Psychology Notes on Cognition PDF

Chapter 7 cognition psychology fourth edition Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All right...

Chapter 7 cognition psychology fourth edition Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Learning Objectives 7.1 How are mental images and concepts involved in the process of thinking? 7.2 What are the methods people use to solve problems and make decisions? 7.3 Why does problem solving sometimes fail, and what is meant by creative thinking? 7.4 How do psychologists define intelligence, and how do various theories of intelligence differ? 7.5 How is intelligence measured, how are intelligence tests constructed, and what role do these tests play in neuropsychology? 7.6 What is intellectual disability and what are its causes? 7.7 What defines giftedness, and how are giftedness and emotional intelligence related to success in life? 7.8 What is the influence of heredity and environment on the development of intelligence? 7.9 How is language defined, and what are its different elements and structure? 7.10 Does language influence the way people think, and are animals capable of learning language? 7.11 What are some ways to improve thinking? Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  AP Learning Objectives IX. Cognition – Identify problem-solving strategies as well as factors that influence their effectiveness. – Identify key contributors in cognitive psychology. – List the characteristics of creative thought and creative thinkers. X. Intelligence Testing – Define intelligence and list characteristics of how psychologists measure intelligence. – Compare and contrast historic and contemporary theories of intelligence. – Identify key contributors in intelligence research and testing. – Explain how psychologists design tests, including standardization strategies and other techniques to establish reliability and validity. – Interpret the meaning of scores in terms of the normal curve. Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  AP Learning Objectives Continued X. Intelligence Testing (continued) – Discuss how culture influences the definition of intelligence. – Debate the appropriate testing practices, particularly in relation to culture-fair test uses. – Describe relevant labels related to intelligence testing. – Synthesize how biological, cognitive, and cultural factors. XI. Language acquisition – Synthesize how biological, cognitive, and cultural factors converge to facilitate acquisition, development, and use of language. Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Thinking and Mental Images LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking Thinking (cognition): mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information – processing includes organizing, understanding, and communicating information to others Mental images: mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture-like quality Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Concepts LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking Concepts: ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities – Formal concepts: concepts that are defined by specific rules or features – Natural concepts: concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world  a platypus is a “fuzzy” natural concept (a mammal that lays eggs and has bird-like webbed feet) Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Concepts LO 7.1 Mental Images and Concepts in Thinking Prototype: a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of that concept – prototypes develop according to the exposure a person has to objects in that category Schemas: mental generalizations about objects, places, events, and people – Scripts: schemas for familiar sequences of activities Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Problem Solving LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions AP: Problem-Solving Strategies and Their Effectiveness Problem solving: occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways Decision making: identifying, evaluating, and choosing between alternatives Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Problem Solving LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions AP: Problem-Solving Strategies and Their Effectiveness Trial and error (mechanical solution): problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found Algorithms: very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems – will always result in a correct solution if one exists to be found  e.g., mathematical formulas Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Problem Solving LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions AP: Problem-Solving Strategies and Their Effectiveness Heuristic: educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem; also known as a “rule of thumb” – representative heuristic: assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Problem Solving LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions Heuristics (cont’d) – availability heuristic: estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is to think of related examples – working backward from the goal is a useful heuristic – break a goal down into subgoals, so that as each subgoal is achieved, the final solution is that much closer Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Problem Solving AP: Problem-Solving Strategies and Their Effectiveness LO 7.2 Solving Problems and Making Decisions Identify Key Contributors Insight: sudden perception of a solution to a problem – Köhler’s work with Sultan – “aha!” moment – problem may be recognized as similar to another previously solved, for example Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Problem-Solving Barriers LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking AP: Problem-Solving Strategies and Their Effectiveness Functional fixedness: a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions Mental set: the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Figure 7.2 The String Problem How do you tie the two strings together if you cannot reach them both at the same time? Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Figure 7.2 (continued) Solution to the String Problem The solution to the string problem is to use the pliers as a pendulum to swing the second string closer to you. Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Figure 7.3 The Dot Problem Can you draw four straight lines so that they pass through all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the page and without touching any dot more than once? Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Figure 7.3 (continued) Solution to the Dot Problem When people try to solve this problem, a mental set causes them to think of the dots as representing a box, and they try to draw the line while staying in the box. The only way to connect all nine dots without lifting the pencil from the paper is to draw the lines so they extend out of the box of dots—literally “thinking outside the box.” Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Problem-Solving Barriers LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking AP: Problem-Solving Strategies and Their Effectiveness Confirmation bias: the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Creativity LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking AP: Characteristics of Creative Thought & Creative Thinkers Creativity: the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Creativity LO 7.3 Failures of Problem Solving and Creative Thinking AP: Characteristics of Creative Thought & Creative Thinkers Creativity (cont’d) – convergent thinking: a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to (converge on) that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic – divergent thinking: a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point (a kind of creativity) Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Intelligence LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence Intelligence: the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Theories of Intelligence AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence Historic and Contemporary Theories of Intelligence Spearman’s Theory – g factor: the ability to reason and solve problems; general intelligence – s factor: the ability to excel in certain areas; specific intelligence Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Theories of Intelligence LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence Historic and Contemporary Theories of Intelligence Gardner’s Theory – Nine types of intelligence Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Theories of Intelligence AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence Historic and Contemporary Theories of Intelligence Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Theories of Intelligence AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence Historic and Contemporary Theories of Intelligence Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence: there are three kinds of intelligences 1. analytical 2. creative 3. practical Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Theories of Intelligence AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence LO 7.4 The Definition of Intelligence Historic and Contemporary Theories of Intelligence Triarchic theory of intelligence (cont’d) – analytical intelligence: the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving – creative intelligence: the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems – practical intelligence: the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful; “street smarts” Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/Identify Key Contributors Intelligence quotient (IQ): a number representing a measure of intelligence, resulting from the division of one’s mental age by one’s chronological age and then multiplying that quotient by 100 – Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales yield an IQ score – allows testers to compare intelligence levels of people from different age groups Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/Identify Key Contributors Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a verbal score and a performance score, as well as an overall score of intelligence Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Development of IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/ Designing Reliable and Valid Tests Reliability: the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people Validity: the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Unreliable and Invalid LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/ Designing Reliable and Valid Tests Construct (i.e., “intelligence”) TEST Scores on test Menu Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Reliable but Invalid LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed Construct (i.e., “intelligence”) TEST Scores on test Test can be RELIABLE but still be INVALID! Menu Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Reliable and Valid LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed Construct (i.e., “intelligence) TEST Scores on test Test MUST be RELIABLE to be VALID! Menu Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Development of IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/ Designing Reliable and Valid Tests Standardization: the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed – norms: scores from the standardization group – most intelligence tests follow a normal curve Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Figure 7.4 The Normal Curve The percentages under each section of the normal curve represent the percentage of scores falling within that section for each standard deviation (SD) from the mean. Scores on intelligence tests are typically represented by the normal curve. The dotted vertical lines each represent one standard deviation from the mean, which is always set at 100. For example, an IQ of 115 on the Wechsler represents one standard deviation above the mean, and the area under the curve indicates that 34.13 percent of the population falls between 100 and 115 on this test. Note: The figure shows the mean and standard deviation for the Stanford-Binet Fourth Edition (Stanford-Binet 4). The Stanford-Binet Fifth Edition was published in 2003 and now has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 for composite scores. AP: Interpret the Meaning of Scores in Terms of the Normal Curve Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Development of IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/ Designing Reliable and Valid Tests Deviation IQ scores: a measure of intelligence that assumes that IQ is normally distributed around a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of about 15 – IQ of 130 would be two standard deviations above the mean – IQ of 70 would be two standard deviations below the mean Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Development of IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence/ Designing Reliable and Valid Tests Crystallized intelligence: knowledge we have accumulated over time – Remains steady as we age Fluid intelligence: ability to problem solve, reason abstractly, and pick up new skills – Diminishes with age Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Development of IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed AP: Designing Reliable and Valid Tests/ Cultural Definitions of Intelligence/Culture-Fair Test Uses Cultural bias: the tendency for IQ tests to reflect the culture of test designers – E.g. Which of the five is least like the other four? DOG—CAR—CAT—BIRD—FISH Dove Counterbalance General Intelligence Test (Chitling Test) Culturally fair tests: require use of nonverbal abilities rather than verbal knowledge that might be culture-specific Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Development of IQ Tests LO 7.5 Measuring Intelligence and How Intelligence Tests Are Constructed AP: Intelligence Defined and Measures of Intelligence Usefulness of IQ tests – IQ tests are generally valid for predicting academic success and job performance – Neuropsychology  Head injury, learning disabilities, neuropsychological disorders Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Intellectual Disability LO 7.6 Intellectual Disability and Its Causes AP: Labels Related to Intelligence Testing Intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder): a person exhibits deficits in mental ability and adaptive behavior – IQ falls below 70 – adaptive behavior is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological age – formerly known as mental retardation or developmentally delayed Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Intellectual Disability LO 7.6 Intellectual Disability and Its Causes AP: Labels Related to Intelligence Testing Levels of severity now diagnosed based on level of adaptive functioning and the level of support the individual requires rather than IQ tests – Intellectual disability can vary from mild to profound Causes of developmental delay: – deprived environments, chromosome and genetic disorders, alcohol, dietary deficiencies and toxins in the environment Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Giftedness LO 7.7 Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success AP: Labels Related to Intelligence Testing Gifted: the 2 percent of the population falling on the upper end of the normal curve and typically possessing an IQ of 130 or above Are gifted people weird, socially awkward, physically weak, and/or more likely to suffer from mental illness (as stereotypes would suggest)? Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Giftedness LO 7.7 Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success AP: Labels Related to Intelligence Testing Terman conducted a longitudinal study that demonstrated that gifted children grow up to be successful adults, for the most part – Terman’s study has been criticized for a lack of objectivity, because he became too involved in the lives of his “Termites”, even to the point of interfering on their behalf Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Giftedness LO 7.7 Giftedness and Does Giftedness Guarantee Success AP: Labels Related to Intelligence Testing Emotional intelligence: awareness of and ability to manage one’s own emotions, as well as the ability to be self-motivated, to feel what others feel, and to be socially skilled – viewed as a powerful influence on success in life Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence LO 7.8 The Influence of Heredity and Environment on Intelligence Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores as genetic relatedness increases Heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50 (50%) Flynn effect: IQ scores steadily increasing over time in modernized countries The Bell Curve: a book that made widely criticized claims about the heritability of intelligence – stereotype threat Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Language LO 7.9 Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language AP: Factors That Facilitate Language Acquisition, Development, and Use Language: a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Elements and Structure of Language LO 7.9 Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language AP: Factors That Facilitate Language Acquisition, Development, and Use/Identify Key Contributors Grammar: the system of rules governing the structure and use of a language – Noam Chomsky Phonemes: the basic units of sound in a language Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning within a language Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Elements and Structure of Language LO 7.9 Language, Its Different Elements, and the Structure of Language AP: Factors That Facilitate Language Acquisition, Development, and Use Syntax: the system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences Semantics: rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences Pragmatics: aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others, or the social niceties of language Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Language and Cognition LO 7.10 Language, Thinking, and Are Animals Able to Learn Language AP: Factors That Facilitate Language Acquisition, Development, and Use/Identify Key Contributors Piaget: concepts precede language Vygotsky: language helps develop concepts Linguistic relativity hypothesis: the theory that thought processes and concepts are controlled by language – Sapir & Whorf Cognitive universalism: theory that concepts are universal and influence the development of language Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Animal Studies in Language LO 7.10 Language, Thinking, and Are Animals Able to Learn Language AP: Factors That Facilitate Language Acquisition, Development, and Use Studies have been somewhat successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language, including some abstract ideas. Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax, which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language. Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.  Ways to Improve Thinking LO 7.11 Ways to Improve Thinking Mental exercise – Training in working memory may improve working memory capacity, but may or may not improve fluid intelligence Physical exercise – Aerobic fitness is associated with improved cognitive function at all life stages Psychology, Fourth Edition, AP Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli J. Noland White © 2015, 2012, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.