - anything that occup...

Module 1: GENERAL CHEMISTRY Prepared By: Ryan James A. Bawasanta, RPh, LE Pharmacy Boards Review Lecturer College Instructor - Far Eastern Univeristy - Dr. Nicanor Reyes Medical Foundation  Chemistry - Study of matter Matter - anything that occupies SPACE and has MASS Mass -Refers to the amount of matter present in a material or object Classification of Matter *Question: Element -simplest form , 1 element/ component is mass and weight the same? NO Compound (chemicially combined) 2 or more elements force exerted in an Matter Mixture 2 or more substances not chemically combined) object (N/lB) due to gravity - Composition -Structure -Cgnages that matter indergoes gravity :9.81 m/s2 -energy involved in such changes/ involved wt - mass x accelerayion due to gravity RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  4th stae of matter= Plasma / ionized gas * most abundant stae of matter in the universe -disticnt in other state becuase its has charge such as ion States of Matter and electrons - charge : proton and electron = greatly affected by the magnetic field Example: Ne lights, Aurorra, Stars ,Sun the IFA stegnth - SOLID - LIQUID -GAS - PLASMA Enthalphy (heat/ reaction energy) - Plasma - gas - liquid- solid RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Units of measurements: Length Meter (m) Mass Kilograms (kg) Conversion Time Seconds (sec) F = (9/5 x C ) + 32 Temperature Kelvin (K) C = 5/9 (F - 32) C - K = c + 273.15 RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Heterogenous Hompgenous - 2 phase - 1 phase ex: suspension Classification of Mixture: ex: solutions colloids (milk) According to the Nature of Particles According to the Size of Particles a. Solution - uniform mixture (homogenous ) - solute + solvent b. Suspension - coarse mixture - finely divided solid materials distributed in a liquid where solids is insoluble c. Colloid - particle of solute not broken down to the sizer of the molecules but are small enough to remain supended a evenly dispensed hrougout the medium RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Process of Separating Components of Mixtures : Decantation - difference in the sp gravity / density Distillation - evaporation and condensation Evaporation Magnetic Separation Filtration RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Process of Separating Components of Mixtures : Centinuation Sorting Centrifugation speed up the setting process of a ppt Fractional Crystallization lowers the temperature Chromatography mesures the difference in solute affinity RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Properties of Matter: Example: density, sp gravity, melting point, viscosity, temp., color Intrinsic Intensive property - Independent of mass / amount Extrinsic Extensive - Dependemt on mass Example : wt, volume , pressure, heat content , leghtn , mass/cot, entropy, entalpy, electrical resistance RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Changes that matter undergoes: 1. Physical Change - change in phase * sublimation : napthalene balls ( moth balls) * depositio : dry ice ( cardice) RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Changes that matter undergoes: 2 Chemical Change - change in coth intrinsic and extrinsic properties Evidence of chem change 1. evoluton of gas 2. formation of precipitate 3. Emission of light 4. generation of electricity 5. production of mechanical energy 6. Absorption / liberation of heat RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Types of Chemical Reactions: Combination / Synthesis Direct Union A + B ---- AB Decomposition/Analysis AB ---- A+B Single Displacement Single Replacement AB + C ---- AC +B Metathesis Excharge Double Displacement AB + CD --- AC = BD Neutralization - Acid + base --- salt + water RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Processes Involved in Chemical Change: Oxidation + oxygen Reduction - oxygen or + hydrogen Neutralization Acid + base -- salth + water Hydrolysis water + salt -- acid + base Saponification alkali + fate --- soap + glycerol Fermentation organic subtances + microbes -- alcohol RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE 3 Nuclear Change: -change in structure, properties, composition of the molecules Nuclear Fission - spliting of a heavy atom Nuclear Fusion - union of 2 ligght atoms to form a bigger molecule RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Atomic Structure Protons = electrons = atomic # Neutrons = mass # - atomic # Electrons Protons - charge Mass Number protons + Neutrons RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Atomic Number: ___________ 23 11 Mass Number: ___________ 23 Protons: ___________ 11 Electrons: ___________ 11 Neutrons: ___________ 12 11 Charge: ___________ 0 RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Similarites DIFFERENCES Isotope element mass number Isotone neutrons protons Isobar mass number element Isomer molecule structure RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Scientists and their contributions: Democritus - coined the term "atomos" - matter is made up of small indivisible particlels John Dalton - " Billiard ball mode; - atom is hard ndestructible sphere Dalton's atomic theory - matter is made up of atoms - all atoms of a given element are alike - Atoms enter into a combinatin with other atoms to form compounds but reain uncharged during ordinary chemical reaction - Atoms can combined into a simple numerical ratios - Dsproved : subatomic particles RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Scientists and their contributions: J.J. Thompson " Raisin bread model" Rutherford mostly proton ; GoldFoil/ Film expreiment - atom's Niel Bohr Planetary model Erwin Schrodinger cloud -- e-- move in 3D structure Quantum mechanical model ; electron James Chadwick (orbitals) - Neutrons RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Allotropism Allotrope diferrent properties -Atoms of different elements can link together in deffrent ways to from subtances with Allotropes of Carbon - Diamond and Graphite Allotropes of Oxygen [o] - nascent 02 - molecular 03 - ozone RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE QUANTUM NUMBERS RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Fundamental Chemistry Laws 1. Law of Conservation of Mass/ Matter – Antoine Lavoisier Mass/ Matter is always constant (neither created nor destroyed) RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Fundamental Chemistry Laws 2. Law of Definite/ Constant Proportions – Joseph Proust (Proust’s law) Chemical compounds always contain the exact proportion of element in fixed ratio (by mass) RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Fundamental Chemistry Laws 3. Law of Multiple Proportion – John Dalton When 2 elements form more than 1 compounds, it can be expressed in a fixed whole number (by mass) 4. Law of combining weights Proportions by weight when chemical reaction takes place can be expressed in small integral unit Ex. MgO → 40g/mole (100%) Mg = 24g/mole (60%); O = 16g/mole (40%) RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN ELECTRON CONFIGURATION: Pauli’s Exclusion Principle - no two e - shall have the same set of quantm numbers - each atomic prbital can only accommodate 2 electron RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN ELECTRON CONFIGURATION: Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle - impossible to determine simultaneoously the electron momentum and position Aufbau's Building Up Principle - lower energy levels are filles up first Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity - orbitals are filles singly before pairing up RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE USEFUL TRIVIAS SA BOARD 3 most abundant elements - O, Si, Al 1st element produced artificially - Tc = technetos Rarest element - At = Astatin Liquid at room temperature - Hg/Br RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Family A Representative elements Occupy: S block Group 1A - Alkaline metals Group II A - metals P block Group IIIA - VIIIA RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Family B Transition elements Occupy: D block Transition metals F block lanthanides / locothanoid series - rare RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Periodic Trends RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Periodic Trends Atomic RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Kinematic Molecular Theory Explains the phases of matter based on movement of molecules /ions/ atoms Solid Definite shape ans size , definite volume Liquid Follows the shape of its container , definete volume Gas Indefinite shape and volume RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Solutions -Homogenous mixture singlr phase system of 2 or more substance Saturated - maximm amoun tof solute Unsaturated - less amount of solute Supersaturated - more solute than the solvent- the solute cannot be dissolves anymore RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Factors Affecting Solubility: 1. Nature of Solute and Solvent -" like dissolves like" - Solubility - maximum amount of solute expressed in terms o fgrans that can be dissolved in 100 grams of water - Miscibility - ability of a subtance to mix with aonther subtance RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Factors Affecting Solubility: 2. Temperature - Incrase in temperature = decrease in solubility of a gas - Exothermic - solubility decrease with increase in temperature relase heat - Endothermic - solubility increase with increase in temperature absorbs HEAT RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Factors Affecting Solubility: 3. Pressure " for gases only" - Henry's law 0 the solubility of a gas increase as pressure increase ( directly proportional ) 4. Particle Size/Surface Area - if the particles size derease -- the surface area increase --- solubility increase RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Factors Affecting Solubility: 5. Presence of Salts Salting out - presence of salt Decrease solubility - common ion effect Salting In - presence of salt Increase solubility RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Forces of Attraction Intramolecular Forces Intermolecular Forces RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Intramolecular Forces of Attraction -happens within molecules Ionic - transfer of elecctrons Covalent - sharing of electrons polar - unequal nonpolar - equal RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Intermolecular Forces of Attraction - it happens between molecules ; physical attraction Van der Waals Keesom -dipole - dipole , orientation/ alignment effect, 1-7 kcla /mole Debye - dipole- inducedd dipole , aka induction , 1-3 kcla / mole London Dispersion -dispersion - induced dipole - induced dipole very colse proximity -- internal vibration ( will cause of charges , 05 0- 1 kca /mole Ion-Dipole - charge ion + polar molecule ,, example ; salt and water Ion-Induced Dipole -charge ion + nonpolar moelcule ,.. example: I1 + KI Hydrogen Bond -between H and electronegative atom (F, O, N. CI, S) - can aslo be induced as part of intramoelcular RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Physical Properties of Systems: Additive Property - depends on the SUM - moleclar weight Constitutive Property - type and arrangement - Example: optical rotation/ reflective index Colligative Property - number of solute - Examples : vapor ppressure lowering, boling point elevation, freezing point depression, osmotic pressure RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure Lowering Boiling Point Elevation Freezing Point Depression Osmotic Pressure RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Vapor Pressure Lowering - the additio of a non -volative solute lowers the Vapor pressure of a liquid - A liquid in a closed container will wstablished and equilibrium with its vapor -When equilibirum is reached, vapor exerts a presure (vapor pressre) -Volatile liquids - exhibit Vapor pressure -Non - volatile - no measurable Vapor Pressure RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Boiling Point Elevation - Boiling point- temperature at which liquid pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure (atm) -- 1 atm mmHg - The boiling oint of a solution conatining a non-olatile solute would e HIGHER than tje pure solvent RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Freezing Point Depression - Freezing oint - temperature at which the solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium under an external pressure - In general, solution have a lower freezing point than the pure solvent -Real life application 1. Salt is spread on roads to melt ice - Road De-icing 2. Ethylene glycol as "anti freeze" RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Osmotic Pressure Osmosis - movement of water across a semipermable membrane from low to high concentration - This s the pressure required to offset the movement of solvent thriugh the semi-permeable membrane - Also defined as the pressure required to prevent osmosis in solutions - Hypertonic = causes crenation / shrink - Hypotonic = causes swelling / lysis of the cell - Isotonic = equal ; 0.9% (w/v) NaCl RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  GAS LAWS Boyle's/Mariotte Law Charles Law P1V1 = P2V2 V1/T1 = V2/T2 RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  GAS LAWS Gay-Lussac's Law Combined Gas Law P1/T1 = P2/T2 P1V1 / T1 = P2V2/ T2 RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE GAS LAWS Ideal Gas Law PV = nRT RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  GAS LAWS Avogadro’s Law Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures V1/n1 = V2/ n2 Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  GAS LAWS Henry’s Law of Gas Solubility Graham’s Law Rate diffusion = 1/ squre root of density Pressure&Solubility RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  GAS LAWS Fick’s 1st Law Real/Van der Waals Raoult’s Law (Pt a1V2 / v2 ) (v-n6 ) = nRT P solution = x solvent x P solvent J = d 1( change of concentration/ change of x ) RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Diffusion VS Effusion RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Acids and Bases Electrolytes good conductors - weak electrolytes = incomplete dissolution - strong electrolytes = strong acids and strong bases; complete dissolution Non-Electrolytes -will not dissociate, will not conduct electricity RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Acid-Base Theories RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Acids and Bases Hard NaOh Soft naKOh RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Acids and Bases PEARSON’S HSAB (HARD-SOFT ACID-BASE) CONCEPT Hard-Hard / Soft-Soft Hard-Soft / Soft-Hard Thermodynamically Stronger Thermodynamically Weaker interaction interaction Hard Acid + Hard Base → Ionic complexes Soft Acid + Soft Base → Covalent complex RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE  Acids and Bases PEARSON’S HSAB (HARD-SOFT ACID-BASE) CONCEPT RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Buffers Solutions that have the property of resisting changes in pH when acids or bases are added to them This property results from the presence of a buffer pair which consists of either: weak acid ad some salt of a weak acid or its conjugate base weak base and some salt of a week base or its conjugate acid RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Henderson-Hasselbach Equation weak acids = ph = pka log salt /acid weak bases = ph= pkb + log base/ salt Buffer Capacity - ability of a buffer solution to resist changes in pH RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Thermochemistry (Definition of Terms): Heat (q) - energy transfer due ti temperarure difference Work (w) -form of energy that transfer between a systm an d its surroundings in the form of compression or expansions of gas Internal Energy (U) - total energy attributed to the particles of matter and their interactions within a system, composed of thermal energy and chemical energy RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Thermochemistry (Definition of Terms): Enthalpy (H) - energy reaction Entropy (S) - degree of diorderliness Heat Capacity- amont (c) of heat required to raise the temparature of an object or substance by 1 degree Specific Heat -amount of heat required to raise the tempertaure of an object per gram RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Chemical Reactions: Endothermic Process -absorbs heat Exothermic Process - releases heat RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Le Chatelier's Principle When a stress is applied to a system in equilibrium, the equilibrium shifts to relieve the stress RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Law of Thermodynamics Law of Conservation of Energy States that energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be redistributed or changed from one form to another RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE Law of Thermodynamics The second law of thermodynamics says that the entropy of any isolated system not in thermal equilibrium almost always increases. The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero. RYAN JAMES A. BAWASANTA, RPH, LE