GENERAL CHEMISTRY-notes.pdf

GENERAL CHEMISTRY Rheene Rose D. Bajon, RPh [email protected] VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P CHEM 100P: GENERAL CHEMISTRY COURSE DESCRIPTION Rationa...

GENERAL CHEMISTRY Rheene Rose D. Bajon, RPh [email protected] VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P CHEM 100P: GENERAL CHEMISTRY COURSE DESCRIPTION Rationale: This course covers the qualitative and quantitative aspects of scientific measurement, the nature of matter, gases, liquids and solids, energy, atomic theory, properties of elements, chemical bonding, molecular structure and properties, stoichiometry, thermochemistry, and solutions. Focus: It focuses on the composition, structure, and properties of matter; quantitative principles, kinetics, and energetics of transformations of matter; and fundamental concepts of chemistry. Outcomes: At the end of the course the students will have a firm foundation in the fundamentals and application of current chemical and scientific theories. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P CHEM 100P: GENERAL CHEMISTRY CREDIT UNIT Lecture- 2 Units VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P CHEM 100P: GENERAL CHEMISTRY GRADING SYSTEM Participation/Attendance 10% Prelim 30% Quiz 40% Midterm 30% Exam 50% Endterm 40% Total 100% Final Grade 100% VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P CHEM 100P: GENERAL CHEMISTRY COURSE SCHEDULE Time Topic Week 1 Introduction Week 2 Matter and Measurement Week 3 Atoms and the Periodic Table Quiz #1 Week 4 Ionic compounds Quiz #2 Week 5 Covalent compounds Quiz #3 Week 6 Prelim Examination VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P CHEM 100P: GENERAL CHEMISTRY REFERENCES Smith, Janice G. (2019). General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry (4th edition). McGraw Hill. Allen, L. V. (Ed.).(2013). Remington : the science and practice of pharmacy (22nd ed.)vol.1 Tan, E. Y. & See, G. L. L. (2017). Essentials of inorganic medicinal chemistry VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P Introduce Yourself Name School last attended What make you curious about pharmacy? VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P What is Chemistry? Chemistry is the study of matter—its composition, properties, and transformations. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up volume. Naturally occurring matter: cotton sand digoxin, a cardiac drug Synthetic (human-made) matter: nylon Styrofoam ibuprofen VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  States of Matter Three States of Matter—Solid, Liquid, and Gas Solid: has a definite volume maintains its shape regardless of its container has particles that lie close together in a regular three-dimensional array VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  States of Matter Three States of Matter—Solid, Liquid, and Gas Liquid: has definite volume takes the shape of its container has particles that are close together but can move past one another VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  States of Matter Three States of Matter—Solid, Liquid, and Gas Gas: has no definite shape or volume expands to fill the volume and assumes the shape of whatever container it is put in has particles that are very far apart and move around randomly VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  States of Matter Properties of Matter Physical properties can be observed or measured without changing the composition of the material. boiling point melting point solubility color odor VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  States of Matter Properties of Matter Physical change alters the material without changing its composition. melting ice (solid water) to form liquid water boiling liquid water to form steam (gaseous water) VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  States of Matter Properties of Matter Chemical properties determine how a substance can be converted into another substance. Chemical change is the chemical reaction that converts one substance into another. a piece of paper burning metabolizing an apple for energy oxygen and hydrogen combining to form water VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Classification of Matter Pure substance is composed of a single component has a constant composition, regardless of sample size and origin of sample cannot be broken down to other pure substances by a physical change table sugar (C12H22O11) and water (H2O) are both pure substances VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Classification of Matter Mixture is composed of more than one component can have varying composition (any combination of solid, liquid, and gas), depending on the sample can be separated into its components by a physical change sugar dissolved in water = mixture VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Classification of Matter Element vs. Compound An element is a pure A compound is a pure substance that cannot be substance formed by broken down by a chemical chemically joining two or change. more elements. aluminum metal (Al) table salt (NaCl) VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Classification of Matter VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Measurement The Importance of Units Every measurement is composed of a number and a unit. The number is meaningless without the unit. proper aspirin dosage = 325 (milligrams or pounds?) a fast time for the 100-meter dash = 10.00 (seconds or days?) The English system uses units like feet (length), gallons (volume), and pounds (weight). The metric system uses units like meters (length), liters (volume), and grams (mass). VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Measurement The Metric System of Units Each type of measurement has a base unit. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Measurement The Metric System of Units Other units are related to the base unit by a power of 10. The prefix of the unit name indicates if the unit is larger or smaller than the base unit. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Measurement Measuring Length 1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 meters (m) 1 km = 1,000 m 1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 meters (m) 1 mm = 0.001 m 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 meters (m) 1 cm = 0.01 m VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Measurement Measuring Mass Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object. Weight is the force that matter feels due to gravity. 1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 grams (g) 1 kg = 1,000 g 1 milligram (mg) = 0.001 grams (g) 1 mg = 0.001 g VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Measurement Measuring Volume 1 kiloliter (kL) = 1,000 liters (L) 1 kL = 1,000 L 1 milliliter (mL) = 0.001 liters (L) 1 mL = 0.001 L Volume = Length x Width x Height = cm x cm x cm = cm3 1 mL = 1 cm3 = 1 cc VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Significant Figures Exact and Inexact Numbers An exact number results from counting objects or is part of a definition. 10 fingers 10 toes 1 meter = 100 centimeters An inexact number results from a measurement or observation and contains some uncertainty. 15.3 cm 1000.8 g 0.0034 mL VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Significant Figures Determining Significant Figures Significant figures are all the digits in a measured number including one estimated digit. All nonzero digits are always significant. 65.2 g 255.345 g 3 sig. figures 6 sig. figures VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Significant Figures Rules to Determine When a Zero is a Significant Figure Rule 1: A zero counts as a significant figure when it occurs: between two nonzero digits 29.05 g 1.0087 mL 4 sig. figures 5 sig. figures at the end of a number with a decimal place 3.7500 cm 620. lb 5 sig. figures 3 sig. figures VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Significant Figures Rules to Determine When a Zero is a Significant Figure Rule 2: A zero does not count as a significant figure when it occurs: at the beginning of a number 0.00245 mg 0.008 mL 3 sig. figures 1 sig. figure at the end of a number that does not have a decimal 2570 m 1245500 m 3 sig. figures 5 sig. figures VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Significant Figures Rules for Multiplication and Division The answer has the same number of significant figures as the original number with the fewest significant figures. 4 sig. figures 351.2 miles 63.854545 miles = 5.5 hour hour 2 sig. figures Answer must have 2 sig. figures. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Significant Figures Rules for Rounding Off Numbers to be retained to be dropped 63.854545 miles = 64 miles hour hour first digit to be dropped 2 sig. figures Answer If the first digit to be dropped is: Then: between 0 and 4 drop it and all remaining digits between 5 and 9 round up the last digit to be retained by adding 1 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Significant Figures Rules for Addition and Subtraction The answer has the same number of decimal places as the original number with the fewest decimal places. 10.11 kg 2 decimal places 3.6 kg 1 decimal place 6.51 kg answer must have 1 decimal place = 6.5 kg final answer 1 decimal place VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Scientific Notation In scientific notation, a number is written as: Exponent: y x 10x Any positive or negative Coefficient: whole number. A number between 1 and 10. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Scientific Notation HOW TO Convert a Standard Number to Scientific Notation Example Convert these numbers to scientific notation. 2,500 0.036 Step Move the decimal point to give a number between 1 and 10. 2500 0.036 Step Multiply the result by 10x, where x = number of places the decimal was moved. move decimal left, move decimal right, x is positive x is negative 2.5 x 103 3.6 x 10−2 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Scientific Notation Converting a Number in Scientific Notation to a Standard Number When the exponent x is positive, move the decimal point x places to the right. 2.800 x 102 = 280.0 When the exponent x is negative, move the decimal point x places to the left. 2.80 x 10–2 = 0.0280 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Problem Solving Using the Factor-Label Method Conversion Factors Conversion factor: A term that converts a quantity in one unit to a quantity in another unit. original desired x conversion factor = quantity quantity Conversion factors are usually written as equalities. 2.21 lb = 1 kg To use them, they must be written as fractions. 2.21 lb or 1 kg 1 kg 2.21 lb VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Using the Factor-Label Method Solving a Problem Using One Conversion Factor Factor-label method: Using conversion factors to convert a quantity in one unit to a quantity in another unit. units are treated like numbers make sure all unwanted units cancel To convert 130 lb into kilograms: 130 lb x conversion factor = ? kg original desired quantity quantity VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Using the Factor-Label Method Solving a Problem Using One Conversion Factor 2.21 lb 1 kg Answer 130 lb x or 2 sig. figures 1 kg 2.21 lb = 59 kg The bottom conversion factor has the original unit in the denominator. The unwanted unit lb cancels. The desired unit kg does not cancel. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Using the Factor-Label Method HOW TO Solve a Problem Using Conversion Factors How many grams of aspirin are in a 325-mg Example tablet? Identify the original quantity and the desired Step quantity, including units. original quantity desired quantity 325 mg ?g VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Using the Factor-Label Method HOW TO Solve a Problem Using Conversion Factors Step Write out the conversion factor(s) needed to solve the problem. 1 g = 1000 mg This can be written as two possible fractions: 1000 mg or 1g 1g 1000 mg Choose this factor to cancel the unwanted unit, mg. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Using the Factor-Label Method HOW TO Solve a Problem Using Conversion Factors Step Set up and solve the problem. 325 mg x 1g = 0.325 g 1000 mg 3 sig. figures 3 sig. figures Unwanted unit cancels. Write the answer with the correct number Step of significant figures. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Using the Factor-Label Method Solving a Problem Using Two or More Conversion Factors Always arrange the factors so that the denominator in one term cancels the numerator in the preceding term. How many liters is in 1.0 pint? 1.0 pint ?L original quantity desired quantity Two conversion factors are needed: 2 pints = 1 quart 1.06 quarts = 1 liter 2 pt or 1 qt 1.06 qt or 1L 1 qt 2 pt 1L 1.06 qt First, cancel pt. Then, cancel qt. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Using the Factor-Label Method Solving a Problem Using Two or More Conversion Factors Set up the problem and solve: 1.0 pt x 1 qt x 1 L = 0.47 L 2 pt 1.06 qt 2 sig. figures 2 sig. figures Write the answer with the correct number of significant figures. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Temperature Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an object is. Three temperature scales are used: degrees Fahrenheit (oF) degrees Celsius (oC) Kelvin (K) To convert from oC to oF: To convert from oF to oC: oC = oF − 32 oF = 1.8(oC) + 32 1.8 To convert from oC to K: To convert from K to oC: K = oC + 273 oC = K − 273 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Temperature Comparing the Three Temperature Scales VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Atoms and the Periodic Table VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P Elements and the Periodic Table An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by a chemical reaction. Each element is identified by a one- or two-letter symbol. Elements are arranged in the periodic table. The position of an element in the periodic table tells us much about its chemical properties. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Atoms and the Periodic Table Elements and the Periodic Table VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Atoms and the Periodic Table VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Atoms and the Periodic Table Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids The elements in the periodic table are divided into three groups— metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Metals: are located on the left side of the periodic table usually exist as shiny solids are good conductors of heat and electricity are solids at room temperature, except for mercury (Hg), which is a liquid VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Atoms and the Periodic Table Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids Nonmetals: are located on the right side of the periodic table usually do not have a shiny appearance are usually poor conductors of heat and electricity can be solids, liquids, or gases at room temperature solid liquid gas sulfur bromine nitrogen carbon oxygen VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Atoms and the Periodic Table Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids Metalloids: are located on the solid line that starts at boron (B) and angles down towards astatine (At) have properties intermediate between metals and nonmetals are represented by only seven elements: boron (B) antimony (Sb) silicon (Si) tellurium (Te) germanium (Ge) astatine (At) arsenic (As) VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Focus on the Human Body Elements of Life VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Atoms and the Periodic Table Compounds Compound: a pure substance formed by chemically combining two or more elements together. A chemical formula consists of: element symbols to show the identity of the elements forming a compound subscripts to show the ratio of atoms in the compound H2O C3H8 2 H atoms 1 O atom 3 C atoms 8 H atoms 53 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Atoms and the Periodic Table Compounds Compounds can be drawn many ways: Different elements are represented by different colors: VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Structure of the Atom All matter is composed of the same basic building blocks called atoms. Atoms are composed of three subatomic particles: VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Structure of the Atom Nucleus: location of protons Electron cloud: and neutrons location of electrons dense core of the atom comprises most of the location of most of the atom’s volume atom’s mass VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Structure of the Atom Atomic Number From the periodic table: 3 Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons Li in the nucleus. Every atom of a given element has the same atomic number. Every atom of a given element has the same number of protons in the nucleus. Different elements have different atomic numbers. A neutral atom has no net overall charge, so Z = number of protons = number of electrons VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Isotopes Isotopes, Atomic Number, and Mass Number Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons. the number of protons (Z) Mass number (A) = + the number of neutrons Mass number (A) 35 Cl Atomic number (Z) 17 # of protons = 17 # of electrons = 17 # of neutrons = 35 – 17 = 18 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Isotopes Atomic Weight The atomic weight is the weighted average of the masses of the naturally occurring isotopes of a particular element reported in atomic mass units. From the periodic table: 6 atomic number (Z) C element symbol 12.01 atomic weight (amu) VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Isotopes Atomic Weight HOW TO Determine the Atomic Weight of an Element Example What is the atomic weight of chlorine? Step List each isotope, it’s mass in atomic mass units, and it’s abundance in nature. Isotope Mass (amu) Isotopic Abundance Cl-35 34.97 75.78% = 0.7578 Cl-37 36.97 24.22% = 0.2422 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Isotopes Atomic Weight HOW TO Determine the Atomic Weight of an Element Step Multiply the isotopic abundance by the mass of each isotope, and add up the products. The sum is the atomic weight of the element. 34.97 x 0.7578 = 26.5003 amu 36.97 x 0.2422 = 8.9541 amu 35.4544 amu = 35.45 amu 4 sig. figs. Answer 4 sig. figs. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Focus on Health and Medicine Isotopes in Medicine VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  The Periodic Table Basic Features of the Periodic Table A row in the periodic table is called a period, and a column in the periodic table is called a group. Main group elements: consist of the two columns on the far left and the six columns on the far right of the periodic table the groups are numbered 1A–8A Transition metal elements: contained in the 10 short columns in the middle these groups are numbered 1B–8B Inner transition elements: consist of the lanthanides and actinides no group numbers are assigned VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  The Periodic Table Basic Features of the Periodic Table VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  The Periodic Table Characteristics of Groups 1A and 2A Elements that comprise a particular group have similar chemical properties. Group Group Number Name Properties of Both Groups soft and shiny metals 1A Alkali metals low melting points 2A Alkaline earth good conductors of heat elements and electricity react with water to form basic solutions VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  The Periodic Table Characteristics of Groups 7A and 8A Group Group Number Name Properties 7A Halogens exist as two atoms joined together very reactive; combine with many other elements to form compounds 8A Noble gases very stable rarely combine with any other elements VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electronic Structure Electrons in the Atom Electrons do not move freely in space. An electron is confined to a specific region, giving it a particular energy. The regions occupied by electrons are called principal energy levels or shells (n). The shells are numbered n = 1, 2, 3, etc. Electrons in lower numbered shells are closer to the nucleus and are lower in energy. Electrons in higher numbered shells are further from the nucleus and are higher in energy. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electronic Structure Shells Shells with larger numbers (n) are farther from the nucleus, have a larger volume, and can therefore hold more electrons. The distribution of electrons in the first four shells: Number of Electrons Shell (n) in a Shell 4 32 3 18 increasing increasing number of energy 2 8 electrons 1 2 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electronic Structure Subshells and Orbitals Shells are divided into subshells, identified by the letters s, p, d, and f. The subshells consist of orbitals. An orbital is a region of space where the probability of finding an electron is high. Each orbital can hold two electrons. Subshell Number of Orbitals s 1 increasing p 3 energy d 5 f 7 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electronic Structure Subshells and Orbitals VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electronic Structure Orbital Shapes The s orbital has a spherical shape. The p orbital has a dumbbell shape. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electron Configuration The electron configuration describes how the electrons are arranged in an atom’s orbitals. The lowest energy arrangement is called the ground state. Rules to Determine the Ground State Electronic Configuration of an Atom Rule Electrons are placed in the lowest energy orbital beginning with the 1s orbital. Orbitals are then filled in order of increasing energy. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electron Configuration Rules to Determine the Ground State Electronic Configuration of an Atom VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electron Configuration Rules to Determine the Ground State Electronic Configuration of an Atom Rule Each orbital holds a maximum of 2 electrons. Rule When orbitals are equal in energy: 1 electron is added to each orbital until all of the orbitals are half-filled. Then, the orbitals can be completely filled. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electron Configuration Orbital Diagrams An orbital diagram uses a box to represent each orbital and arrows to represent electrons. an orbital a single, an electron unpaired pair electron Two electrons in an orbital have paired spins—that is, the spins are opposite in direction—so up and down arrows are used. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electron Configuration First-Row Elements (Period 1) Orbital Electron Element Notation Configuration H (Z = 1) 1s1 1 electron 1s He (Z = 2) 1s2 2 electrons 1s VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electron Configuration Second-Row Elements (Period 2) Orbital Electron Element Notation Configuration Li (Z = 3) 1s22s1 3 electrons 1s 2s C (Z = 6) 1s22s22p2 6 electrons 1s 2s 2p Ne (Z = 10) 1s22s22p6 10 electrons 1s 2s 2p VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electron Configuration Noble Gas Notation The electron configuration can be shortened by: using the name of the nearest noble gas from the previous row adding the electronic configuration of all remaining electrons Electron Noble Gas Configuration Notation element: C 1s22s22p2 [He]2s22p2 nearest He 1s2 noble gas: VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electron Configuration Other Elements Orbital Element Notation Ca 20 electrons 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 4s is lower in energy; it is filled before 3d. Electron Noble Gas Configuration Notation 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 [Ar]4s2 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table The Blocks of Elements in the Periodic Table VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Valence Electrons The chemical properties of an element depend on the most loosely held electrons, which are found in the valence shell. The valence shell is the outermost shell (the highest value of n). The electrons in the valence shell are called valence electrons. Be Cl 1s22s2 1s22s22p63s23p5 valence shell: n = 2 valence shell: n = 3 # of # of valence electrons = 2 valence electrons = 7 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Valence Electrons Elements in the same group have similar electron configurations. Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons. The group number, 1A–8A, equals the number of valence electrons for the main group elements. The exception is He, which has only 2 valence electrons. The chemical properties of a group are similar because these elements contain the same electronic configuration of valence electrons. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Valence Electrons Main Group Elements Group number: 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A Period 1: H He 1s1 1s2 Period 2: Li Be B C N O F Ne 2s1 2s2 2s22p1 2s22p2 2s22p3 2s22p4 2s22p5 2s22p6 Period 3: Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar 3s1 3s2 3s23p1 3s23p2 3s23p3 3s23p4 3s23p5 3s23p6 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Valence Electrons Electron-Dot Symbols Dots representing valence electrons are placed on the four sides of an element symbol. Each dot represents one valence electron. For 1–4 valence electrons, single dots are used. With > 4 valence electrons, the dots are paired. Element: H C O Cl # of Valence electrons: 1 4 6 7 Electron-dot symbol: H C O Cl VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Periodic Trends Atomic Size The size of atoms Increases increases down a column, as the valence e− are farther from the nucleus. Decreases The size of atoms decreases across a row, as the number of protons in the nucleus increases. The increasing # of protons pulls the e− closer to the nucleus, making the atoms smaller. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Periodic Trends Ionization Energy The ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from a neutral atom. Na + energy → Na+ + e– Ionization energies Decreases decrease down a column as the valence e− get farther away from the positively Increases charged nucleus. Ionization energies increase across a row as the number of protons in the nucleus increases. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  IONIC COMPOUNDS VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Introduction to Bonding Bonding is the joining of two atoms in a stable arrangement. Elements will gain, lose, or share electrons to attain the electron configuration of the noble gas closest to them in the periodic table. There are two different kinds of bonding: Ionic bonds result from the transfer of electrons from one element to another. Covalent bonds result from the sharing of electrons between two atoms. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ionic Compounds Ionic Bonding Ionic bonds form between: a metal on the left side of the periodic table a nonmetal on the right side of the periodic table Na + Cl2 NaCl sodium chlorine sodium chloride metal gas crystals VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ionic Compounds Covalent Bonding Covalent bonds are formed when two nonmetals combine, or when a metalloid bonds to a nonmetal. A molecule is a discrete group of atoms that share electrons. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ions Cations and Anions Ions are charged species in which the number of protons and electrons in an atom is unequal. Ionic compounds consist of oppositely charged ions that have a strong electrostatic attraction for each other. There are two types of ions—cations and anions. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ions Cations and Anions Cations are positively charged ions. A cation has fewer electrons (e−) than protons. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ions Cations and Anions By losing one, two, or three e−, an atom forms a cation with a completely filled outer shell of e−. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ions Cations and Anions Anions are negatively charged ions. An anion has more e− than protons. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ions The Octet Rule By gaining one, two, or three electrons, an atom forms an anion with a completely filled outer shell of e−. The octet rule: a main group element is especially stable when it possesses an octet of e− in its outer shell. octet = 8 valence e− VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ions Relating Group Number to Ionic Charge for Main Group Elements Elements in the same group form ions of similar charge. Metals form cations. For metals in groups 1A, 2A, and 3A, the group number = the charge on the cation. Nonmetals form anions. For nonmetals in Groups 6A and 7A, the anion charge = 8 – the group number. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ions Relating Group Number to Ionic Charge for Groups 1A–3A the cation charge = the group number group 1A: M M+ + e− 1 valence e− group 2A: M M2+ + 2e− 2 valence e− group 3A: M M3+ + 3e− 3 valence e− VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ions Relating Group Number to Ionic Charge for Groups 6A and 7A the anion charge = 8 – group number group 6A: X + 2e− X 2− 6 valence e− charge = 8 – 6 = 2 group 7A: X + e− X − 7 valence e− charge = 8 – 7 = 1 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ions Ions Formed by the Main Group Elements VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ions Metals with Variable Charge VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ions Common Ions in the Human Body VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ionic Compounds Formulas for Ionic Compounds The sum of the charges in an ionic compound must be zero overall. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ionic Compounds Formulas for Ionic Compounds VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ionic Compounds HOW TO Write a Formula for an Ionic Compound Step Identify which element is the cation and which is the anion. Metals form cations and nonmetals form anions. Use the group number of a main group element to determine the charge. K+ Cl− Ca2+ O2− metal nonmetal metal nonmetal group 1A group 7A group 2A group 6A VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ionic Compounds HOW TO Write a Formula for an Ionic Compound Step Determine how many of each ion type is needed for an overall charge of zero. When the cation and anion have the same charge, only one of each is needed. K+ + Cl− KCl Ca2+ + O2− CaO zero charge zero charge One of each ion is needed to balance charge. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ionic Compounds HOW TO Write a Formula for an Ionic Compound When the cation and anion have different charges, use the ion charges to determine the number of ions of each needed. Ca2+ Cl− A +2 charge means A -1 charge means 2 Cl− anions are 1 Ca2+ cation is needed. needed. Ca2+ + Cl− CaCl2 2 Cl− for each Ca2+ VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Ionic Compounds HOW TO Write a Formula for an Ionic Compound To write the formula, place the cation first and then the Step anion, and omit charges. KCl CaO CaCl2 Use subscripts to show the number of each ion needed to have a zero overall charge. When no subscript is written, it is assumed to be “1.” VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Focus on Health and Medicine Ionic Compounds in Consumer Products VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Ionic Compounds Naming Cations Main group cations are named for the element from which they are formed. Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ sodium potassium calcium magnesium VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Ionic Compounds Naming Cations Other cations can be named two ways: Systematic name: Follow the name of the cation by a Roman numeral in parentheses to indicate its charge. Fe2+ Fe3+ iron(II) iron(III) Common name: Use suffix “-ous” for the cation with a smaller charge and suffix “-ic” for the cation with a higher charge. Fe2+ Fe3+ ferrous ferric VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Ionic Compounds VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Ionic Compounds Naming Anions Anions are named by replacing the ending of the element name by the suffix “-ide.” VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Ionic Compounds Compounds of Main Group Metals Name the cation and then the anion. Do not specify the charge on the cation. Do not specify how many ions of each type are needed to balance charge. Na+ + F− NaF sodium fluoride sodium fluoride Mg2+ + Cl− MgCl2 magnesium chloride magnesium chloride (not magnesium dichloride) VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Ionic Compounds Compounds of Metals with a Variable Charge HOW TO Name an Ionic Compound That Contains a Metal with Variable Charge Example Give the name for CuCl2. Step Determine the charge on the cation. 2 Cl− anions = −2 total negative charge CuCl2 Cu cation must have a +2 charge to make the overall charge zero VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Ionic Compounds Compounds of Metals with a Variable Charge HOW TO Name an Ionic Compound That Contains a Metal with Variable Charge Step Name the cation and the anion. cation is named one of two possible ways: Systematic Common Cu2+ copper(II) cupric anion changes ending of element name to “-ide” Cl− chloride VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Ionic Compounds Compounds of Metals with a Variable Charge HOW TO Name an Ionic Compound That Contains a Metal with Variable Charge Step Write the name of the cation first, then the anion. copper(II) chloride Answer = or cupric chloride VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Ionic Compounds Writing a Formula from the Name HOW TO Derive a Formula from the Name of an Ionic Compound Example Write the formula for tin(IV) oxide. Identify the cation and anion and Step determine their charges. tin(IV) oxide Sn4+ O2− VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Ionic Compounds Writing a Formula from the Name HOW TO Derive a Formula from the Name of an Ionic Compound Step Balance charges. Two −2 anions Sn4+ O2− are needed for each +4 cation. Step Write the formula with the cation first, and use subscripts to show how many of each ion is needed to have zero overall charge. final answer = SnO2 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds Ionic compounds are crystalline solids that have very high melting points (NaCl = 801 oC) and extremely high boiling points (NaCl = 1413 oC). When ionic compounds dissolve in water, they separate into cations and anions. The resultingaqueous solutions conduct an electric current. + → NaCl water solution VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Polyatomic Ions A polyatomic ion is a cation or anion that contains more than one atom. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Polyatomic Ions Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions When a cation and anion of equal charge combine, only one of each ion is needed. Na+ + NO2− NaNO2 zero overall charge Ba2+ + SO42− BaSO4 zero overall charge VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Polyatomic Ions Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions When a cation and anion of unequal charge combine, use the ionic charges to determine the relative number of each ion that is needed. Mg2+ + OH− Mg(OH)2 +2 charge means −1 charge means zero overall 2 OH− anions are 1 Mg2+ anion is charge needed. needed. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Polyatomic Ions Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions The same rules are followed for naming standard ionic compounds: Name the cation and then the anion. Do not specify the charge on the cation. Do not specify how many ions of each type are needed to balance charge. NaHCO3 Al2(SO4)3 sodium bicarbonate aluminum sulfate or sodium hydrogen carbonate VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Focus on Health and Medicine Useful Ionic Compounds VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  COVALENT COMPOUNDS VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Covalent Compounds Introduction to Covalent Bonding Covalent bonds result from the sharing of electrons between two atoms. A covalent bond is a two-electron bond in which the bonding atoms share the electrons. A molecule is a discrete group of atoms held together by covalent bonds. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Covalent Compounds Introduction to Covalent Bonding Unshared electron pairs are called nonbonded electron pairs or lone pairs. Atoms share electrons to attain the electronic configuration of the noble gas closest to them in the periodic table. H shares 2 e−. Other main group elements are stable when they possess an octet of e− in their outer shell. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Covalent Compounds Covalent Bonding and the Periodic Table Lewis structures are electron-dot structures for molecules. They show the location of all valence e−. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Covalent Compounds Covalent Bonding and the Periodic Table Covalent bonds are formed when two nonmetals combine, or when a metalloid bonds to a nonmetal. How many covalent bonds will a particular atom form? Atoms with one, two, or three valence e− generally form one, two or three bonds, respectively. Atoms with four or more valence electrons form enough bonds to give an octet. predicted = 8 – number of valence e− number of bonds VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Covalent Compounds Covalent Bonding and the Periodic Table Number of bonds + Number of lone pairs = 4 VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Focus on the Human Body Covalent Molecules and the Cardiovascular System VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Lewis Structures A molecular formula shows the number and identity of all of the atoms in a compound, but not which atoms are bonded to each other. A Lewis structure shows the connectivity between atoms, as well as the location of all bonding and nonbonding valence electrons. General rules for drawing Lewis structures: Draw only valence electrons. Give every main group element (except H) an octet of e−. Give each hydrogen two e−. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Lewis Structures HOW TO Draw a Lewis Structure Step Arrange the atoms next to each other that you think are bonded together. Place H and halogens on the periphery, since they can only form one bond. H H For CH4: H C H not H C H H H This H cannot form two bonds. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Lewis Structures HOW TO Draw a Lewis Structure Use the common bonding patterns from the previous figure to arrange the atoms H H H For CH5N: H C N H not H C N H H H H Place four atoms Place three atoms around C, since C around N, since N generally forms generally forms four bonds. three bonds. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Lewis Structures HOW TO Draw a Lewis Structure Step Count the valence electrons. For main group elements, the number of valence e− is equal to the group number. The sum gives the total number of e− that must be used in the Lewis structure. For CH3Cl: 1 C x 4e− = 4e− 3 H x 1e− = 3e− 1 Cl x 7e− = 7e− 14 total valence e− VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Lewis Structures HOW TO Draw a Lewis Structure Step Arrange the electrons around the atoms. Place one bond (two e−) between every two atoms. For main group elements, give no more than 8 e−. For H, give no more than 2 e−. Use all remaining electrons to fill octets with lone pairs, beginning with atoms on the periphery. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Lewis Structures HOW TO Draw a Lewis Structure For CH3Cl: H 4 bonds x 2e− = 8 e− H C Cl + 3 lone pairs x 2e− = 6 e− H − − 2 e on 8e− 14 e each H on Cl All valence e− have been used. If all valence electrons are used and an atom still does not have an octet, proceed to Step. Step Use multiple bonds to fill octets when needed. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Lewis Structures HOW TO Draw a Lewis Structure —Multiple Bonds Convert one lone pair to one bonding pair of electrons for each two electrons needed to complete an octet. A double bond contains four electrons in two two-electron bonds. O O A triple bond contains six electrons in three two-electron bonds. N N VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Lewis Structures Multiple Bonds Example Draw the Lewis Structure for C2H4. Step Arrange the atoms. H C C H H H Step Count the valence e−. 2 C x 4 e− = 8 e− 4 H x 1 e− = 4 e− 12 e− total VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Lewis Structures Multiple Bonds Step Add the bonds and lone pairs. 5 bonds x 2 e− = 10 e− H C C H + 1 lone pair x 2 e− = 2 e− H H 12 e− C still does not All valence e− have have an octet. been used. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Lewis Structures Multiple Bonds Step Change one lone pair into one bonding pair of e–, forming a double bond. H–C–C–H H C C H H H H H Answer Each C now has an octet. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Lewis Structures Multiple Bonds Step To give both C’s an octet, change one lone pair into one bonding pair of electrons between the two C atoms, forming a double bond. H–C–C–H H C C H H H H H Answer Each C now has an octet. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Exceptions to the Octet Rule Most of the common elements generally follow the octet rule. H is a notable exception, because it needs only 2 e− in bonding. Elements in group 3A do not have enough valence e− to form an octet in a neutral molecule. F F B F only 6 e− on B VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Exceptions to the Octet Rule Elements in the third row have empty d orbitals available to accept electrons. Thus, elements such as P and S may have more than 8 e− around them. O O HO P OH HO S OH OH O 10 e− on P 12 e− on S VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Resonance When drawing Lewis structures for polyatomic ions: Add one e− for each negative charge. Subtract one e− for each positive charge. For –CN: Answer − C N C N C N 1 C x 4 e− = 4 e− All valence e− Each atom are used, but has an octet. 1 N x 5 e− = 5 e− C lacks an octet. –1 charge = 1 e− 10 e− total VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Resonance Drawing Resonance Structures Resonance structures are two Lewis structures having the same arrangement of atoms but a different arrangement of electrons. Two resonance structures of HCO3−: Neither Lewis structure is an accurate representation for HCO3−. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Resonance Drawing Resonance Structures The true structure is a hybrid of the two resonance structures. Resonance stabilizes a molecule by spreading out lone pairs and electron pairs in multiple bonds over a larger region of space. A molecule or ion that has two or more resonance structures is resonance-stabilized. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Covalent Compounds HOW TO Name a Covalent Molecule Example Name each covalent molecule: (a) NO2 (b) N2O4 Step Name the first nonmetal by its element name and the second using the suffix“-ide.” (a) NO2 (b) N2O4 nitrogen oxide nitrogen oxide VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Covalent Compounds HOW TO Name a Covalent Molecule Add prefixes to show the number of atoms of each Step element. Use a prefix from Table 4.1 for each element. The prefix “mono-” is usually omitted. Exception: CO is named carbon monoxide If the combination would place two vowels next to each other, omit the first vowel. mono + oxide = monoxide VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Naming Covalent Compounds HOW TO Name a Covalent Molecule (a) NO2 nitrogen dioxide (b) N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Molecular Shape Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory To determine the shape around a given atom, first determine how many groups surround the atom. A group is either an atom or a lone pair of electrons. Use the VSEPR theory to determine the shape. The most stable arrangement keeps the groups as far away from each other as possible. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Molecular Shape Two Groups Around an Atom Any atom surrounded by only two groups is linear and has a bond angle of 180o. An example is CO2: Ignore multiple bonds in predicting geometry. Count only atoms and lone pairs. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Molecular Shape Three Groups Around an Atom Any atom surrounded by three groups is trigonal planar and has bond angles of 120o. An example is H2CO: VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Molecular Shape Four Groups Around an Atom Any atom surrounded by four groups is tetrahedral and has bond angles of 109.5o. An example is CH4: VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Molecular Shape Four Groups Around an Atom If the four groups around the atom include one lone pair, the geometry is a trigonal pyramid with bond angles of ~109.5o. An example is NH3: VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Molecular Shape Four Groups Around an Atom If the four groups around the atom include two lone pairs, the geometry is bent and the bond angle is 105o (i.e., close to 109.5o). An example is H2O: VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electronegativity and Bond Polarity Electronegativity is a measure of an atom’s attraction for e− in a bond. It tells how much a particular atom “wants” e−. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electronegativity and Bond Polarity If the electronegativities of two bonded atoms are equal or similar, the bond is nonpolar. The electrons in the bond are being shared equally between the two atoms. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electronegativity and Bond Polarity Bonding between atoms with different electro- negativities yields a polar covalent bond or dipole. The electrons in the bond are unequally shared between the C and the O. e− are pulled toward O, the more electronegative element; this is indicated by the symbol δ−. e− are pulled away from C, the less electronegative element; this is indicated by the symbol δ+. VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Electronegativity and Bond Polarity VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Polarity of Molecules The classification of a molecule as polar or nonpolar depends on: the polarity of the individual bonds the overall shape of the molecule Nonpolar molecules generally have: no polar bonds individual bond dipoles that cancel Polar molecules generally have: only one polar bond individual bond dipoles that do not cancel VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P  Polarity of Molecules VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P VIRTUS ET SCIENTIA PHARMACY PROGRAM CHEM 100P