General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts, 6th Edition PDF

cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page i 11/3/09 8:11:51 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM General Chemistry cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page ii 11/4/09 2:18:43 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM About the Cover The cove...

cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page i 11/3/09 8:11:51 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM General Chemistry cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page ii 11/4/09 2:18:43 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM About the Cover The cover shows a diatomic molecule being irradiated with laser light of appropriate frequency. As a result, the molecule is promoted to a highly excited vibrational energy level, which subsequently leads to dissociation into atomic species. cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page iii 11/3/09 8:11:52 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM General Chemistry The Essential Concepts Sixth Edition Raymond Chang Williams College Jason Overby The College of Charleston TM cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page iv 11/3/09 8:11:53 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM TM GENERAL CHEMISTRY: THE ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS, SIXTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 2008, 2006, and 2003. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 ISBN 978–0–07–337563–2 MHID 0–07–337563–2 Publisher: Ryan Blankenship Senior Sponsoring Editor: Tamara L. Hodge Director of Development: Kristine Tibbetts Senior Developmental Editor: Shirley R. Oberbroeckling Senior Marketing Manager: Todd L. Turner Senior Project Manager: Gloria G. Schiesl Senior Production Supervisor: Kara Kudronowicz Lead Media Project Manager: Judi David Senior Designer: Laurie B. Janssen Cover Illustration: Precision Graphics Senior Photo Research Coordinator: John C. Leland Photo Research: Toni Michaels/PhotoFind, LLC Supplement Producer: Mary Jane Lampe Compositor: Aptara, Inc. Typeface: 10/12 Times Roman Printer: R. R. Donnelley All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chang, Raymond. General chemistry : the essential concepts / Raymond Chang. — 6th ed. / Jason Overby. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978–0–07–337563–2 — ISBN 0–07–337563–2 (hard copy : alk. paper) 1. Chemistry—Textbooks. I. Overby, Jason Scott, 1970- II. Title. QD33.2.C48 2011 540—dc22 2009034749 www.mhhe.com cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page v 11/3/09 8:11:53 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM ABOUT THE AUTHORS Raymond Chang was born in Hong Kong and grew up in Shanghai and Hong Kong. He received his B.Sc. degree in chemistry from London University, England, and his Ph.D. in chemistry from Yale University. After doing postdoctoral research at Washington University and teaching for a year at Hunter College of the City Univer- sity of New York, he joined the chemistry department at Williams College, where he has taught since 1968. Professor Chang has served on the American Chemical Society Examination Committee, the National Chemistry Olympiad Examination Committee, and the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) Committee. He is an editor of The Chemical Educator. Professor Chang has written books on physical chemistry, industrial chemistry, and physical science. He has also coauthored books on the Chinese language, children’s picture books, and a novel for young readers. For relaxation, Professor Chang maintains a forest garden; plays tennis, Ping- Pong, and the harmonica; and practices the violin. Jason Overby was born in Bowling Green, Kentucky, and grew up in Clarksville, Tennessee. He received his B.S. in chemistry and political science from the University of Tennessee at Martin and his Ph.D. in inorganic chemistry from Vanderbilt University. After postdoctoral research at Dartmouth College, he began his academic career at the College of Charleston in 1999. Professor Overby maintains research interests in synthetic and computational inorganic and organometallic chemistry. His educational pursuits include inorganic chemistry laboratory pedagogy and the use of digital technology, including online hhomework, as tools in the classroom. In his spare time, Professor Overby enjoys cooking, computers, and spending time with his family. v cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page vi 11/3/09 8:11:55 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM BRIEF CONTENTS 1 Introduction 1 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 29 3 Stoichiometry 60 4 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 97 5 Gases 136 6 Energy Relationships in Chemical Reactions 176 7 The Electronic Structure of Atoms 211 8 The Periodic Table 251 9 Chemical Bonding I: The Covalent Bond 285 10 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Geometry and Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 320 11 Introduction to Organic Chemistry 363 12 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids 399 13 Physical Properties of Solutions 436 14 Chemical Kinetics 466 15 Chemical Equilibrium 510 16 Acids and Bases 544 17 Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria 590 18 Thermodynamics 628 19 Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry 661 20 The Chemistry of Coordination Compounds 703 21 Nuclear Chemistry 728 22 Organic Polymers—Synthetic and Natural 761 Appendix  Units for the Gas Constant A-1 Appendix  Selected Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C A-2 Appendix  Mathematical Operations A-6 Appendix  The Elements and the Derivation of Their Names and Symbols A-9 vi cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page vii 11/3/09 8:11:56 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM CONTENTS List of Animations xiv Preface xv A Note to the Student xxii CHA P TE R Introduction 1 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 The Study of Chemistry 2 The Scientific Method 2 Classifications of Matter 4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter 7 1.5 Measurement 8 1.6 Handling Numbers 13 1.7 Dimensional Analysis in Solving Problems 18 Key Equations 22 Summary of Facts and Concepts 22 Key Words 23 Questions and Problems 23 CHA P TE R Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 29 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 The Atomic Theory 30 The Structure of the Atom 31 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes The Periodic Table 38 36 2.5 Molecules and Ions 39 2.6 Chemical Formulas 41 2.7 Naming Compounds 44 2.8 Introduction to Organic Compounds 52 Summary of Facts and Concepts 53 Key Words 54 Questions and Problems 54 CHA P TE R Stoichiometry 60 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Atomic Mass 61 Avogadro’s Number and the Molar Mass of an Element 62 Molecular Mass 66 The Mass Spectrometer 68 3.5 Percent Composition of Compounds 70 3.6 Experimental Determination of Empirical Formulas 72 3.7 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations 75 3.8 Amounts of Reactants and Products 79 3.9 Limiting Reagents 83 vii cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page viii 11/3/09 8:11:59 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM viii Contents 3.10 Reaction Yield 86 Key Equations 88 Summary of Facts and Concepts 88 Key Words 88 Questions and Problems 88 CHA P TE R Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 97 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions Precipitation Reactions 100 Acid-Base Reactions 105 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 109 98 4.5 Concentration of Solutions 118 4.6 Solution Stoichiometry 122 Key Equations 128 Summary of Facts and Concepts 128 Key Words 128 Questions and Problems 129 CHA P TE R Gases 136 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Substances That Exist as Gases 137 Pressure of a Gas 138 The Gas Laws 141 The Ideal Gas Equation 146 5.5 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 152 5.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 157 5.7 Deviation from Ideal Behavior 164 Key Equations 166 Summary of Facts and Concepts 167 Key Words 168 Questions and Problems 168 CHA P TE R Energy Relationships in Chemical 6 Reactions 176 6.1 6.2 The Nature of Energy and Types of Energy 177 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions 178 6.3 Introduction to Thermodynamics 179 6.4 Enthalpy of Chemical Reactions 185 6.5 Calorimetry 191 6.6 Standard Enthalpy of Formation and Reaction 196 Key Equations 202 Summary of Facts and Concepts 202 Key Words 202 Questions and Problems 203 cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page ix 11/3/09 8:12:00 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM Contents ix CHA P TE R The Electronic Structure 7 of Atoms 211 7.1 7.2 7.3 From Classical Physics to Quantum Theory 212 The Photoelectric Effect 216 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 218 7.4 The Dual Nature of the Electron 222 7.5 Quantum Mechanics 225 7.6 Quantum Numbers 226 7.7 Atomic Orbitals 228 7.8 Electron Configuration 232 7.9 The Building-Up Principle 239 Key Equations 242 Summary of Facts and Concepts 243 Key Words 243 Questions and Problems 244 CHA P TE R The Periodic Table 251 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Development of the Periodic Table 252 Periodic Classification of the Elements 253 Periodic Variation in Physical Properties 256 Ionization Energy 262 8.5 Electron Affinity 266 8.6 Variation in Chemical Properties of the Representative Elements 268 Key Equation 278 Summary of Facts and Concepts 278 Key Words 279 Questions and Problems 279 CHA P TE R Chemical Bonding I: The 9 Covalent Bond 285 9.1 9.2 9.3 Lewis Dot Symbols 286 The Ionic Bond 287 Lattice Energy of Ionic Compounds 289 9.4 The Covalent Bond 291 9.5 Electronegativity 293 9.6 Writing Lewis Structures 297 9.7 Formal Charge and Lewis Structure 300 9.8 The Concept of Resonance 303 9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 305 9.10 Bond Enthalpy 309 Key Equation 313 Summary of Facts and Concepts 313 Key Words 313 Questions and Problems 314 cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page x 11/19/09 5:04:10 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM x Contents CHA P TE R Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Geometry 10 and Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 320 10.1 10.2 10.3 Molecular Geometry 321 Dipole Moments 331 Valence Bond Theory 334 10.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 336 10.5 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Double and Triple Bonds 345 10.6 Molecular Orbital Theory 348 Key Equations 357 Summary of Facts and Concepts 357 Key Words 358 Questions and Problems 358 CHA P TE R Introduction to Organic Chemistry 363 11 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Classes of Organic Compounds 364 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 364 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 379 Chemistry of the Functional Groups 382 HO 11.5 Chirality—The Handedness of Molecules 389 H N O Summary of Facts and Concepts 393 CH 3 O Key Words 393 Questions and Problems 393 CHA P TE R Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids 399 12 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids and Solids 400 Intermolecular Forces 401 Properties of Liquids 407 Crystal Structure 410 12.5 Bonding in Solids 416 12.6 Phase Changes 419 12.7 Phase Diagrams 427 Key Equations 428 Summary of Facts and Concepts 428 Key Words 429 Questions and Problems 429 CHA P TE R Physical Properties of Solutions 436 13 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Types of Solutions 437 A Molecular View of the Solution Process 437 Concentration Units 440 Effect of Temperature on Solubility 443 13.5 Effect of Pressure on the Solubility of Gases 445 13.6 Colligative Properties 447 cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page xi 11/19/09 5:04:32 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM Contents xi Key Equations 458 Summary of Facts and Concepts 459 Key Words 459 Questions and Problems 459 CHA P TE R Chemical Kinetics 466 14 14.1 14.2 14.3 The Rate of a Reaction 467 The Rate Laws 471 Relation Between Reactant Concentrations and Time 475 14.4 Activation Energy and Temperature Dependence of Rate Constants 483 14.5 Reaction Mechanisms 489 14.6 Catalysis 493 Key Equations 499 Summary of Facts and Concepts 499 Key Words 500 Questions and Problems 500 CHA P TE R Chemical Equilibrium 510 15 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 The Concept of Equilibrium 511 Ways of Expressing Equilibrium Constants 514 What Does the Equilibrium Constant Tell Us? 521 Factors That Affect Chemical Equilibrium 526 Key Equations 534 Summary of Facts and Concepts 534 Key Words 534 Questions and Problems 534 CHA P TE R Acids and Bases 544 16 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 Brønsted Acids and Bases 545 The Acid-Base Properties of Water 546 pH—A Measure of Acidity 548 Strength of Acids and Bases 551 16.5 Weak Acids and Acid Ionization Constants 555 16.6 Weak Bases and Base Ionization Constants 566 16.7 The Relationship Between Conjugate Acid-Base Ionization Constants 569 16.8 Molecular Structure and the Strength of Acids 570 16.9 Acid-Base Properties of Salts 573 16.10 Acidic, Basic, and Amphoteric Oxides 579 16.11 Lewis Acids and Bases 581 Key Equations 583 Summary of Facts and Concepts 583 Key Words 583 Questions and Problems 584 cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page xii 11/3/09 8:12:08 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM xii Contents CHA P TE R Acid-Base Equilibria and 17 Solubility Equilibria 590 17.1 17.2 Homogeneous Versus Heterogeneous Solution Equilibria 591 Buffer Solutions 591 17.3 A Closer Look at Acid-Base Titrations 597 17.4 Acid-Base Indicators 603 17.5 Solubility Equilibria 606 17.6 The Common Ion Effect and Solubility 613 17.7 Complex Ion Equilibria and Solubility 614 17.8 Application of the Solubility Product Principle to Qualitative Analysis 617 Key Equations 620 Summary of Facts and Concepts 620 Key Words 621 Questions and Problems 621 CHA P TE R Thermodynamics 628 18 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 The Three Laws of Thermodynamics 629 Spontaneous Processes 629 Entropy 630 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 635 18.5 Gibbs Free Energy 641 18.6 Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium 647 18.7 Thermodynamics in Living Systems 651 Key Equations 653 Summary of Facts and Concepts 653 Key Words 654 Questions and Problems 654 CHA P TE R Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry 661 19 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Redox Reactions 662 Galvanic Cells 665 Standard Reduction Potentials 667 Thermodynamics of Redox Reactions 673 19.5 The Effect of Concentration on Cell Emf 676 19.6 Batteries 680 19.7 Corrosion 685 19.8 Electrolysis 687 19.9 Electrometallurgy 693 Key Equations 694 Summary of Facts and Concepts 694 Key Words 695 Questions and Problems 695 cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page xiii 11/3/09 8:12:11 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM Contents xiii C H A P T E R The Chemistry of Coordination Compounds 7033 20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 Properties of the Transition Metals 704 Coordination Compounds 707 Geometry of Coordination Compounds 713 Bonding in Coordination Compounds: Crystal Field Theory 715 20.5 Reactions of Coordination Compounds 721 20.6 Coordination Compounds in Living Systems 721 Key Equation 723 Summary of Facts and Concepts 723 Key Words 723 Questions and Problems 724 CHA P TE R Nuclear Chemistry 728 21 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 The Nature of Nuclear Reactions 729 Nuclear Stability 731 Natural Radioactivity 736 Nuclear Transmutation 740 21.5 Nuclear Fission 743 21.6 Nuclear Fusion 748 21.7 Uses of Isotopes 750 21.8 Biological Effects of Radiation 753 Key Equations 754 Summary of Facts and Concepts 754 Key Words 755 Questions and Problems 755 CHA P TE R Organic Polymers—Synthetic and Natural 761 22 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 Properties of Polymers 762 Synthetic Organic Polymers 762 Proteins 767 Nucleic Acids 774 Summary of Facts and Concepts 776 Key Words 777 Questions and Problems 777 Appendix 1 Units for the Gas Constant A-1 Appendix 2 Selected Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C A-2 Appendix 3 Mathematical Operations A-6 Appendix 4 The Elements and the Derivation of Their Names and Symbols A-9 Glossary G-1 Answers to Even-Numbered Problems AP-1 Credits C-1 Index I-1 cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page xiv 11/3/09 8:12:13 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM LIST OF ANIMATIONS The animations listed below are correlated to General Chemistry within each chapter in two ways. The first is the Student Interactive Activities found in the opening pages of every chapter. Then within the chapter are icons letting the student and the instructor know that an animation is available for a specific topic and where to find the animation for viewing on our Chang General Chemistry ARIS website. Chang Animations Radioactive decay (21.3) Absorption of color (20.4) Resonance (9.8) Acid-base titrations (17.3) Sigma and pi bonds (10.5) Acid ionization (16.5) Strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes, and Activation energy (14.4) nonelectrolytes (4.1) Alpha, beta, and gamma rays (2.2) VSEPR (10.1) Alpha-particle scattering (2.2) McGraw-Hill Animations Atomic and ionic radius (8.3) Base ionization (16.6) Atomic line spectra (7.3) Buffer solutions (17.2) Charles’ law (5.3) Catalysis (14.6) Cubic unit cells and their origins (12.4) Cathode ray tube (2.2) Dissociation of strong and weak acids (16.5) Chemical equilibrium (15.1) Dissolving table salt (4.1) Chirality (11.5) Electronegativity (9.3) Collecting a gas over water (5.5) Equilibrium (15.1) Diffusion of gases (5.6) Exothermic and endothermic reactions (6.2) Dissolution of an ionic and a covalent compound (13.2) Formal charge calculations (9.5) Electron configurations (7.8) Formation of an ionic compound (9.3) Emission spectra (7.3) Formation of the covalent bond in H2 (10.4) Equilibrium vapor pressure (12.6) Half-life (14.3) Formal charge calculations (9.7) Influence of shape on polarity (10.2) Galvanic cells (19.2) Law of conservation of mass (2.1) Gas laws (5.3) Molecular shape and orbital hybridization (10.4) Heat flow (6.4) Nuclear medicine (21.7) Hybridization (10.4) Operation of voltaic cell (19.2) Hydration (4.1) Oxidation-reduction reaction (4.4 & 19.1) Ionic versus covalent bonding (9.4) Phase diagrams and the states of matter (12.7) Le Châtelier’s principle (15.4) Reaction rate and the nature of collisions (14.4) Limiting reagent (3.9) Three states of matter (1.3) Making a solution (4.5) Using a buffer (17.2) Millikan oil drop (2.2) VSEPR theory and the shapes of molecules (10.1) Neutralization reactions (4.3) Simulations Nuclear fission (21.5) Orientation of collision (14.4) Stoichiometry (Chapter 3) Osmosis (13.6) Ideal gas law (Chapter 5) Oxidation-reduction reactions (4.4) Kinetics (Chapter 14) Packing spheres (12.4) Equilibrium (Chapter 15) Polarity of molecules (10.2) Titration (Chapter 17) Precipitation reactions (4.2) Electrochemistry (Chapter 19) Preparing a solution by dilution (4.5) Nuclear (Chapter 21) xiv  cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page xv 11/3/09 8:12:14 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM PREFACE The sixth edition of General Chemistry: The Essential NEW to the chapters is the Review of Concepts fea- Concepts, continues the tradition of presenting only the ture. This is a quick knowledge test for the student to material that is essential to a one-year general chemistry gauge his or her understanding of the concept just course. As with previous editions, it includes all the core presented. The answers to the Review of Concepts topics that are necessary for a solid foundation in general are available in the Student Solutions Manual and on chemistry without sacrificing depth, clarity, or rigor. the companion ARIS (Assessment, Review, and General Chemistry covers these topics in the same depth Instruction System) website. and at the same level as 1100-page texts. All essential topics are in the text with the exception of descriptive chemistry. R EVIEW OF CONCEPTS Therefore, this book is not a condensed version of a big text. Match each of the diagrams shown here with the following ionic compounds: Al2O3, LiH, Na2S, Mg(NO3)2. (Green spheres represent cations and red spheres Our hope is that this concise-but-thorough approach will represent anions.) appeal to efficiency-minded instructors and will please value-conscious students. The positive feedback from users over the years shows that there is a strong need for such a (a) (b) (c) (d) text. So we have written a text containing all of the core con- cepts necessary for a solid foundation in general chemistry. NEW are powerful connections to electronic home- work. All of the practice exercises for the Worked What’s New in This Edition? Examples in all chapters are now found within the McGraw-Hill ARIS (Assessment, Review, and In- 8:05:35 PM user-s180 The most obvious change /Users/user-s180/Desktop/part is the addition of a coau- 1 struction upload System) electronic homework system. Each thor, Jason Overby, who brings new pedagogical in- end-of-chapter problem in ARIS is noted in the Elec- sights to the text. tronic Homework Problem section by an icon. 3.110 Cysteine, shown here, is one of the 20 amino acids found in proteins in humans. Write the molecular formula and calculate its percent composition by mass. H S O C Problem in Text Problem in ARIS xv cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page xvi 11/3/09 8:12:17 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM xvi Preface Many sections have been revised and updated based Check enables the student to compare and verify on the comments from reviewers and users. Some with the source information to make sure that the examples are answer is reasonable. Practice Exercise provides the opportunity to solve a —A revised treatment of amounts of reactants and similar problem in order to become proficient in this products is given in Chapter 3. problem type. The Practice Exercises are available in —A revised explanation of thermochemical equations the ARIS electronic homework system. The marginal is presented in Chapter 6. note lists additional similar problems to work in the cha75632_ch03_060-096.indd Page 82 8/13/09end-of-chapter problem section. 8:04:45 PM user-s180 /Users/user-s180/Desktop/part 1 upload —Expanded coverage of effective nuclear charge appears in Chapter 8. EXAMPLE 3.13 —New computer-generated molecular orbital dia- The food we eat is degraded, or broken down, in our bodies to provide energy for growth and function. A general overall equation for this very complex process represents the grams are presented in Chapter 10. degradation of glucose (C6H12O6) to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O): C6H12O6 1 6O2 ¡ 6CO2 1 6H2O —Many new end-of-chapter problems with molecu- If 968 g of C6H12O6 is consumed by a person over a certain period, what is the mass of lar art have been added to test the conceptual com- CO2 produced? prehension and critical thinking skills of the Strategy Looking at the balanced equation, how do we compare the amount of C6H12O6 and CO2? We can compare them based on the mole ratio from the balanced student. The more challenging problems are added equation. Starting with grams of C6H12O6, how do we convert to moles of C6H12O6? to the Special Problems section. Once moles of CO2 are determined using the mole ratio from the balanced equation, how do we convert to grams of CO2? —A revised discussion of the frequency factor in the Solution We follow the preceding steps and Figure 3.8. Step 1: The balanced equation is given in the problem. Arrhenius equation is given in Chapter 14. Step 2: To convert grams of C6H12O6 to moles of C6H12O6, we write —The ARIS electronic homework system is avail- 968 g C6H12O6 3 1 mol C6H12O6 5 5.372 mol C6H12O6 180.2 g C6H12O6 able for the sixth edition. ARIS will enhance the Step 3: From the mole ratio, we see that 1 mol C6H12O6 ∞ 6 mol CO2. Therefore, the student learning experience, administer assign- number of moles of CO2 formed is ments, track student progress, and administer an 5.372 mol C6H12O6 3 6 mol CO2 5 32.23 mol CO2 1 mol C6H12O6 instructor’s course. The students can locate the Step 4: Finally, the number of grams of CO2 formed is given by animations and interactives noted in the text mar- 44.01 g CO2 gins in ARIS. Quizzing and homework assigned 32.23 mol CO2 3 1 mol CO2 5 1.42 3 103 g CO2 by the instructor is available in the ARIS electronic After some practice, we can combine the conversion steps homework program. grams of C6H12O6 ¡ moles of C6H12O6 ¡ moles of CO2 ¡ grams of CO2 into one equation: 1 mol C6H12O6 6 mol CO2 44.01 g CO2 mass of CO2 5 968 g C6H12O6 3 3 3 Problem Solving 180.2 g C6H12O6 1 mol C6H12O6 1 mol CO2 5 1.42 3 103 g CO2 The development of problem-solving skills has always been Check Does the answer seem reasonable? Should the mass of CO2 produced be larger a major objective of this text. The two major categories of than the mass of C6H12O6 reacted, even though the molar mass of CO2 is considerably learning are the worked examples and end-of-chapter less than the molar mass of C6H12O6? What is the mole ratio between CO2 and C6H12O6? problems. Many of them present extra tidbits of knowledge Practice Exercise Methanol (CH3OH) burns in air according to the equation and enable the student to solve a problem that a chemist 2CH3OH 1 3O2 ¡ 2CO2 1 4H2O would solve. The examples and problems show students the If 209 g of methanol are used up in a combustion process, what is the mass of H2O produced? real world of chemistry and applications to everyday life situations. End-of-Chapter Problems are organized in various Worked examples follow a proven step-by-step strat- ways. Each section under a topic heading begins with egy and solution. Review Questions followed by Problems. The Addi- Problem statement is the reporting of the facts needed tional Problems section provides more problems not to solve the problem based on the question posed. organized by sections. Finally, the Special Problems Strategy is a carefully thought-out plan or method to section contains more challenging problems. serve as an important function of learning. In some cases, students are shown a rough sketch, which helps Visualization them visualize the physical setup. Graphs and Flow Charts are important in science. In Gen- Solution is the process of solving a problem given in eral Chemistry, flow charts show the thought process of a a stepwise manner. concept and graphs present data to comprehend the concept. cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page xvii 11/3/09 8:12:19 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM Preface xvii Molecular Art appears in various formats to serve Marginal Notes are used to provide hints and feed- different needs. You will find molecular art incorporated in back to enhance the knowledge base for the student. all facets of the text and homework. Molecular models Worked Examples along with the accompanying help students to visualize the three-dimensional arrange- Practice Exercises are very important tools for learn- ment of atoms in a molecule. Electrostatic potential maps ing and mastering chemistry. The problem-solving illustrate the electron density distribution in molecules. cha75632_ch04_097-135.indd Page 116 8/13/09 9:59:53 PM user-s180 /Users/user-s180/Desktop/part 1 upload steps guide the student through the critical thinking Finally, there is the macroscopic-to-microscopic art help- necessary for succeeding in chemistry. Using sketches ing students understand processes at the molecular level. helps student understand the inner workings of a problem. A marginal note lists similar problems in the end-of-chapter problems section, enabling the student to apply the new skill to other problems of the same type. Answers to the Practice Exercises are listed at the end of the chapter problems. Review of Concepts enable students to quickly eval- uate whether they understand the concept presented The Zn bar is in in the section. Answers to the Review of Concepts aqueous solution of CuSO4 can be found in the Student Solution Manual and on- line in the accompanying ARIS companion website. Key Equations are highlighted within the chapter, When a piece of copper wire is drawing the student’s eye to material that needs to be Cu2+ ions are placed in an aqueous AgNO3 solution converted to Cu atoms. Zn atoms enter the Cu atoms enter the solution as Cu2+ ions, and Ag+ ions are converted to solid Ag. understood and retained. The key equations are also solution as Zn2+ ions. Figure 4.13 (a) (b) presented in the chapter summary materials for easy ld l l access in review and study. Photos are used to help students become familiar Summary of Facts and Concepts provides a quick with chemicals and understand how chemical reactions review of concepts presented and discussed in detail appear in reality. within the chapter. Figures of Apparatus enable the student to visualize Key Words are a list of all the important terms to help the practical arrangement in a chemistry laboratory. the student understand the language of chemistry. cha75632_ch03_060-096.indd Page 88 8/13/09 8:05:12 PM user-s180 /Users/user-s180/Desktop/part 1 upload Study Aids Setting the Stage On the chapter opening page for each chapter the Chapter Key Equations Outline, Student Interactive Activities, and Essential Con- percent composition of an element in a compound 5 n 3 molar mass of element (3.1) 3 100% cepts appear. molar mass of compound actual yield (3.4) % yield 5 3 100% theoretical yield Chapter Outline enables the student to see at a glance the big picture and focus on the main ideas of the Summary of Facts and Concepts chapter. 1. Atomic masses are measured in atomic mass units (amu), a relative unit based on a value of exactly 12 for the C-12 4. Chemical changes, called chemical reactions, are repre- sented by chemical equations. Substances that undergo isotope. The atomic mass given for the atoms of a par- change—the reactants—are written on the left and the Student Interactive Activities show where the ticular element is the average of the naturally occurring substances formed—the products—appear to the right of isotope distribution of that element. The molecular mass the arrow. Chemical equations must be balanced, in electronic media are used in the chapter. A list of of a molecule is the sum of the atomic masses of the atoms in the molecule. Both atomic mass and molecular accordance with the law of conservation of mass. The number of atoms of each element in the reactants must the animations and questions in McGraw-Hill ARIS mass can be accurately determined with a mass spec- trometer. equal the number in the products. 5. Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of products and 2. A mole is Avogadro’s number (6.022 3 1023) of atoms, reactants in chemical reactions. Stoichiometric calcula- homework is given. Within the chapter, icons are used molecules, or other particles. The molar mass (in grams) tions are best done by expressing both the known and of an element or a compound is numerically equal to its unknown quantities in terms of moles and then convert- to refer to the items shown in the Student Interactive mass in atomic mass units (amu) and contains Avogadro’s number of atoms (in the case of elements), molecules (in ing to other units if necessary. A limiting reagent is the reactant that is present in the smallest stoichiometric Activities list. the case of molecular substances), or simplest formula units (in the case of ionic compounds). amount. It limits the amount of product that can be formed. The amount of product obtained in a reaction 3. The percent composition by mass of a compound is the (the actual yield) may be less than the maximum possi- Essential Concepts summarizes the main topics to be percent by mass of each element present. If we know the percent composition by mass of a compound, we can ble amount (the theoretical yield). The ratio of the two multiplied by 100 percent is expressed as the percent presented in the chapter. deduce the empirical formula of the compound and also the molecular formula of the compound if the approxi- yield. mate molar mass is known. Tools to Use for Studying Key Words Useful aids for studying are plentiful in General Chemis- Actual yield, p. 86 Atomic mass, p. 61 Chemical reaction, p. 75 Excess reagent, p. 83 Mole method, p. 80 Molecular mass, p. 66 Reactant, p. 76 Stoichiometric amount, p. 83 try and should be used constantly to reinforce the compre- Atomic mass unit (amu), p. 61 Avogadro’s number (NA), p. 63 Limiting reagent, p. 83 Molar mass (}), p. 63 Percent composition, p. 70 Percent yield, p. 86 Stoichiometry, p. 80 Theoretical yield, p. 86 hension of chemical concepts. Chemical equation, p. 75 Mole (mol), p. 62 Product, p. 76  cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page xviii 11/3/09 8:12:21 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM xviii Preface 8/09 12:25:32 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-16 marked by an icon and located within ARIS for stu- Testing Your Knowledge Review of Concepts lets students pause and check to see if dent use. they understand the concept presented and discussed in Electronic Homework (ARIS)—The Practice the section. Answers to the Review of Concepts can be Exercises from the Worked Examples and many end- found in the Student Solution Manual and online in the of-chapter problems are in the electronic homework accompanying ARIS companion website. system ARIS. Each exercise and end-of-chapter End-of-Chapter Problems enable the student to problem contained in ARIS is marked by practice critical thinking and problem-solving skills. The problems are broken into various types: Instructor Resources By chapter section. Starting with Review Questions to test basic conceptual understanding, followed by McGraw-Hill offers various tools and technology prod- Problems to test the student’s skill in solving prob- ucts to support the General Chemistry, Sixth Edition. lems for that particular section of the chapter. Instructors can obtain teaching aides by calling Additional Problems use knowledge gained from the the McGraw-Hill Customer Service Department at various sections and/or previous chapters to solve the 1-800-338-3987, visiting our online catalog at www. problem. mhhe.com, or by contacting their local McGraw-Hill The Special Problems section contains more chal- sales representative. lenging problems that are suitable for group projects. 16.114 The diagrams here show three weak acids HA (A 5 X, Y, or Z) in solution. (a) Arrange the acids in The Assessment, Review, and Instruction System, also order of increasing Ka. (b) Arrange the conjugate known as McGraw-Hill ARIS, is an electronic homework bases in increasing order of Kb. (c) Calculate the and course management system designed for greater flexi- percent ionization of each acid. (d) Which of the 0.1 M bility, power, and ease of use than any other system. Whether sodium salt solutions (NaX, NaY, or NaZ) has the lowest pH? (The hydrated proton is shown as a you are looking for a preplanned course or one you can hydronium ion. Water molecules are omitted for customize to fit your course needs, ARIS is your solution. clarity.) In addition to having access to all student digital learning objects, ARIS enables instructors to: Build Assignments Choose from prebuilt assignments or create your own custom content by importing your own content or editing an existing assignment from the prebuilt assignment. HX HY HZ Assignments can include quiz questions, animations, and videos—anything found on the website. Create announcements and utilize full course or indi- Media vidual student communcation tools. The Student Interactive Activities on the chapter opening Assign questions developed following the problem- page enables the student and instructor to see at a glance solving strategy used within the textual material, en- the media that can be incorporated into the learning pro- abling students to continue the learning process from cess. Within the text, an icon shows the student where the text into their homework assignments in a struc- the concept in the animation or interactive is introduced. tured manner. The icon directs the student to the ARIS website for view- Instructors can choose the assignment setting for an ing. For the instructor, there are also directions for finding individual student to help manage missed assign- the animation or interactive in the instructor materials. ments, special needs students, and any specific situa- Animations—We have a library of animations that tions that arise during the semester. support the sixth edition. The animations visually Assign algorithmic questions, providing students with bring to life the areas in chemistry that are difficult to multiple chances to practice and gain skill at problem understand by reading alone. The animations are solving on the same concept. cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page xix 11/3/09 8:12:22 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM Preface xix Track Student Progress Photos The photo collection contains digital files of Assignments are automatically graded. photographs from the text, which can be reproduced for multiple classroom uses. Gradebook functionality enables full course manage- ment, including: Tables Every table that appears in the text has been saved in electronic form for use in classroom presen- —Dropping the lowest grades tations and/or quizzes. —Weighting grades/manually adjusting grades Animations Numerous full-color animations illus- —Exporting your gradebook to Excel, WebCT, or trating important processes are also provided. Har- BlackBoard ness the visual impact of concepts in motion by —Manipulating data, enabling you to track student importing these files into classroom presentations or progress through multiple reports online course materials. —Providing a visual representation of key grade book reports Also residing on your textbook’s ARIS website are: —Offering the opportunity to select an assignment PowerPoint Lecture Outlines Ready-made pre- and view detailed statistics on student performance sentations that combine art, and lecture notes are for each question provided for each chapter of the text. PowerPoint Slides For instructors who prefer to Offer More Flexibility create their lectures from scratch, all illustrations, Sharing Course Materials with Colleagues— photos, and tables are preinserted by chapter into Instructors can create and share course materials and blank PowerPoint slides. assignments with colleagues with a few clicks of the Instructor Solution Manual Solutions are pro- mouse, allowing for multiple section courses with vided for all end-of-chapter problems in the text. many instructors (and TAs) to continually be in synch if desired. Access to your book, access to all books! Integration with BlackBoard or WebCT—Once a The Presentation Center library includes thousands of as- student is registered in the course, all student activity sets from many McGraw-Hill titles. This ever-growing within McGraw-Hill ARIS is automatically recorded resource gives instructors the power to utilize assets spe- and available to the instructor through a fully inte- cific to an adopted textbook as well as content from all grated grade book that can be downloaded to Excel, other books in the library. WebCT, or Blackboard. Nothing could be easier! Accessed from the instructor side of your textbook’s ARIS Presentation Center website, the Presentation Center’s dynamic search engine The Presentation Center is a complete set of electronic enables you to explore by discipline, course, textbook book images and assets for instructors. You can build in- chapter, asset type, or keyword. Simply browse, select, and structional materials wherever, whenever, and however download the files you need to build engaging course ma- you want! Accessed from your textbook’s ARIS website, terials. All assets are copyrighted by McGraw-Hill Higher the Presentation Center is an online digital library contain- Education but can be used by instructors for classroom ing photos, artwork, animations, and other media types purposes. Instructors: To access ARIS, request registration that can be used to create customized lectures, visually information from your McGraw-Hill sales representative. enhanced tests and quizzes, compelling course websites, or attractive printed support materials. All assets are copy- Computerized Test Bank Online righted by McGraw-Hill Higher Education, but can be A comprehensive bank of test questions by Ken Goldsby used by instructors for classroom purposes. The visual re- (Florida State University) and Jason Overby (College of sources in this collection include: Charleston) is provided within a computerized test bank, Art Full-color digital files of all illustrations in the enabling you to create paper and online tests or quizzes in book can be readily incorporated into lecture presen- this easy-to-use program. Imagine being able to create and tations, exams, or custom-made classroom materials. access your test or quiz anywhere, at any time. In addition, all files are preinserted into PowerPoint® Instructors can create or edit questions and drag-and- slides for ease of lecture preparation. drop questions to create tests quickly and easily. The test cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page xx 11/3/09 8:12:22 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM xx Preface can be published automatically online to your course and learning experience. ebooks from McGraw-Hill will course management system, or you can print them for help students study smarter and quickly find the infor- paper-based tests. mation they need. And they will save money. Contact The test bank contains multiple-choice, true/false, and your McGraw-Hill sales representative to discuss ebook short answer questions. The questions, which are graded in packaging options. difficulty, are comparable to the problems in the text. Student Response System Wireless technology brings interactivity into the class- McGraw-Hill Tegrity Campus is a service that makes class room or lecture hall. Instructors and students receive im- time available all the time by automatically capturing every mediate feedback through wireless response pads that are lecture in a searchable format for students to review when they easy to use and engage students. This system can be used study and complete assignments. With a simple one-click start by instructors to and stop process, you capture all computer screens and cor- responding audio. Students replay any part of any class with Take attendance easy-to-use browser-based viewing on a PC or Mac. Administer quizzes and tests Educators know that the more students can see, hear, Create a lecture with intermittent questions and experience class resources, the better they learn. With Manage lectures and student comprehension through Tegrity Campus, students quickly recall key moments by the use of the grade book using Tegrity Campus’s unique search feature. This search Integrate interactivity into their PowerPoint presen- helps students efficiently find what they need, when they tations need it across an entire semester of class recordings. Help turn all your students’ study time into learning moments immediately supported by your lecture. Content Delivery Flexibility To learn more about Tegrity watch a 2 minute Flash General Chemistry by Raymond Chang and Jason Overby demo at tegritycampus.mhhe.com. is available in many formats in addition to the traditional textbook to give instructors and students more choices Cooperative Chemistry Laboratory Manual when deciding on the format of their chemistry text. By Melanie Cooper (Clemson University). This innova- Choices include: tive guide features open-ended problems designed to simulate experience in a research lab. Working in groups, Color Custom by Chapter students investigate one problem over a period of sev- For even more flexibility, we offer the Chang/Overby eral weeks, so that they might complete three or four General Chemistry text in a full-color, custom version projects during the semester, rather than one prepro- that enables instructors to pick the chapters they want grammed experiment per class. The emphasis here is on to include. Students pay for only what the instructor experimental design, analysis problem solving, and chooses. communication. eBook Student Resources If you or your students are ready for an alternative version of the traditional textbook, McGraw-Hill brings you innovative McGraw-Hill offers various tools and technology prod- and inexpensive electronic textbooks. By purchasing ebooks ucts to support the General Chemistry, Sixth Edition. from McGraw-Hill, students can save as much as 50% Students can order supplemental study materials by on selected titles delivered on the most advanced ebook contacting their campus bookstore, calling 1-800-262- platform. 4729, or online at www.shopmcgraw-hill.com. eBooks from McGraw-Hill are smart, interactive, searchable, and portable with a powerful suite of built- Problem-Solving Workbook with Solutions in tools that enable detailed searching, highlighting, By Brandon J. Cruickshank (Northern Arizona University) note taking, and student-to-student or instructor-to- and Raymond Chang, this workbook is a success guide student note sharing. In addition, the media-rich ebook written for use with General Chemistry. It aims to help for General Chemistry integrates relevant animations students hone their analytical and problem-solving skills and videos into the textbook content for a true multimedia by presenting detailed approaches to solving chemical cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page xxi 11/19/09 5:05:02 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM Preface xxi problems. Solutions for all of the text’s even-numbered Kathleen Knierim University of Louisiana at Lafayette problems are included. Andrew Langrehr St. Louis Community College–Meramec Terrence A. Lee Middle Tennessee State University Jessica D. Martin Northeastern State University McGraw-Hill ARIS (Assessment, Review, and Instruc- Gordon J. Miller Iowa State University tion System) is an electronic study system that offers stu- Spence Pilcher Northeastern State University dents a digital portal of knowledge. Students can readily access a variety of digital learning Susanne Raynor Rutgers University objects, which include: John T. Reilly Coastal Carolina University Shirish Shah Towson University Chapter-level quizzing Thomas E. Sorensen University of Animations Wisconsin–Milwaukee Interactives Zhiqiang (George) Yang Macomb Community College MP3 and MP4 downloads of selected content We would also like to thank Dr. Enrique Peacock- Lopez and Desire Gijima of Williams College for the Acknowledgments computer-generated molecular orbital diagrams in Chapters 10 and 11. Reviewers As always, we have benefited much from discussions We would like to thank the following individuals who re- with our colleagues at Williams College and the College viewed or participated in various McGraw-Hill symposia of Charleston and correspondence with many instructors on general chemistry. Their insight into the needs of stu- here and abroad. dents and instructors were invaluable to us in preparing It is a pleasure to acknowledge the support given to us this revision. by the following members of McGraw-Hill’s College Division: Doug Dinardo, Tammy Ben, Thomas Timp, DeeDee A. Allen Wake Technical Community College Marty Lange, Kent Peterson, Chad Grall, and Kurt Strand. Vladimir Benin University of Dayton In particular, we would like to mention Gloria Schiesl for Elizabeth D. Blue Wake Technical Community College supervising the production, Laurie Janssen for the book R. D. Braun University of Louisiana at Lafayette design, Daryl Bruflodt and Judi David for the media, and William Broderick Montana State University Todd Turner, the marketing manager, for his suggestions Christopher M. Burba Northeastern State University and encouragement. Our publisher Ryan Blankenship and our editor Tami Hodge provided advice and support when- Charles Carraher Florida Atlantic University ever we needed them. Finally, our special thanks go to John P. DiVincenzo Middle Tennessee State University Shirley Oberbroeckling, the developmental editor, for her Ajit S. Dixit Wake Technical Community College care and enthusiasm for the project, and supervision at Michael A. Hauser St. Louis Community every stage of the writing of this edition. College–Meramec Raymond Chang Andy Holland Idaho State University Daniel King Drexel University Jason Overby cha75632_fm_i-xxii.indd Page xxii 11/3/09 8:12:22 PM user-s180 /Volumes/MHDQ-New/MHDQ144/MHDQ144-FM A NOTE TO THE STUDENT General chemistry is commonly perceived to be more dif- Definitions of the key words can be studied in con- ficult than most other subjects. There is some justification text on the pages cited in the end-of-chapter list or in for this perception. For one thing, chemistry has a very the glossary at the back of the book. specialized vocabulary. At first, studying chemistry is like ARIS houses an extraordinary amount of resources. learning a new language. Furthermore, some of the con- You can explore chapter quizzes, animations, inter- cepts are abstract. Nevertheless, with diligence you can activities, simulations, and more. complete this course successfully, and you might even en- Careful study of the worked-out examples in the joy it. Here are some suggestions to help you form good body of each chapter will improve your ability to study habits and master the material in this text. analyze problems and correctly carry out the calcu- Attend classes regularly and take careful notes. lations needed to solve them. Also take the time to If possible, always review the topics discussed in work through the practice exercise that follows each class the same day they are covered in class. Use this example to be sure you understand how to solve the book to supplement your notes. type of problem illustrated in the example. The an- swers to the practice exercises appear at the end of Think critically. Ask yourself if you really under- the chapter, following the homework problems. For stand the meaning of a term or the use of an equation. additional practice, you can turn to similar home- A good way to test your understanding is to explain a work problems referred to in the margin next to the concept to a classmate or some other person.