Myers' Psychology for the AP® Course (2024, Macmillan Higher Education) PDF

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Text reflows when resized so there is no horizontal scrolling on the page, and page numbers are embedded in the book so that students can always find where they are compared to classmates using the print equivalent. Heading structures are clearly marked up so it’s easy to see where you are within the book as you work your way through. Accessibility Help If you have any questions about the accessibility of this e-book or other Macmillan Learning e-books, please reach out to us at 4 [email protected]. For student resources, visit our knowledge base. 5 AP® Psychology Science Practices CA = Cultural Awareness buckets RM Tip = Research buckets DI = Data buckets and Data Interpretation features DA = Developing Arguments feature Science Practice* Selected examples of coverage in Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course, 4e** 1A. Apply psychological perspectives, Check Your Understanding, theories, concepts, and research AP® Practice Multiple findings to a scenario. Choice Questions throughout the text 1. Concept Application 1B. Explain how cultural norms, CA M3.2b, CA M4.1, RM Tip expectations, and circumstances, as M5.3 well as cognitive biases apply to behavior and mental processes. 6 2A. Determine the type of research RM Tip M1.3b, RM Tip design(s) used in a given study. M2.8a, RM Tip M4.1 2B. Evaluate the appropriate use of RM Tip M1.3a, RM Tip research design elements in M3.2a, RM Tip M5.1a experimental methodology. 2. Research Methods & 2C. Evaluate the appropriate use of RM Tip M1.4b, RM Tip Design research design elements in non- M3.6b, RM Tip M5.1a experimental methodologies. 2D. Evaluate whether a psychological RM Tip 3.2a, RM Tip M4.7c, research scenario followed RM Tip M5.1b appropriate ethical procedures. 3A. Identify psychology-related RM Tip M2.4, DI M3.2b, DI concepts in descriptions or M4.8b representations of data. 3B. Calculate and interpret measures DI M2.8b, DI M4.6a, DI 3. Data of central tendency, variation, and M5.4a Interpretation percentile rank in a given data set. 3C. Interpret quantitative or DI M2.8a, DI M3.3a, DI qualitative inferential data from a M4.6c given table, graph, chart, figure, or diagram. 7 4A. Propose a defensible claim. DA M2.2b, DA M3.7b, DA M4.8a 4B. Provide reasoning that is DA M2.7, DA M3.1, DA 4. Argumentation grounded in scientifically derived M4.7c evidence to support, refute, or modify an established or provided claim, policy, or norm. *Following is the wording of the Science Practices at the time this book was printed. **Note that all examples of coverage of the Science Practices will appear in the Teacher’s Edition. Please check the BFW AP® Updates page at bfwpub.com/ap- updates to get the latest course updates. 8 Myers’ Psychology for the AP®Course FOURTH EDITION David G. Myers Hope College Holland, Michigan C. Nathan DeWall University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky Elizabeth Yost Hammer Xavier University of Louisiana New Orleans, Louisiana 9 AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board®, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. 10 High School Program Director: Yolanda Cossio Program Managers: Heidi Bamatter, Anna Olcott Development Editors: Christine Brune, Danielle Slevens, Karen Misler Editorial Assistant: Calyn Clare Liss Director of High School Marketing: Janie Pierce-Bratcher Assistant Marketing Manager: Tiffani Tang Marketing Assistant: Brianna DiGeronimo Executive Development Editor for High School Media: Lisa Samols Senior Media Editor: Justin Perry Associate Media Editor: Michael Emig Senior Director, Content Management Enhancement: Tracey Kuehn Executive Managing Editor: Michael Granger Manager, Publishing Services: Ryan Sullivan Senior Lead Content Project Manager: Won McIntosh Senior Workflow Project Manager: Paul Rohloff Production Supervisor: Robert Cherry Director of Design, Content Management: Diana Blume Senior Design Services Manager: Natasha A. S. Wolfe Interior Designer: Dirk Kaufman Senior Cover Design Manager: John Callahan Art Manager: Matthew McAdams Illustrations: Evelyn Pence Senior Director, Rights and Permissions: Hilary Newman Executive Permissions Editor: Robin Fadool Photo Researcher: Cheryl DuBois, Lumina Datamatics, Inc. Senior Director of Digital Production: Keri deManigold Executive Media Project Manager: Eve Conte Composition: Lumina 11 Datamatics, Inc. © 2024, 2021, 2018, 2014 by Bedford, Freeman & Worth. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as may be permitted by law or expressly permitted in writing by the Publisher. ISBN 978-1-31947145-3 (EPUB) Library of Congress Control Number: 2023940132 1 2 3 4 5 6 28 27 26 25 24 23 David Myers’ royalties from the sale of this book are assigned to the David and Carol Myers Foundation, which exists to receive and distribute funds to other charitable organizations. Bedford, Freeman & Worth Publishers 120 Broadway, New York, NY 10271 bfwpub.com/apmyers4e 12 Dedication To the many past AP® Psych students who have, with such kindness, shared their feedback and encouragement. DM To Steve James: Wonderful high school coach, counselor, and role model. ND To every AP® Psychology teacher who has crossed my path and enriched my life. EYH 13 About the Authors David Myers received his B.A. in chemistry from Whitworth University, and his psychology Ph.D. from the University of Iowa. He has spent his career at Michigan’s Hope College, where he has taught dozens of introductory psychology sections. Hope College students have invited him to be their commencement speaker and voted him “outstanding professor.” His research and writings have been recognized by the Gordon Allport Intergroup Relations Prize, an Honored Scientist award from the Federation of Associations in Behavioral & Brain Sciences, an Award for Distinguished Service on Behalf of Social-Personality Psychology, a Presidential Citation from APA Division 2, election as an American Association for the Advancement of Science Fellow, and three honorary doctorates. 14 With support from National Science Foundation grants, David’s scientific articles have appeared in three dozen scientific periodicals, including Science, American Scientist, Psychological Science, and American Psychologist. In addition to his scholarly and textbook writing, he digests psychological science for the general public. His writings have appeared in four dozen magazines, from Today’s Education to Scientific American. He also has authored five general-audience books, including How Do We Know Ourselves: Curiosities and Marvels of the Human Mind (2022). And he blogs about psychology and life at TalkPsych.com. David has chaired his city’s Human Relations Commission, helped found a thriving assistance center for families in poverty, and spoken to hundreds of college, community, and professional 15 groups worldwide. He has also spoken to many high school groups, including AP® Psychology conferences, an AP® Psychology reading, Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools, the National Council for Social Studies Psychology Community, and the 2017 APA Summit on High School Psychology Education. David has twice offered AP® Psychology workshops in China, and he served on the APA’s working group that created the 2010 revision of the National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula. Drawing on his experience, David has written articles and a book (A Quiet World) about hearing loss, and he is advocating a transformation in American assistive listening technology (see HearingLoop.org). For his leadership, he has received awards from the American Academy of Audiology, the hearing industry, and the Hearing Loss Association of America. David and Carol Myers met and married while undergraduates, and have raised sons Peter and Andrew, and a daughter, Laura. They have one grandchild, Allie (seen on page 351). Nathan DeWall is professor of psychology at the University of Kentucky. He received his bachelor’s degree from St. Olaf College, a master’s degree in social science from the University of Chicago, and a master’s degree and Ph.D. in social psychology from Florida State University. Nathan received the College of Arts and Sciences Outstanding Teaching Award, which recognizes 16 excellence in undergraduate and graduate teaching. The Association for Psychological Science identified Nathan as a “Rising Star” early in his career for “making significant contributions to the field of psychological science.” He is in the top 1 percent of all cited scientists in psychology and psychiatry on the Institute for Scientific Information list, according to the Web of Science. Nathan researches close relationships, self-control, and aggression. With funding from the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation, and the John Templeton Foundation he has published more than 220 scientific articles and chapters. His research awards include the SAGE Young Scholars Award from the Foundation for Personality and Social 17 Psychology, the Young Investigator Award from the International Society for Research on Aggression, and the Early Career Award from the International Society for Self and Identity. His research has been covered by numerous media outlets, including Good Morning America, The Wall Street Journal, Newsweek, The Atlantic Monthly, The New York Times, The Los Angeles Times, Harvard Business Review, USA Today, National Public Radio, the BBC, and The Guardian. He has lectured nationally and internationally, including in Hong Kong, China, the Netherlands, England, Greece, Hungary, Sweden, Australia, and France. Nathan is happily married to Alice DeWall and is the proud father of Beverly “Bevy” and Ellis. As an ultramarathon runner, he completed numerous races, including the Badwater 135 in 2017 (dubbed “the world’s toughest foot race”). In his spare time now, he reads, writes novels, takes care of his aquariums, watches sports, and plays guitar and sings in local rock bands. Elizabeth (Liz) Yost Hammer is the director of the Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Faculty Development and a Kellogg professor in teaching at Xavier University of Louisiana. Her work includes organizing pedagogical workshops and faculty development initiatives for instructors, both new and seasoned, though her favorite part of her job is trying out teaching innovations in her own classroom. She is a recipient of the College of Arts & Sciences Excellence in Teaching Award, and 18 received an XU Girls Rock! Award from Xavier students. She is also the 2021 recipient of the American Psychological Foundation Charles L. Brewer Distinguished Teaching of Psychology Award. Liz received her Ph.D. in social psychology from Tulane University. Her research interests focus on the scholarship of teaching and learning, and she has contributed to books intended to enhance teaching preparation, including The Oxford Handbook of Psychology Education and Effective College and University Teaching: Strategies and Tactics for the New Professoriate. In addition, Liz has published in Teaching of Psychology, for which she has served as consulting editor, and in a special teaching- related issue of the Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. She is also a co-author (along with Weiten and Dunn) of the textbook 19 Psychology Applied to Modern Life and is the author of the Teacher’s Edition for Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course. In 2005, Liz was named a Fellow of the American Psychological Association. She is a past president of Psi Chi (the international honor society in psychology) and a past treasurer of the Society for the Teaching of Psychology. She was a member of the Introductory Psychology Initiative, focusing on teacher training. AP® Psychology has had an influential role in Liz’s professional development. She began attending the AP® Psychology reading in 1998, where she developed a national network of dedicated high school teachers who have informed both her own teaching and her faculty development work. Liz served as Chief Reader for AP® Psychology from 2012 to 2016 and was a co-strand leader (along with Randy Ernst) at the 2017 APA Summit on High School Psychology Education. Liz is married to Elliott Hammer, also a social psychologist and the John LaFarge Professor in Social Justice. He is also involved in the AP® Psychology reading. They and their two rescue dogs work and play, and self-isolate when necessary, in New Orleans, Louisiana. 20 Content Advisory & Resources Team Creating this book is a team sport. Like so many human achievements, it is the product of a collective intelligence. For this edition, we were fortunate to collaborate closely with an expert Content Advisory and Resources Team throughout the development process. The Content Advisory and Resources Team understands the needs of the AP® Psychology teacher and student. They provided sage guidance on key content, organizational, and pedagogical issues and ensured that the assessments provide the practice students need for the AP® exam. We extend our gratitude and admiration to each of these talented educators for their enduring contributions to the teaching of psychology. tina athanasopoulos Prospect High School, IL 21 Tina has taught AP® Psychology since 1997 and has implemented the AP® Psychology program for District 214 in Illinois. She has been involved with the AP® Psychology reading since 2000 as a reader, table leader, exam leader, and assistant chief reader. Tina has also been a College Board Consultant since 2001, and has presented at College Board workshops across the country. She was on the Test Development Committee for the AP® Psychology Exam from 2005 through 2009, was awarded the Mary Margaret Moffett Memorial Teaching Award in 2015, and was awarded a Presidential Citation for her leadership as Chair of the APA National Standards for High School Psychology Curricula Working Group and for her dedication to teaching psychology as a science in 2022. wyndolyn ludwikowski Spring Hill College, AL Wyndi has participated in the AP® Psychology reading since 2014, serving as a reader and as a table leader. A counseling psychologist with a certificate in quantitative psychology, she regularly teaches introductory psychology, research methods, psychological statistics, 22 abnormal psychology, and measurement. Wyndi has also served as an item writer for the AP® Psychology Exam. In addition to working at Spring Hill College, she conducts psychological assessments in Mobile, Alabama. jennifer ogozalek Sachem North High School, NY Jennifer has taught AP® Psychology for 22 years at Sachem North High School, one of the largest New York State school districts. She has served as an AP® Psychology Exam reader for the past three years and in 2005. Jennifer has conducted new teacher AP® Psychology presentations for Long Island Council for the Social Studies, which serves all Long Island social studies teachers. She has also mentored new teachers in the teaching of AP® Psychology. sejal schullo 23 Glenbrook South High School, IL Sejal is a co-chair of the National Council for the Social Studies Psychology Community and has helped to plan many national conferences and provide psychology teachers with quality professional development. Sejal is also a member of APA Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools, has helped host webinars, and worked on the Skills strand at the APA Summit for High School Psychology in 2017. She has hosted CHITOPSS, a regional conference in the Chicagoland area, and attended both the Clark University and Oregon State University psychology teachers workshops. Sejal has been teaching for 26 years and currently teaches AP® Psychology and Introduction to Psychology courses. kristin whitlock 24 Davis High School, UT Kristin has been teaching AP® Psychology since 1992 and has taught at Davis High School since 2014. She has been a part of the annual AP® Psychology reading since 2001 and has served as the assistant chief reader, exam leader, question leader, table leader, and reader. Kristin is also a College Board Consultant and served as the College Board Advisor to the Test Development Committee. She served on the Steering Committee of the APA’s Introductory Psychology Initiative and as co-leader for the Student Learning Outcomes and Assessment working group. Kristin co-authored Barron’s AP® Q&A Psychology 600 Questions. jessica flitter 25 West Bend East High School, WI Jessica teaches AP® Psychology at West Bend East High School in West Bend, Wisconsin. She has taught the course since 2004 and has participated in the AP® Reading since 2014 as a reader, table leader, and question leader. She has also served as an item writer for the AP® Psychology Exam. Jessica is a College Board Consultant and has presented nationally. She has also co-authored REA AP® Psychology All Access and writes for the Books for Psychology Class blog. shawn starcher La Plata High School, MD 26 Shawn has taught for Charles County Public Schools since 1998 and has been teaching AP® Psychology since 2007. She has participated in the AP® Psychology Reading since 2013, serving as a reader and as a table leader. Shawn has been a frequent participant in the annual Mid-Atlantic Teaching of Psychology Conference and created psychology curricula for both AP® Psychology and Introduction to Psychology courses for Charles County Public Schools. She also serves as a teaching mentor and student-teaching intern coordinator for La Plata High School. Shawn was previously awarded a Maryland Governor’s Citation in Mathematics and Science, and more recently, was the SMECO STEM Teacher of the Year for Charles County in 2021. rebecca miller Lincoln Land Community College, IL Rebecca has participated in the AP® Psychology reading since 2006, serving as a reader, table leader, question leader, and currently as the assistant chief reader. As a professor at Lincoln Land Community College, she regularly teaches multiple sections of Introduction to 27 Psychology each semester, along with Personality and Human Adjustment, Human Development, and Educational Psychology courses. She also mentors LLCC adjunct faculty teaching Introduction to Psychology and served in other capacities, which earned her the 2023 Faculty Distinguished Service award. For this edition, we would like to thank the following students for lending their voices and expertise to creating the answer videos for the Research Methods & Design and Data Interpretation boxes in the book: Chandler McRae Whitlock (University of Utah), Sydney Morris (Palo Alto University), and Alia Wells (Xavier University of Louisiana, ’23). 28 In Appreciation Aided by input from thousands of teachers and students over the years, this has become a better, more effective, more accurate book than three authors alone (these authors at least) could write. Our indebtedness continues to the innumerable researchers who have been so willing to share their time and talent to help us accurately report their research, and to the hundreds of educators who have taken the time to offer feedback. Our gratitude extends to the colleagues who contributed criticism, corrections, and creative ideas related to the content, pedagogy, and format of the thirteenth edition of our college text Psychology, and to prior editions of Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course. For their expertise and encouragement, and the gift of their time to the teaching of psychology, we thank the reviewers and consultants listed here. Michael Bailey Northwestern University Charles Blair-Broeker Hawkeye Community College Laura Brandt 29 Collège du Léman Andrea Brown College of Southern Nevada Christia Brown University of Kentucky Michelle Butler United States Air Force Academy Ann Coker University of Kentucky Gary Creasey Old Dominion University Kimberly Cruz Cypress Bay High School Brian Day Clemson University Jane Dickie Hope College Douglas Dinero Onondaga Community College Sara Dorer Hope College Angela B. Dortch Ivy Tech Community College Joseph Eastwood University of Ontario Institute of Technology Randal Ernst 30 Nebraska Wesleyan University Nancy Fenton Adlai E. Stevenson High School Vivian Ferry Mount Saint Charles Academy Amy Fineburg Jefferson County Schools Timothy Flemming Georgia State University Jessica Flitter West Bend East High School Perry Fuchs The University of Texas at Arlington Heather V. Ganginis Del Pino Montgomery College Joe Geiger Carl Sandburg High School Jerry Green Tarrant County College Ruth Hallongren Triton College Dann Hazel Polk State College Antonia Henderson Langara College Allison Herzig 31 Langley High School Regina M. Hughes Collin College Carrie Kobelsky University of Victoria Kent Korek Germantown High School Erin Lea Langara College Valerie L. Lloyd Langara College Kellie McCants-Price Anne Arundel Community College Robert McEntarffer University of Nebraska Michelle Merwin The University of Tennessee at Martin Beth Morling University of Delaware Robin Musselman Lehigh Carbon Community College Nathaniel Naughton Arlington Catholic High School Hayley Kleitz Nelson Delaware County Community College Thelisa E. Nutt 32 Tarrant County College District—Southeast Campus John M. O’Brien University of Maine at Augusta Levente Orban Kwantlen Polytechnic University Elaine M. O’Reilly University of North Carolina at Charlotte Debra Park Rutgers University L. Alison Phillips Iowa State University Claire Renzetti University of Kentucky Alan Roberts Indiana University David L. Roby Texas Southmost College Hilary Rosenthal Glenbrook South High School Edie Sample Metropolitan Community College Jon Sigurjonsson Caldwell University Joseph Swope Northwest High School Kamara Taylor 33 Michigan Technological University Melissa S. Terlecki Cabrini University Elizabeth Veinott Michigan Technological University Jeanne Viviani LaGuardia Community College Virginia Welle Chippewa Falls Senior High School Kimberly Wood Samford University Carol Wilkinson Whatcom Community College 34 Brief Contents To the Student Unit 0 AN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE PRACTICES: RESEARCH METHODS AND DATA INTERPRETATION Module 0.1 The Scientific Attitude, Critical Thinking, and Developing Arguments Module 0.2 The Need for Psychological Science Module 0.3 The Scientific Method Module 0.4 Correlation and Experimentation Module 0.5 Research Design and Ethics in Psychology Module 0.6 Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life Unit 1 BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR Module 1.1 Interaction of Heredity and Environment Module 1.2 Overview of the Nervous System Module 1.3a The Neuron and Neural Firing: Neural Communication and the Endocrine System Module 1.3b The Neuron and Neural Firing: Substance Use Disorders and Psychoactive Drugs Module 1.4a The Brain: Neuroplasticity and Tools of Discovery Module 1.4b The Brain: Brain Regions and Structures 35 Module 1.4c The Brain: Damage Response and Brain Hemispheres Module 1.5a Sleep: Consciousness Module 1.5b Sleep: Sleep Stages and Theories Module 1.5c Sleep: Sleep Loss, Sleep Disorders, and Dreams Module 1.6a Sensation: Basic Concepts Module 1.6b Sensation: Vision Module 1.6c Sensation: Hearing Module 1.6d Sensation: Skin, Chemical, and Body Senses and Sensory Interaction Unit 2 COGNITION Module 2.1a Perception: Influences on Perception Module 2.1b Perception: Perceptual Organization and Interpretation Module 2.2a Thinking, Problem Solving, Judgments, and Decision Making: Concepts and Creativity Module 2.2b Thinking, Problem Solving, Judgments, and Decision Making: Solving Problems and Making Decisions Module 2.3 Introduction to Memory Module 2.4 Encoding Memories Module 2.5 Storing Memories Module 2.6 Retrieving Memories Module 2.7 Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges 36 Module 2.8a Intelligence and Achievement: Theories of Intelligence Module 2.8b Intelligence and Achievement: Assessing Intelligence Module 2.8c Intelligence and Achievement: Stability of, and Influences on, Intelligence Module 2.8d Intelligence and Achievement: Group Differences and the Question of Bias Unit 3 DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING Module 3.1 Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology Module 3.2a Physical Development Across the Lifespan: Prenatal Development, Infancy, and Childhood Module 3.2b Physical Development Across the Lifespan: Adolescence and Adulthood Module 3.3a Gender and Sexual Orientation: Gender Development Module 3.3b Gender and Sexual Orientation: The Biology and Psychology of Sex Module 3.3c Gender and Sexual Orientation: Sexual Orientation Module 3.4 Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan Module 3.5 Communication and Language Development Module 3.6a Social-Emotional Development Across the Lifespan: Infancy & Childhood 37 Module 3.6b Social-Emotional Development Across the Lifespan: Adolescence, Emerging Adulthood, and Adulthood Module 3.7a Classical Conditioning: Basic Concepts Module 3.7b Classical Conditioning: Applications and Biological Limits Module 3.8a Operant Conditioning: Basic Concepts Module 3.8b Operant Conditioning: Applications, Biological Limits, and Contrasts with Classical Conditioning Module 3.9 Social, Cognitive, and Neurological Factors in Learning Unit 4 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND PERSONALITY Module 4.1 Attribution Theory and Person Perception Module 4.2 Attitude Formation and Attitude Change Module 4.3a Psychology of Social Situations: Conformity and Obedience Module 4.3b Psychology of Social Situations: Group Behavior Module 4.3c Psychology of Social Situations: Aggression Module 4.3d Psychology of Social Situations: Attraction Module 4.3e Psychology of Social Situations: Altruism, Conflict, and Peacemaking Module 4.4 Introduction to Personality Module 4.5a Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories of Personality: Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic 38 Theories Module 4.5b Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories of Personality: Humanistic Theories Module 4.6a Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of Personality: Trait Theories Module 4.6b Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of Personality: Social-Cognitive Theories Module 4.6c Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of Personality: Exploring the Self Module 4.7a Motivation: Motivational Concepts Module 4.7b Motivation: Affiliation and Achievement Module 4.7c Motivation: Hunger Motivation Module 4.8a Emotion: Theories and Physiology of Emotion Module 4.8b Emotion: Expressing and Experiencing Emotion Unit 5 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL HEALTH Module 5.1a Introduction to Health Psychology: Stress and Illness Module 5.1b Introduction to Health Psychology: Coping With Stress Module 5.2a Positive Psychology: Positive Emotions and Positive Traits Module 5.2b Positive Psychology: Enhancing Well-Being Module 5.3 Explaining and Classifying Psychological Disorders 39 Module 5.4a Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders: Anxiety Disorders, Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, and Trauma-and Stressor-Related Disorders Module 5.4b Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders: Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorders Module 5.4c Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders: Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders Module 5.4d Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders: Dissociative Disorders, Personality Disorders, Feeding and Eating Disorders, and Neurodevelopmental Disorders Module 5.5a Treatment of Psychological Disorders: Introduction to Therapy, and Psychodynamic and Humanistic Therapies Module 5.5b Treatment of Psychological Disorders: Behavioral, Cognitive, and Group Therapies Module 5.5c Treatment of Psychological Disorders: Evaluating Psychotherapies Module 5.5d Treatment of Psychological Disorders: The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological Disorders Enrichment Modules Module EM.1 Influences on Drug Use Module EM.2 Psychology at Work Module EM.3 Animal Thinking and Language 40 Appendix A Practice AP®-Style Exam Appendix B Preparing for Further Psychology Studies Appendix C Answers to Examine the Concept Questions Appendix D Evidence-Based Questions and Article Analysis Questions Glossary/Glosario Index All References can be found online. 41 Contents To the Student Unit 0 AN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE PRACTICES: RESEARCH METHODS AND DATA INTERPRETATION Module 0.1 The Scientific Attitude, Critical Thinking, and Developing Arguments Psychology Is a Science Key Elements of the Scientific Attitude AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: The Scientific Attitude Critical Thinking AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 0.2 The Need for Psychological Science Did We Know It All Along? Hindsight Bias Overconfidence Perceiving Order in Random Events AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 0.3 The Scientific Method The Scientific Method Non-Experimental Methods: Case Studies, Naturalistic Observations, and Surveys AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation 42 AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 0.4 Correlation and Experimentation Correlation AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: Correlation and Causation Experimentation AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 0.5 Research Design and Ethics in Psychology Research Design Predicting Everyday Behavior Psychology’s Research Ethics AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 0.6 Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life Descriptive Statistics AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation Inferential Statistics AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Unit 0 AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Unit 1 BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR Module 1.1 Interaction of Heredity and Environment The Nature–Nurture Issue Evolutionary Psychology: Understanding Human Nature 43 Behavior Genetics: Predicting Individual Differences Gene–Environment Interaction AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.2 Overview of the Nervous System The Nervous System AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.3a The Neuron and Neural Firing: Neural Communication and the Endocrine System Neural Communication The Endocrine System AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.3b The Neuron and Neural Firing: Substance Use Disorders and Psychoactive Drugs Tolerance and Addiction in Substance Use Disorders Types of Psychoactive Drugs AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: Tolerance and Addiction AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.4a The Brain: Neuroplasticity and Tools of Discovery The Power of Neuroplasticity Tools of Discovery: Having Our Head Examined AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.4b The Brain: Brain Regions and Structures The Brainstem The Thalamus 44 The Reticular Formation The Cerebellum The Limbic System AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design The Cerebral Cortex AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: Do We Use Only 10 Percent of Our Brain? AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.4c The Brain: Damage Response and Brain Hemispheres Responses to Damage The Divided Brain AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.5a Sleep: Consciousness Defining Consciousness Cognitive Neuroscience Dual Processing: The Two-Track Mind AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.5b Sleep: Sleep Stages and Theories Biological Rhythms and Sleep Why Do We Sleep? AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.5c Sleep: Sleep Loss, Sleep Disorders, and Dreams 45 Sleep Deprivation Major Sleep Disorders Dreams AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.6a Sensation: Basic Concepts Basic Concepts of Sensation and Perception AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: Subliminal Sensation and Subliminal Persuasion AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.6b Sensation: Vision Light Energy and Eye Structures Information Processing in the Eye and Brain AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.6c Sensation: Hearing Sound Waves and the Ear Perceiving Loudness, Pitch, and Location AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 1.6d Sensation: Skin, Chemical, and Body Senses and Sensory Interaction Touch Pain Taste Smell Body Position and Movement Sensory Interaction 46 AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Unit 1 AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Unit 2 COGNITION Module 2.1a Perception: Influences on Perception Selective Attention AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design Expectations, Context, Motivation, and Emotion AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 2.1b Perception: Perceptual Organization and Interpretation Perceptual Organization Perceptual Interpretation AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 2.2a Thinking, Problem Solving, Judgments, and Decision Making: Concepts and Creativity Concepts Thinking Creatively AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 2.2b Thinking, Problem Solving, Judgments, and Decision Making: Solving Problems and Making Decisions Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles Forming Good (and Bad) Decisions and Judgments 47 AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: The Fear Factor AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 2.3 Introduction to Memory Studying Memory AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 2.4 Encoding Memories Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Versus Automatic Processing Automatic Processing and Implicit Memories Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 2.5 Storing Memories Retaining Information in the Brain AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 2.6 Retrieving Memories Retrieval Cues Retrieval Practice Strategies AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 2.7 Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges Forgetting Memory Construction Errors AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: Can Memories of Childhood Sexual Abuse Be Repressed 48 and Then Recovered? Improving Memory AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 2.8a Intelligence and Achievement: Theories of Intelligence Is Intelligence One General Ability? The Cattell-Horn-Carroll Intelligence Theory Theories of Multiple Intelligences AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation Emotional Intelligence AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 2.8b Intelligence and Achievement: Assessing Intelligence Early and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities Three Tests of a “Good” Test AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 2.8c Intelligence and Achievement: Stability of, and Influences on, Intelligence Intelligence Across the Lifespan AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: Cross- Sectional and Longitudinal Studies Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions 49 Module 2.8d Intelligence and Achievement: Group Differences and the Question of Bias Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Unit 2 AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Unit 3 DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING Module 3.1 Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology’s Major Themes AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.2a Physical Development Across the Lifespan: Prenatal Development, Infancy, and Childhood Prenatal Development and the Newborn Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.2b Physical Development Across the Lifespan: Adolescence and Adulthood Physical Development in Adolescence AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation Physical Development in Adulthood AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.3a Gender and Sexual Orientation: Gender Development 50 Similarities and Differences AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: Gender Bias in the Workplace The Nature of Gender The Nurture of Gender AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.3b Gender and Sexual Orientation: The Biology and Psychology of Sex The Physiology of Sex The Psychology of Sex Reflections on the Nature and Nurture of Sex, Gender, and Sexuality AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.3c Gender and Sexual Orientation: Sexual Orientation Introduction to Sexual Orientation Origins of Sexual Orientation Trait Differences and Sexual Orientation AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.4 Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan Cognitive Development in Infancy and Childhood Cognitive Development in Adolescence Cognitive Development in Adulthood AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.5 Communication and Language Development 51 Language Acquisition and Development The Brain and Language Thinking and Language AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.6a Social-Emotional Development Across the Lifespan: Infancy & Childhood Social-Emotional Development in Infancy and Childhood AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: Parenting Styles AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.6b Social-Emotional Development Across the Lifespan: Adolescence, Emerging Adulthood, and Adulthood Social-Emotional Development in Adolescence Emerging Adulthood Social-Emotional Development in Adulthood AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.7a Classical Conditioning: Basic Concepts How Do We Learn? Classical Conditioning AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.7b Classical Conditioning: Applications and Biological Limits Applications of Classical Conditioning Biological Constraints on Classical Conditioning 52 AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.8a Operant Conditioning: Basic Concepts Skinner’s Experiments Skinner’s Legacy AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.8b Operant Conditioning: Applications, Biological Limits, and Contrasts with Classical Conditioning Applications of Operant Conditioning Biological Constraints on Operant Conditioning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 3.9 Social, Cognitive, and Neurological Factors in Learning Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning Learning by Observation AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: The Effects of Viewing Media Violence AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Unit 3 AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Unit 4 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND PERSONALITY Module 4.1 Attribution Theory and Person Perception The Fundamental Attribution Error 53 Social Comparison Prejudice AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.2 Attitude Formation and Attitude Change Attitudes and Actions Persuasion AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: How to Be Persuasive AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.3a Psychology of Social Situations: Conformity and Obedience Conformity: Complying with Social Pressures Obedience: Following Orders AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design Lessons From the Conformity and Obedience Studies AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.3b Psychology of Social Situations: Group Behavior Social Facilitation 54 Social Loafing Deindividuation Group Polarization AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: The Internet as Social Amplifier Groupthink Cultural Influences AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.3c Psychology of Social Situations: Aggression The Biology of Aggression Psychological and Social-Cultural Factors in Aggression AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.3d Psychology of Social Situations: Attraction The Psychology of Attraction AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation Romantic Love AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.3e Psychology of Social Situations: Altruism, Conflict, and Peacemaking Altruism From Conflict to Peace AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.4 Introduction to Personality Classic Perspectives on Personality 55 AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.5a Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories of Personality: Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective: Exploring the Unconscious The Neo-Freudian and Later Psychodynamic Theorists Evaluating Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective and Modern Views of the Unconscious AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation Assessing Unconscious Processes AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.5b Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories of Personality: Humanistic Theories Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualizing Person AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Perspective Assessing the Self Evaluating Humanistic Theories AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.6a Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of Personality: Trait Theories Exploring Traits AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: The Stigma of Introversion 56 Assessing Traits AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation The Big Five Factors Evaluating Trait Theories AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.6b Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of Personality: Social-Cognitive Theories Reciprocal Influences Assessing Behavior in Situations Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.6c Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of Personality: Exploring the Self The Benefits of Self-Esteem The Costs of Self-Esteem AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design Culture and the Self AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.7a Motivation: Motivational Concepts Instincts and Evolutionary Theory Drives and Incentives Arousal Theory A Hierarchy of Needs AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions 57 Module 4.7b Motivation: Affiliation and Achievement The Need to Belong AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design Achievement Motivation AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.7c Motivation: Hunger Motivation The Physiology of Hunger The Psychology of Hunger AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: The Challenges of Obesity and Weight Control AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.8a Emotion: Theories and Physiology of Emotion Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition Embodied Emotion AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: Lie Detection AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 4.8b Emotion: Expressing and Experiencing Emotion Detecting Emotion in Others Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior Culture and Emotion The Effects of Facial Expressions AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions 58 Unit 4 AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Unit 5 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL HEALTH Module 5.1a Introduction to Health Psychology: Stress and Illness Stress: Some Basic Concepts AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design Stress and Vulnerability to Disease AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: Stress and Health AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 5.1b Introduction to Health Psychology: Coping With Stress Personal Control Optimism Versus Pessimism Social Support AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 5.2a Positive Psychology: Positive Emotions and Positive Traits Positive Emotions Positive Traits AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 5.2b Positive Psychology: Enhancing Well- Being Aerobic Exercise AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation 59 Relaxation, Meditation, and Mindfulness Practicing Gratitude Faith Communities and Health AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 5.3 Explaining and Classifying Psychological Disorders Defining Psychological Disorders Understanding Psychological Disorders Classifying Disorders — and Labeling People Risk of Harm to Self and Others AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation Rates of Psychological Disorders AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 5.4a Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders: Anxiety Disorders, Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, and Trauma-and Stressor- Related Disorders Anxiety Disorders Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation Trauma-and Stressor-Related Disorders AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation Understanding Anxiety Disorders, Obsessive- Compulsive and Related Disorders, and Trauma-and Stressor-Related Disorders AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions 60 Module 5.4b Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders: Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorders Depressive Disorders Bipolar Disorders Understanding Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorders AP® Science Practice Data Interpretation AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 5.4c Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders: Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders Symptoms of Schizophrenia Onset and Development of Schizophrenia Understanding Schizophrenia AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 5.4d Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders: Dissociative Disorders, Personality Disorders, Feeding and Eating Disorders, and Neurodevelopmental Disorders Dissociative Disorders Personality Disorders Feeding and Eating Disorders Neurodevelopmental Disorders AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: ADHD —Normal High Energy or Disordered Behavior? AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions 61 Module 5.5a Treatment of Psychological Disorders: Introduction to Therapy, and Psychodynamic and Humanistic Therapies Treating Psychological Disorders Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Therapies Humanistic Therapies AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 5.5b Treatment of Psychological Disorders: Behavioral, Cognitive, and Group Therapies Behavior Therapies Cognitive Therapies AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design Group and Family Therapies AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 5.5c Treatment of Psychological Disorders: Evaluating Psychotherapies Is Psychotherapy Effective? Which Psychotherapies Work Best? How Do Psychotherapies Help People? Human Diversity and Psychotherapy Seeking Psychotherapy Ethical Principles in Psychotherapy AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Module 5.5d Treatment of Psychological Disorders: The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing Psychological 62 Disorders The Biomedical Therapies AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments: Therapeutic Lifestyle Change AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design Preventing Psychological Disorders and Building Resilience AP® Science Practice Exploring Research Methods & Design AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Unit 5 AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions All References can be found online. Enrichment Modules Module EM.1 Influences on Drug Use Biological Influences Psychological and Social-Cultural Influences Questions Module EM.2 Psychology at Work Flow Industrial-Organizational Psychology Personnel Psychology Organizational Psychology Human Factors Psychology Questions Module EM.3 Animal Thinking and Language 63 Do Other Species Share Our Cognitive Skills? Do Other Species Have Language? Questions Appendix A Practice AP®-Style Exam Appendix B Preparing for Further Psychology Studies Appendix C Answers to Examine the Concept Questions Appendix D Evidence-Based Questions and Article Analysis Questions Glossary/Glosario Index All References can be found online. 64 To the Student How to Get the Most From Your Psychology Text for the AP® Course The AP® Psychology course represents a wonderful opportunity for you to be challenged by the rigor of a college-level course, while learning life-relevant, mind-expanding concepts from the humanly significant discipline of psychology. Our unwavering vision for this text has been to merge rigorous science with a broad human perspective that engages both mind and heart. We aim to offer a state-of-the-art introduction to psychological science that speaks to your needs and interests. We aspire to help you understand and appreciate the wonders of your everyday life. And we seek to convey the inquisitive spirit with which psychologists do psychology. This fourth edition continues to build on our trademark: a readable, relatable textbook that effectively prepares students for the AP® Psychology Exam by keeping true to the College Board® Curriculum Framework, with new research and student-relevant discoveries throughout. We aim for clear and concise explanations and a conversational tone that — we hope — will encourage you to read, and enjoy, the content. The fourth edition 65 is organized by units and modules. The units mirror the major content areas in the College Board’s Curriculum Framework that are supported by Personal Project Check assessments. The units are divided into short, manageable modules that provide bite- sized chunks of content to study. Each module is organized by clear and measurable Learning Targets that orient you to the material you are about to read and allow you to “check off” each objective as you master it. Be sure to take advantage of all that this text has to offer. You can learn a lot by simply reading the text, but you will develop a deeper understanding by completing the many review questions and self-assessment activities along the way. The walkthrough guide on pages xxv–xxxi gives you an inside look at the important features of the text. In Unit 2, we discuss the importance of “retrieving” what you’ve read and then “reviewing” what you’ve learned by testing yourself. Researchers have found that self-testing, and regularly engaging with “desirable difficulties” are great ways to learn and remember. This book offers many different types of self-tests and learning opportunities for you: Check Your Understanding boxes, found at the end of major sections of text, include Examine the Concept questions (with answers in Appendix C) that assess mastery, and Apply the Concept questions, which encourage you to apply new 66 concepts to your own experiences (thus making them more meaningful and memorable). Try This features sprinkled throughout the margins allow you to connect more deeply with the concepts you’re learning by putting them into real-life practice. AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions appear at the end of each module. Try the multiple choice questions to assess your understanding of the module content. AP® Practice Evidence-Based Questions and Article Analysis questions for each unit appear in Appendix D at the end of the book. Unit Review Questions offer a cumulative assessment on concepts learned from reading all modules within the unit. The Practice AP®-Style Exam in Appendix A covers material learned throughout the entire course and simulates the real AP® Psychology Exam. AP®-Focused Elements and Science Practice Development In addition to providing you with a rich introduction to the field of psychology, Myers’ Psychology for the AP® Course is designed to help you prepare for the AP® Psychology Exam. That is why we have expanded on the following AP®-specific tips and science practice skill development features: 67 Unit 0 offers an introduction to the foundations of your AP® Psychology course. This unit emphasizes the fallacies of our everyday “common sense” thinking and, therefore, the need for psychological science. The Statistical Reasoning discussion encourages you to focus on thinking smarter by applying simple statistical principles to everyday reasoning. This unit, which is referenced throughout the textbook, offers many opportunities for you to learn critical thinking skills and to better understand research and design principles — both of which are essential to success on the AP® exam and will also be invaluable skills to have in your college courses. Science Practice 1: Concept Application is assessed through the Check Your Understanding checkpoints located at the end of each major section in the text. These boxes allow you to test yourself on the material you’ve just learned and make connections with the material. “Cultural Awareness” margin tips are found throughout the book, and will help you navigate how cultural norms and cognitive biases apply to our behavior and beliefs — another key aspect of Science Practice 1. Science Practice 2: Research Methods & Design, one of the most important skills to learn in AP® Psychology, is highlighted throughout several features in the fourth edition. All-new “Exploring Research Methods & Design” features allow you to practice evaluating quantitative and qualitative research methods and to study designs relevant to the 68 material you’re learning in the module. Each feature is paired with an instructional video. You’ll also see helpful “Research” tips placed throughout the margins at the best point of use to remind you of important concepts you’ll need to know for the exam. Science Practice 3: Data Interpretation, another crucial skill and one that students sometimes struggle with, is highlighted through all-new “Data Interpretation” features. These boxed features ask you to evaluate psychological concepts as depicted in graphs, tables, charts, and more. Each feature is paired with an instructional video. You can get additional practice with this skill by analyzing the data found in the stunning visuals throughout the textbook. Science Practice 4: Argumentation offers interactive infographics found in each unit. This tool helps you learn the importance of using scientifically derived evidence to support or refute a claim in psychology. Each feature is paired with assessment questions to help you develop your critical thinking skills. AP® Exam Tips, found in the margin throughout the text, provide invaluable advice on where to focus and how to avoid pitfalls so that you may be successful in the course and on the exam. A Key Terms and Contributors List appears at the end of each unit to remind you of the important terms and contributors to psychology that were bolded and defined in the marginal glossary throughout the modules. These terms 69 highlight the vocabulary you’ll need to know for the AP® exam. These terms are also defined in the English and Spanish Glossary/Glosario at the end of the book. * What an amazing success story AP® Psychology has become since 1992, when 3,916 students took the first exam. In 2023, approximately 323,000 students sat for the AP® Psychology Exam! It has been an honor for us to support the teaching of our humanly significant discipline to so many of those students, and a great pleasure to have met or corresponded with so many AP® Psychology teachers and their students. It is also a keenly felt responsibility. So, please do feel free to be in touch with your feedback and suggestions. With every good wish, Hope College Holland, Michigan 49422-9000 USA DavidMyers.org @DavidGMyers 70 University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0044 USA NathanDeWall.com @cndewall Xavier University of Louisiana New Orleans, Louisiana 70125-1056 USA @eyhammer Get the most from your book’s organization and pacing Your AP® Psychology adventure begins here! This book has been created with you in mind. It is packed with features to help you learn effectively and to prepare for the AP® Psychology Exam. 71 Build essential skills with the Science Practices Use these features spiraled throughout the text to help you hone the skills that are central to the study of psychology. 72 Infuse research methods and data interpretation throughout the course Developing your study of research methods and data interpretation throughout the course is key to understanding psychology as a science! 73 Practice for the AP® exam all year long This book is your ultimate study tool. Use all the AP® Psychology practice opportunities at the module, unit, and book level to give 74 you the confidence you need on exam day. 75 76 Use the stunning visuals and engaging features to bring psychology to life The figures, photographs, graphs, and infographics will help you understand and remember the key themes and important concepts that will be covered on the exam. 77 Access everything you need for this course in Our Achieve digital platform includes all of the resources you need in one convenient place. 78 79 Unit 0 An Introduction to Psychological Science Practices: Research Methods and Data Interpretation Leo, aged 9 months, wears a Geodesic Sensor Net as he prepares to take part in an experiment at the Birkbeck Babylab Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development in London, England. The experiment uses an electroencephalogram (EEG) to study brain activity while the baby examines different objects of varying complexity. The scientists use various 80 experiments to test the babies’ physical or cognitive responses with sensors including: eye- tracking, brain activation, and motion capture. Modules 0.1 / The Scientific Attitude, Critical Thinking, and Developing Arguments 0.2 / The Need for Psychological Science 0.3 / The Scientific Method 0.4 / Correlation and Experimentation 0.5 / Research Design and Ethics in Psychology 0.6 / Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life UNIT 0: Overview Video As you will learn through this course, psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. What do psychologists do? You might think that they offer counseling, analyze personality, give out child-raising advice, examine crime scenes, and testify in court. Do they? Yes — and much more. Consider some of psychology’s questions that you may wonder about: Have you ever awakened from a nightmare and wondered why you had such a crazy dream? Why do we dream? 81 Have you ever played peekaboo with a 6-month-old and wondered why the baby finds your disappearing/reappearing act so delightful? What do babies perceive and think? Have you ever wondered what fosters school and work success? Does inborn intelligence explain why some people get richer, think more creatively, or relate more sensitively? Or does gritty effort and a belief in the power of persistence matter more? Have you ever become depressed or anxious and wondered whether you’ll ever feel “normal”? What triggers our bad moods — and our good ones? What’s the line between a routine mood swing and a psychological disorder? Psychology seeks to answer such questions about us all — how and why we think, feel, and act as we do. But as a science, psychology does more than speculate: It uses research and interpretation of the resulting data to separate uninformed opinions from examined conclusions. 82 Module 0.1 The Scientific Attitude, Critical Thinking, and Developing Arguments Learning Targets 0.1-1 Explain how psychology is a science. 0.1-2 Describe the three key elements of the scientific attitude and how they support scientific inquiry. 0.1-3 Explain how critical thinking feeds a scientific attitude, and smarter thinking for everyday life. Psychology Is a Science 0.1-1 How is psychology a science? Underlying all science is, first, a passion for exploring and understanding without misleading or being misled. Some questions (Is there life after death?) are beyond science. Answering them in any way requires a leap of faith. With many other ideas (Can some people demonstrate extrasensory perception [ESP]?), the proof is in the pudding. Let the facts speak for themselves. In other words, look for scientifically derived evidence. 83 AP® Exam Tip There are four science practices that all students should develop throughout the AP® Psychology course: Concept Application, Research Methods & Design, Data Interpretation, and Argumentation. Look for the helpful AP® Science Practice features that are incorporated throughout the units in this text. Transferring these skills to the AP® Psychology Exam will be key to your success. Magician James Randi (1928–2020) used an evidence-based approach that drew on observation and experimentation when testing those claiming to see glowing auras around people’s bodies: Randi: Do you see an aura around my head? Aura seer: Yes, indeed. Randi: Can you still see the aura if I put this magazine in front of my face? Aura seer: Of course. Randi: Then if I were to step behind a wall barely taller than I am, you could determine my location from the aura visible above my head, right? Randi once told me [DM] that no aura seer agreed to take this simple test. 84 The Amazing Randi The late magician James Randi was an enthusiastic skeptic. During his life, he tested and debunked supposed psychic phenomena. AP® Science Practice Research Because the scientific approach is so foundational to psychology, we will provide research tips (such as this one) throughout the modules in this text. This will allow you to learn about and understand research terminology in the context of psychological theories and concepts. Research methods and design will be an important part of the AP® exam! 85 Key Elements of the Scientific Attitude 0.1-2 What are the three key elements of the scientific attitude and how do they support scientific inquiry? No matter how sensible-seeming or how wild an idea is, the smart thinker asks: Does it work? When put to the test, do the data support its predictions? When subjected to scrutiny, crazy-sounding ideas sometimes find support. More often, science is self-cleansing. Right ideas stick around. Wrong ideas head to the waste heap, where they’re discarded atop previous claims of miracle cancer cures and out-of-body travels into centuries past. To sift reality from fantasy and fact from fiction requires a scientific attitude: being skeptical but not cynical, open-minded but not gullible. Putting a scientific attitude into practice requires not only curiosity and skepticism but also humility — awareness of our vulnerability to error and openness to surprises and new perspectives. What matters is not our opinion or yours, but rather the truths revealed by our questioning and testing. If people or other animals don’t behave as our ideas predict, then so much the worse for our inaccurate ideas — and so much the better for scientific progress. One of psychology’s early mottos expressed this humble attitude: “The rat is always right.” See Developing Arguments: The Scientific Attitude. AP® Science Practice 86 Developing Arguments The Scientific Attitude Developing Arguments Questions By addressing these critical thinking questions, you will enhance your ability to develop arguments based on scientifically derived evidence. This is one of the skills that will be emphasized on the AP® exam. 1. Identify the reasoning against extrasensory mind-reading. 2. Using scientifically derived evidence, explain why skepticism is important in science. 87 Critical Thinking 0.1-3 How does critical thinking feed a scientific attitude, and smarter thinking for everyday life? The scientific attitude — curiosity + skepticism + humility — prepares us to think harder and smarter. This smart thinking, called critical thinking, examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. When reading a research report, an online opinion, or a news story, critical thinkers ask questions: How do they know that? What is this person’s agenda? Is the conclusion based on an anecdote, or scientifically derived evidence? Does the evidence justify a cause-effect conclusion? What alternative explanations are possible? critical thinking thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. Critical thinkers wince when people make factual claims based on their gut: “I feel like climate change is [or isn’t] happening.” “I feel like 88 self-driving cars are more [or less] dangerous.” Such beliefs (commonly mislabeled as feelings) may or may not be true. Critical thinkers realize that they might be wrong. Sometimes, the best evidence confirms our beliefs. At other times, it beckons us to a different way of thinking. Cynics sometimes seem smart, yet most demonstrate less cognitive ability and academic competence than average (Stavrova & Ehlebracht, 2019). From a tongue-in-cheek Twitter feed: “The problem with quotes on the internet is that you never know if they’re true.” Abraham Lincoln Critical inquiry can surprise us. Here are some examples from psychological science: Massive losses of brain tissue early in life may have minimal long-term effects (see Module 1.4). People of differing age, gender, and wealth report roughly comparable levels of personal happiness (see Module 5.2). Depression touches many people, but most recover (see Module 5.4). Critical inquiry also sometimes debunks popular presumptions, by checking intuitive fiction with scientific fact: Sleepwalkers are not acting out their dreams (see Module 1.5). With brain stimulation or hypnosis, someone cannot immediately replay and relive long-buried or repressed memories (see Module 2.7). In these instances, and many 89 others, what psychological scientists have learned is not what is widely believed. Psychology rests on a strong foundation of scientific inquiry. AP® Science Practice Check Your Understanding Examine the Concept Explain what’s involved in critical thinking. Apply the Concept Were you surprised to learn that psychology is a science? How would you defend the point that psychology is a science if someone asked you about this? Answers to the Examine the Concept questions can be found in Appendix C at the end of the book. Module 0.1 REVIEW 0.1-1 How is psychology a science? Psychology’s findings are the result of a scientific approach— based on careful observation and testing. Sifting reality from fantasy requires a scientific attitude. 90 0.1-2 What are the three key elements of the scientific attitude, and how do they support scientific inquiry? The scientific attitude equips us to be curious, skeptical, and humble in scrutinizing competing ideas or our own observations. 0.1-3 How does critical thinking feed a scientific attitude, and smarter thinking for everyday life? Critical thinking puts ideas to the test by examining assumptions, appraising the source, discerning hidden biases, evaluating evidence, and assessing conclusions. AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions Use the following text to answer questions 1 and 2: Harrison observed that people who read fiction novels were also artists. Whenever Harrison shared this observation with his friends, they said that teenagers only do those activities to meet school requirements. Harrison disagreed, instead believing that personality explained an association between reading novels and being artistic. Even when Harrison learned that having 91 access to books and art was the biggest predictor of participating in these activities, he continued to believe that his original idea was correct. 1. Which element of the scientific attitude should Harrison improve if he wants to engage in scientific inquiry more effectively? a. Curiosity b. Skepticism c. Humility d. Questioning 2. If Harrison wanted to increase his use of critical thinking, which of the following questions might he ask? a. How can I share my results with more people? b. How can I sell my ideas to make a profit? c. How can I interpret this result? d. How can I minimize the impact of this result? 3. What is the name of the approach that uses observation and testing to draw conclusions? a. Qualitative b. Quantitative 92 c. Scientific d. Critical 4. Which of the following best illustrates a skeptical attitude? a. Evelyn believes that all animals turn into balloons at night because her older brother told her that he saw their dog floating around the house at night. b. After Matsuo’s mother told him that chewing on his fingernails might make him sick, Matsuo asked her to provide an explanation of how he might get sick from chewing his nails. c. Hayden argues with all her teachers when they lecture because she doubts how they can possibly remember all the information from the textbooks they have read. d. After reading a blog post online about the dangers of walking near busy streets, Beck decided to avoid walking near busy streets for the next five years. 5. Which of the elements of a scientific attitude is most associated with the question, “Does it work?” a. Humility b. Skepticism c. Argumentation 93 d. Curiosity 6. Why is psychology considered a science? a. Psychological researchers rely on observation and experimentation when testing claims. b. Psychological researchers ask questions about behavior and mental processes. c. Psychological researchers speculate about how and why people act as they do. d. Psychological researchers utilize critical thinking. 94 Module 0.2 The Need for Psychological Science Learning Targets 0.2-1 Explain how cognitive biases, such as hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to perceive order in random events illustrate why science-based answers are more valid than those based on common sense. 0.2-1 How do cognitive biases, such as hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to perceive order in random events illustrate why science-based answers are more valid than those based on common sense? Some people suppose that psychology is mere common sense — documenting and dressing in jargon what people already know: “You get paid for using fancy methods to prove what everyone knows?” Indeed, our intuition is often right. As the baseball great Yogi Berra (1925–2015) once said, “You can observe a lot by watching.” (We have Berra to thank for other gems, such as “Nobody ever goes there any more — it’s too crowded,” and “If the people don’t want to come out to the ballpark, nobody’s gonna stop ’em.”) Because we’re all behavior watchers, it would be surprising if many of psychology’s findings had not been foreseen. Many people believe that love breeds happiness, for example, and they are right (we have what Module 4.7 calls a deep “need to belong”). 95 But sometimes what seems like common sense, informed by countless casual observations, is wrong. In many other modules in this text, we will see how research has overturned popular ideas — that familiarity breeds contempt, that dreams predict the future, and that most of us use only 10 percent of our brain. We will also see how research has surprised us with discoveries about how the brain’s chemical messengers control our moods and memories, about other animals’ abilities, and about the relationship between social media use and depression. Other things seem like commonsense truth only because we so often hear them repeated. Mere repetition of statements — whether true or false — makes them easier to process and remember, and thus more true-seeming (Dechêne at al., 2010; Fazio et al., 2015). Easy-to- remember misconceptions (“Bundle up before you go outside, or you will catch a cold!”) can therefore overwhelm hard truths. 96 Critical thinking beats common sense Psychological scientists use critical thinking to determine whether scientifically derived evidence supports their assumptions. Critical thinking helps us discard myths and seek the truth. Three roadblocks to critical thinking — hindsight bias, overconfidence, and perceiving patterns in random events — help illustrate why we cannot rely solely on common sense. Did We Know It All Along? Hindsight Bias Consider how easy it is to draw the bull’s-eye after the arrow strikes. After a couple breaks up, their friends say, “They weren’t a good match.” After the game, we credit the coach if a “gutsy play” wins the game, and criticize the same “stupid play” if it doesn’t. After a war or an election, its outcome usually seems obvious. Although history may therefore seem like a series of inevitable events, the actual future is seldom foreseen. No one’s diary recorded, “Today the Hundred Years War began.” This hindsight bias (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) is easy to demonstrate by giving half the members of a group some purported psychological finding and giving the other half an opposite result. Tell the first group, for example, “Psychologists have found that separation weakens romantic attraction. As the saying goes, ‘Out of sight, out of mind.’” Ask them 97 to imagine why this might be true. Most people can, and after hearing an explanation, nearly all will then view this true finding as unsurprising. hindsight bias the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) Hindsight bias When drilling its Deepwater Horizon oil well in 2010, BP employees took shortcuts and ignored warning signs, without intending to harm the environment, their employees, or their company’s reputation. After the resulting oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, with the benefit of 20/20 hindsight, the foolishness of those judgments became obvious. Tell the second group the opposite: “Psychologists have found that separation strengthens romantic attraction. As the saying goes, 98 ‘Absence makes the heart grow fonder.’” People given this untrue result can also easily imagine it, and most will also see it as unsurprising. When opposite findings both seem like common sense, there is a problem. Such errors in people’s recollections and explanations show why we need psychological research. It’s not that common sense is usually wrong. Rather, common sense describes, after the fact, what has happened better than it predicts what will happen. More than 800 scholarly papers have shown hindsight bias in people young and old from around the world (Roese & Vohs, 2012). As physicist Niels Bohr reportedly jested, “Prediction is very difficult, especially if it’s about the future.” AP® Science Practice Developing Arguments Identify the reasoning, using the scientifically derived evidence presented here, that supports the claim that hindsight bias is a roadblock to critical thinking. Overconfidence We humans tend to think we know more than we do. Asked how sure we are of our answers to factual questions (Is Boston north or south of Paris?), we tend to be more confident than correct.1 And our 99 confidence often drives us to quick — rather than correct — thinking (Rahnev et al., 2020). Consider these three anagrams, shown beside their solutions (from Goranson, 1978): WREAT → WATER ETRYN → ENTRY GRABE → BARGE How many seconds do you think it would have taken you to unscramble each of these? Knowing the answer tends to make us overconfident. (Surely, the solution would take only 10 seconds or so?) In reality, the average problem solver spends 3 minutes, as you also might, given a similar anagram without the solution: OCHSA.2 Are we any better at predicting social behavior? Psychologist Philip Tetlock (1998, 2005) collected more than 27,000 expert predictions of world events, such as whether Quebec would separate from Canada. His repeated finding: These predictions, which experts made with 80 percent confidence on average, were right less than 40 percent of the time. It turns out that only about 2 percent of people excel at predicting social behavior. Tetlock (with Gardner, 2016) calls them “superforecasters.” Superforecasters avoid overconfidence. Faced with a difficult prediction, a superforecaster “gathers facts, balances clashing arguments, and settles on an answer.” 100 Perceiving Order in Random Events We’re born with an eagerness to make sense of our world. People see a face on the Moon, or believe their watch shows some number groups more than others. Even in random data, we often find patterns, because — here’s a curious fact of life — random sequences often don’t look random (Falk et al., 2009; Nickerson, 2002, 2005). Flip a coin 50 times and you may be surprised at the streaks of heads and tails — much like supposed “hot” and “cold” streaks in basketball shooting and baseball hitting. In actual random sequences, patterns and streaks (such as repeating digits) occur more often than people expect (Oskarsson et al., 2009). That also makes it hard for people to generate random-like sequences. When embezzlers try to simulate random digits when specifying how much to steal, their nonrandom patterns can alert fraud experts (Poundstone, 2014). Why are we so prone to pattern-seeking? For most people, a random, unpredictable world is unsettling (Tullett et al., 2015). Making sense of our world relieves stress and helps us get on with daily living (Ma et al., 2017). 101 “The really unusual day would be one where nothing unusual happens.” Statistician Persi Diaconis (2002) The point to remember: Our commonsense thinking is flawed due to three powerful tendencies: hindsight bias, overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events. But scientific inquiry can help us sift reality from illusion. AP® Exam Tip Multiple-choice questions on the AP® exam sometimes test your knowledge of “media myths.” Pay particular attention when psychological findings run counter to “common sense.” You will also need to explain why claims are or are not supported, using scientifically derived evidence. 102 AP® Science Practice Check Your Understanding Examine the Concept Explain the difference between hindsight bias and overconfidence. Apply the Concept Do you have a hard time believing you may be overconfident? Could overconfidence be at work in that self-assessment? How might reading this section about overconfidence help reduce your tendency to be overconfident? Explain why, after friends start dating, we often feel that we knew they were meant to be together. Answers to the Examine the Concept questions can be found in Appendix C at the end of the book. Module 0.2 REVIEW 0.2-1 How do cognitive biases, such as hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to perceive order in random events illustrate why science-based answers are more valid than those based on common sense? Hindsight bias (also called the “I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon”) is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. 103 Overconfidence in our judgments results partly from our bias to seek information that confirms them. These tendencies, along with our eagerness to perceive patterns in random events, lead us to overestimate the importance of commonsense thinking. Although limited by the testable questions it can address, scientific inquiry can help us overcome such biases and shortcomings. AP® Practice Multiple Choice Questions 1. The tendency to exaggerate the correctness or accuracy of our beliefs and predictions is called a. hindsight bias. b. overconfidence. c. critical thinking. d. skepticism. 2. While sitting at a stoplight, Nancy believes that the next car she sees will be blue because the previous three cars have been blue. Which psychological concept best explains her belief? a. Hindsight bias 104 b. Critical thinking c. Perceiving order in random events d. Overconfidence 3. After the student council election, a friend tells you he could have guessed who would be elected president. Which psychological phenomenon might this scenario best illustrate? a. Common sense b. Hindsight bias c. Overconfidence d. Perceiving order in random events 4. While taking a standardized test with randomly scrambled answers, you notice that your last four answers have been “c.” Which of the following is true concerning the probability of the next answer being “c”? a. It is higher because previous answers have been “c.” Once a streak begins, it is likely to last for a while. b. It is lower since prior answers have been “c.” Since answers are distributed randomly, “c” answers become less common. 105 c. It is unaffected by previous answers. It is as likely to be “c” as any other answer. d. It is higher based on previous answers being “c.” Test constructors’ default answer choice is “c.” 5. Which of the following is an example of hindsight bias? a. Armend is certain that electric cars will represent 80 percent of vehicles in 20 years and only reads research studies that support his hypothesis. b. Liza underestimates how much time it will take her to finish writing her college application essays and fails to meet an important deadline. c. Alliyah, after reading a definition on one of her flashcards, turns the card over to see the term and then tells herself she knew what the answer was all along. d. Dr. Grace overestimates the effectiveness of her new treatment method because she fails to seek out any evidence refuting her theory. 106 Module 0.3 The Scientific Method Learning Targets 0.3-1 Describe how theories advance psychological science. 0.3-2 Explain how psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and why random sampling is important. The Scientific Method Psychological scientists use the scientific method — a self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis. Psychological science welcomes hunches and plausible-sounding theories. And it puts them to the test. If a theory works — if the data support its predictions — so much the better for that theory. If the predictions fail, the theory gets revised or rejected. When researchers submit their work to a scientific journal, peer reviewers — other scientists who are experts — evaluate a study’s theory, originality, and accuracy. The journal editor then uses the peer reviews to decide whether the research deserves publication. peer reviewers scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy. AP® Exam Tip As you read this module, keep in mind that the scientific method is a set of principles and procedures, not a list of facts. You will be expected to understand how the science of 107 psychology is done, not just what it has discovered. Constructing Theories 0.3-1 How do theories advance psychological science? In everyday conversation, we often use theory to mean “mere hunch.” In science, a theory explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations. By using deeper principles to organize isolated facts, a theory summarizes and simplifies. As we connect the observed dots, a coherent picture emerges. A theory of how sleep affects memory, for example, helps us organize countless sleep-related observations into a short list of principles. Imagine that we observe over and over that people with good sleep habits tend to answer questions correctly in class and do well at test time. We might therefore theorize that sleep improves memory. So far, so good: Our principle neatly summarizes a list of observations about the effects of a good night’s sleep. theory an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. Yet no matter how reasonable a theory may sound — and it does seem reasonable to suggest that sleep boosts memory — we must put it to the test. A good theory produces testable predictions, called hypotheses. Such predictions specify which results would support 108 the theory and which results would disconfirm it. The falsifiability of a hypothesis is a mark of its scientific strength. (Can it be proven false?) To test our theory about sleep effects on memory, we might hypothesize that when sleep deprived, people will remember less from the day before. To test that hypothesis, we might assess how well people remember class materials they studied either before a good night’s sleep or before a shortened night’s sleep (Figure 0.3-1). The results will either support our theory or lead us to revise or reject it. hypothesis a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. falsifiable the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment. Figure 0.3-1 The scientific method This self-correcting process asks questions and observes nature’s answers. 109 Our theories can bias our observations. Having theorized that better memory springs from more sleep, we may see what we expect: Sleep-deprived people’s answers are less accurate. The urge to see what we expect is strong, both inside and outside the laboratory, as when people’s views of climate change influence their interpretation of local weather events. In the end, our theory will be useful if it (1) organizes observations and (2) implies predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications. (Does people’s sleep predict their retention?) Eventually, our research may (3) stimulate further research that leads to a revised theory that better organizes and predicts. As a check on their own biases, psychologists report their research with precise, measurable operational definitions of research procedures and concepts. Sleep deprived, for example, may be defined as “at least 2 hours less than a person’s natural sleep”; a study of aggression may observe how many pins a person stabs into a doll representing a lab partner; and a study of helping may record the number of dollars a person donates. By using carefully worded statements, others can replicate (repeat) the original observations with different participants, materials, and circumstances. If they get similar results, confidence in the finding’s reliability grows. The first study of sleep deprivation aroused psychologists’ curiosity. Now, 110 after many successful replications with different people and questions, we feel sure of the phenomenon’s power. Replication is confirmation. operational definition a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (Also known as operationalization.) replication repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced. We can test our hypotheses and refine our theories using non- experimental methods or experimental methods. Some non- experimental methods describe behaviors via case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations; others compute correlations that assess associations among different factors. Experimental methods manipulate variables to see their effects. (As we will see in Module 0.6, meta-analyses may be used to analyze the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.) AP® Science Practice Check Your Understanding Examine the Concept Explain the role of peer review in the scientific process. Explain why replication is important. 111 Apply the Concept What are two operational definitions of academic success? Will what you’ve learned about theories and replication change the way you read about research results, such as in your news feed? Answers to Examine the Concept questions can be found in Appendix C at the end of the book. Non-Experimental Methods: Case Studies, Naturalistic Observations, and Surveys 0.3-2 How do psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and why is random sampling important? In everyday life, we all observe and describe people, often drawing conclusions about why they think, feel, and act as they do. Professional psychologists do much the same, though more objectively and systematically, using non-experimental methods, such as: case studies (in-depth analyses of individuals or groups), natura

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