Exam 1 Review Sheet PDF

Exam 1 review sheet Social Categorization and Stereotypes 1. What is “categorization”? What purposes does categorization serve? What is “social categorization”? Categorization: A process of simplifying the environment by creating categories on the basis of characteristics a set of people hav...

Exam 1 review sheet Social Categorization and Stereotypes 1. What is “categorization”? What purposes does categorization serve? What is “social categorization”? Categorization: A process of simplifying the environment by creating categories on the basis of characteristics a set of people have in common Purpose: Helps our brains cope with an otherwise overwhelming amount of information it must deal with. Helps our brain anticipate what to expect in any given situation and helps make the world a meaningful, orderly, and predictable place. Social categorization: People place others and themselves into categories called social groups Beliefs developed about members of these groups Used to guide future interaction with group members 2. What are the two aspects of categorization that we talked about? Two aspects of categorization: Content of stereotypic beliefs - What characteristics are associated with particular groups? Process by which people form and use social categories - How are characteristics accessed from memories? 3. What are the basic social categories? Why are they called the “basic social categories”?: Gender, race and age. They are called because they are some of the first and most common ways people categorize others in social interactions. These categories help us make quick judgments and understand social dynamics, even if they can sometimes lead to stereotypes or oversimplifications. 4. What is intersectionality? People are members of more than one category at a time. 5. What are the three factors that affect categorization that we discussed? Be able to describe each. 1. Prototypicality Physical features similar to “typical” category member Racial Phenotypical Bias: Prototypical members are categorized more quickly and easily Example: Research using images of Black and White individuals previously rated as either high or low in prototypicality for their races. Result: High prototypicality images were categorized faster 2. Situational Influence The social context can influence which attributes people are categorized based on Example: Does the individual differ from others in their group along a specific dimension? People categorize a black woman in terms of her gender if she is presented in an otherwise all male context and her race if present in an otherwise all whiter context Categorization also differs by goals of the interaction People categorize based on goal-linked categories (Eg. occupation) instead of basic categories. 3. Prejudice People higher in prejudice pay more attention to race than other categories. High prejudice people tend to use group stereotypes to reduce ambiguity when encountering someone who does not fit clearly fit into a category 6. What is the “ultimate attribution error” (UAE)? According to the UAE, how do people explain negative behavior committed by the ingroup? What about negative behaviors from the outgroup? How does the UAE say people will explain positive behaviors from the ingroup/outgroup? The ultimate attribution error is a cognitive bias that causes people to attribute the behavior of others to their character or disposition, while attributing their own behavior to situational factors. Their own group’s negative behavior can be explained by situational factors and Negative actions by other groups are due to internal stable characteristics 7. What is “ingroup overexclusion”? Drawing a tight circle around ingroup in order to avoid treating outgroup members like they belong Safer to classify ingroup members as outgroups, instead of extending ingroup privileges to the “wrong” people More likely among highly ethnocentric people 8. Know how the media can be a source of stereotypes. Exposes us to members of powerful groups more than less powerful groups Representations of groups are often very stereotypic Research has found that the more media people are exposed to, the more they hold stereotypic beliefs Example: When the media treats white suspects and killers better than black victims 9. What is the “outgroup homogeneity effect”? Where does it likely come from? What is “cross-racial identification bias”? People see members of their group as very different from one another. It comes from the media. Cross Racial Identification is where people of other races tend to “all look alike” to most people. 10. Where do stereotypes come from according to “social role theory”? What is “correspondence bias”? Social Role Theory: People observe and pay attention to the social roles others occupy Associate characteristics of the role with the individuals who occupy it Social role theory proposes that this leads to the development of stereotypic beliefs Correspondence Bias: Tendency to misjudge the demands of the situation: Little weight given to situational factors Actions thought to reflect another’s personality 11. What is “illusory correlation”? How does it explain where stereotypes come from?: People overestimate the relationship between two categories when the information is distinctive. Majority-group members may have infrequent interactions with minority-group members (i.e., the interactions are “distinctive”) People overestimate the relationship between group and negative traits from a small number of instances. 12. What are some of the risks/difficulties of research looking at stereotype accuracy according to its opponents? Stereotypes usually abstract attributes (lazy, kind, smart), and not based on verifiable demographics Stereotypes are used to justify discrimination at an individual level (may be made worse if shown to be accurate on average) Stereotype Activation and Application 13. What is “stereotype activation”? What is “stereotype application”? Stereotype activation is when a dormant stereotype becomes active in one’s mind, stereotype activation is the conditions needed to be able to activate a stereotype. Image shows conditions needed to activate or deactivate stereotype application. 14. Know the relationship between categorization and stereotype activation. Categorization: The process of placing others (and ourselves) into categories (i.e., social groups) Any given individual can be placed into any number of different categories For a stereotype to become activated in a given encounter, the person must first be categorized into the stereotype relevant group No categorization means no stereotype activation 15. What does it mean for a stereotype to be activated “automatically”? Triggered by observing stimuli associated with stereotyped groups Follows categorization Occurs without effort or conscious thought Subliminal cues presented too quickly to be consciously noted can activate stereotypes 16. What are the four factors that can facilitate/inhibit automatic activation that we discussed? : - Prototypicality: increases likelihood of categorization, also make stereotype activation more likely - Situational Context: encountering someone in Church vs at school vs on the street at night - Prejudice: can increase the strength of association between the social group and the stereotype - Cognitive Busyness: can disrupt activation due to lack of space in working memory 17. What does it mean for a stereotype to be activated through a “motivational” process? It means that it was rooted in goals and needs of the perceiver. 18. What are the four categories of motivated stereotype activation that we discussed? Be able to describe each. Self-enhancement - Self-enhancement: seeing others in negative light makes self look better - Self-protection: seeing evaluator as less competent protects self-esteem Comprehension - Goal to form accurate impression of other person - Can help facilitate positive interactions and avoid negative ones - May seek “individuating info” - Specific to person regardless of whether it is stereotypic to the person’s group Social adjustment - Automatically alter behavior to fit situation and adhere to norms - How strong are norms against using prejudice - Stereotypes can be activated or inhibited to fit norms in specific situation Motivation to control prejudice - Want to avoid acting prejudice because of - Values - Concern others will see them as prejudiced 19. What are the two factors necessary for someone to be able to inhibit stereotype application? The two factors necessary are motivation to inhibit stereotype application or the stereotype is not relevant. 20. What are the five motivations that facilitate/inhibit stereotype application? Motivations - Control prejudice - Comprehension - Self-enhancement - Social power - People with high power are more likely to apply stereotypes - Powerful people: - Feel entitled - Are motivated to maintain power difference - Low power people: - Accrue benefits from having accurate information about powerful people - Individual differences in cognitive style - Need for cognition - Desire to think carefully about others - How much do you enjoy engaging in effortful thinking? - Causal uncertainty - Need to accurately understand world - Need for closure - Need for structure and dislike for ambiguity 21. How does a person’s level of “social power” affect their willingness to apply/inhibit stereotypes? Someone of high power is more likely to apply stereotypes (motivated to maintain power difference) while someone of low power is more likely to inhibit stereotypes (accrue benefits from having accurate information about powerful people). 22. Know the three “cognitive styles” we discussed that affect stereotype application. How does each affect application? Need for cognition: Desire to think carefully about others Causal uncertainty: Need to accurately understand the world Need for closure: Need for structure and dislike for ambiguity 23. Be able to explain how “cognitive business” can affect stereotype activation and stereotype application differently. Current level of cognitive resources can: Inhibit stereotype activation But once activated, cognitive busyness facilitates stereotype application 24. How can stereotypes bias affect how people interpret ambiguous behaviors? Ambiguous behaviors interpreted as stereotype consistent behaviors: E.g., a slight shove interpreted as being more aggressive when performed by an African American than a White person Stereotypes can influence interpretation of even subtle behaviors: E.g., facial expressions People form positive/negative evaluations of others that can affect, e.g., whether they are hired for a job, decisions about rewards/punishments, etc. Positive/negative stereotypes seen as relevant to an evaluation can influence that evaluation Can affect both evaluations of individuals and of cultural artifacts related to the stereotypes group (e.g., music, art, literature) 25. What does it mean for someone to hold an “incremental theory” of personality? What does it mean for them to hold an “entity theory” of personality? How does holding an entity theory of personality affect stereotype usage and change?: - Incremental theory: Believe that personality is malleable and that an individual’s behavior is influenced by the situation (People can change) - Entity theory: Implicitly believe personality is fixed and regardless of situation an individual’s character is the same. More likely to endorse/rely on stereotypes. Less likely to change stereotypes based on new information 26. How do self-fulfilling processes affect stereotype maintenance? Lead people to interpret others in ways consistent with their expectations Those expectations can influence behavior in social interactions When our initial behavior leads others to act in a way that meets our stereotype consistent expectations 27. What are the three models of stereotype change that we discussed? Be able to describe how change occurs according to each model. - Bookkeeping model: People add and subtract information from their stereotypes. The stereotype is adjusted based on small pieces of disconfirming evidence. Change occurs slowly - Conversion model: People “see the light” based on undeniably contradictory evidence. Dramatic information disconfirming stereotype causes change. Less obvious instances of disconfirmation go unnoticed - Subtyping model: When a discrepant case is encountered, a special category is created: Viewed as an exception to the rule and allows beliefs about superordinate groups to remain intact. Has received the most empirical support of the three models Old-Fashioned and Contemporary Forms of Prejudice 28. Be able to define what “prejudice” is. Prejudice is the feelings towards a person based on their group membership. 29. What is “implicit prejudice”? What is one way that implicit prejudice is measured? Prejudices that people are not aware they hold - Implicit prejudices can lead to unintended/unwanted emotional responses and behavior towards outgroups - Can be hard to control - Activated automatically - Assessed using implicit cognition measures - Commonly measured through IAT 30. According to “modern-symbolic prejudice” where does prejudice against black people come from? How is it different from “old-fashioned” prejudice? Old-fashioned prejudice: - Belief in biological inferiority of black people - Stereotypes of lazy, unintelligent, etc - Social change led white americans to reject these aspects Modern-Symbolic: - Belief that racial prejudice and discrimination no longer exist - Any remaining racial differences in outcomes result from black people’s lack of motivation to work hard - Because black people are unwilling to work for what they want, their continuing anger over inequality is unjustified - Rather than working to get ahead, black people seek special favors - Relative to white people, black people have been getting more than they deserve - Black people seen as morally inferior to white because they supposedly violate traditional american values 31. What were the 5 beliefs associated with modern-symbolic prejudice? - Belief that racial prejudice and discrimination no longer exist - Any remaining racial differences in outcomes result from black people’s lack of motivation to work hard - Because black people are unwilling to work for what they want, their continuing anger over inequality is unjustified - Rather than working to get ahead, black people seek special favors - Relative to white people, black people have been getting more than they deserve ; 32. What were the 5 psychological factors that underlie modern-symbolic prejudice? Be able to describe each. - Mild to moderate anti-black emotions - Belief in traditional values a. Hard work b. Individualism c. Self-reliance d. Self-restraint - Low support for “outcome based egalitarianism” e. Egalitarianism: value system that reflects belief that all people are equal and should be treated - High level of group self interest f. Promote interest of group g. Respond negatively to perceived threats h. Reflected in belief that social programs designed to benefit minority groups unfairly deprive majority group members - Little personal knowledge of black people i. Majority group little opportunity to get to know minority group as individuals so stereotypes continue 33. What are the two aspects of egalitarianism that we talked about? Which of them is rejected by people high in modern-symbolic prejudice? 34. How is “aversive prejudice” different from modern-symbolic prejudice? How is it similar? Similar to modern-symbolic a. People truly believe in equality but retain implicit negative feelings b. Negative feelings are lowkey c. Majority group members develop implicit prejudices while growing up Differs from modern-symbolic d. Reject traditional racialized beliefs e. Support equality f. View being unprejudiced as important to self-concepts 35. How do people high in aversive prejudice deal with/experience interracial interaction? When interracial interaction is unavoidable, they: - Experience anxiety and discomfort - Try to disengage from interaction quickly - Strictly adhere to rules of behavior - Express negative feelings in subtle ways that may disadvantage minority group or unfairly benefit majority 36. What were the three psychological underpinnings of aversive prejudice that we talked about? - People are predisposed to categorize others into ingroups and outgroups - People need to control the environment to ensure positive outcomes for themselves and their groups - People hold two incompatible sets of values: - Implicit prejudice - Genuine belief in American ideals of fairness, justice, and equality 37. What were the circumstances under which people who are high in aversive prejudice would show bias/prejudice? - Avoidance of intergroup contact - Motivated by anxiety over interacting with minority group - Pro white bias in ambiguous situations - Discrimination when behavior can be justified as unprejudiced - Ex. helping behavior - Overall white people are equally willing to help black and white people who need help - Less likely to help people when not helping can be justified on race-neutral grounds 38. What is “Ambivalent prejudice”? Having both positive and negative beliefs about minorities results in ambivalent attitudes and behavior 39. Be able to explain how conflicting sets of values can lead to ambivalent prejudice? Be able to explain how conflicting stereotypes can lead to ambivalent prejudice?: Conflicting values can cause mixed feelings about a group. For example, someone might admire a group's family values but think they lack ambition, leading to ambivalence. Stereotypes can be both positive and negative, causing mixed feelings. For instance, seeing a group as hardworking but socially awkward results in ambivalent prejudice  40. What is “response amplification”? Why can being “overly positive” toward minorities be problematic? - Behavior towards stigmatized person that is more extreme than behavior towards non-stigmatized - Situational cues determine direction of the response amplification - Problem with overly positive a. May seem patronizing b. Set minority group up for failure if they receive incorrect positive feedback c. Lead to distrust of future feedback Exam 2 review sheet Individual Differences in Prejudice 1. What are “social ideologies”? Why are they important? Sets of attitudes and beliefs that predispose people to: - View the world in certain ways - Respond to events in ways consistent with those viewpoints Are important because they: - Inspire conviction and purpose - Satisfy psychological needs and motivations 2. What is “Authoritarianism”? What were the three components/sets of attitudes that make up right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) that we talked about? Authoritarianism = 1st thought of as a personality trait that predisposed people to prejudice 1. Authoritarian submission: A high degree of submission to the authorities who are perceived to be established and legitimate in the society in which one lives. 2. Conventionalism: A high degree of adherence to the social conventions that are perceived to be endorsed by society and its established authorities. 3. Authoritarian Aggression: A general aggressiveness, directed against various persons [out-groups or deviants], that are perceived to be sanctioned by established authorities  3. What are the characteristics of RWA that predisposes people to prejudice? -Mental inflexibility -Disinterest in experiencing new things -Perception of the world as a dangerous place -Tendency to organize world in terms of ingroups and outgroups 4. What is “Social Dominance Orientation” (SDO)? What were the two components of SDO that we talked about? Social Dominance Orientation (SDO): desire for one’s ingroup to dominate and be superior to outgroups Two components: Group-based dominance: Belief that one’s group ought to be at the top of the social ladder Opposition to equality: Belief that groups on the bottom of the social ladder ought to stay there 5. What are the characteristics of SDO that predisposes people to prejudice? Seeing the world in competitive terms More likely to classify people as outgroups Manipulative in interpersonal relations Low in empathy 6. What are legitimizing myths? What is one example of a legitimizing myth that we talked about? People high in SDO justify their dominant position in society with legitimizing myths Group stereotypes are one example of legitimizing myths: Can be used to justify denying equality to other groups Example: groups stereotyped as unintelligent cannot benefit from education Connection to example: Therefore, it would be a waste of resources to provide them with a good education 7. How are RWA and SDO different? SDO focuses on: - Dominance over outgroups or relations between groups - Eliminating competition for resources from other groups Authoritarianism focuses on: - Submission to ingroup authority figures - Seeking security against perceived threats from other groups: Security comes from conformity to group norms and obedience to authority  8. What are two possible reasons for the positive correlation between conservatism and prejudice? Be able to describe how these could account for the correlation. Political orientation is also correlated with RWA and SDO Political orientation is also correlated with value systems that lead to prejudice SDO and RWA: - Prejudice may be caused by SDO and RWA rather than a conservative belief system - With RWA and SDO controlled, political orientation has little relation to prejudice - Prejudiced people may use the conservative belief system to justify their prejudices 9. How does “value conflict” explain why prejudice could be found among both liberals and conservatives? Prejudices of both conservatives and liberals may be rooted in perceived value conflicts Value Conflicts and Bipartisan Prejudice: Conservatives perceive groups such as liberals, atheists, lesbians and gay men as holding values that threaten their own values Liberals perceive groups such as conservatives, business people, and religious fundamentalists as having values that threaten their own values Development of Prejudice in Children 10. What are the two possible explanations that we discussed for why prejudice in majority-group children who experience a lot of intergroup contact decreases over time? Around ages eight to ten children learn to control expression of prejudice Intergroup contact itself lowers prejudice through a variety of processes 11. What were the possible reasons for why prejudice in minority-group children increased slightly over time? When they start school, they begin to experience prejudice and discrimination As they get older: - They become more aware of societal racism and discrimination - Their parents are likely to discuss prejudice and discrimination with them 12. How does evolutionary theory explain why prejudice develops among children? - People have evolved fear of strangers to protect themselves from harm - Ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation  13. According to “Social Learning Theory”, what are the three processes through which children learn to be prejudiced? Be able to describe each. Direct teaching: Individual is rewarded for behaving in a certain way Observational learning: Imitating attitudes or behavior Vicarious learning: Observing someone else being rewarded for a behavior 14. How can high RWA and high SDO parenting styles cause children to develop prejudiced ideologies? - Parents: Parents influence child’s attitudes toward other groups 15. What were the possible reasons that peers don’t often influence children’s intergroup attitudes? Little discussion of prejudice limits transmission of attitudes Peer influence is stronger for attitudes toward highly stigmatized groups Social norms can inhibit expression of prejudice 16. What are the three stages of prejudice development according to Developmental Intergroup Theory? Three stages of prejudice development: 1. Development of category rules 2. Categorization 3. Development of stereotypes and prejudice  17. What are the four factors that are important for the development of category rules that we discussed? Be able to describe each. Perceptual discriminability of target group: Presence of perceptually obvious characteristics facilitates category development ( e.g., race, gender, age) Proportional size of the target group: Smaller groups are more distinctive to children because they see them less often Explicit labeling of target group: Explicit categorization by adults ( “Good morning boys and girls”) Implicit distinctions between the categories: Societal distinctions based on categories (e.g., seeing scientists only depicted by men or teachers only depicted as women) 18. What are the four factors that are important for the development of stereotyping and prejudice that we discussed? Be able to describe each. Essentialism: Belief that all members of a category have similar unchanging psychological characteristics Ingroup bias: Attribute positive traits to their own groups but do not necessarily derogate outgroups Explicit teaching: As noted earlier, explicit teaching of prejudice is more rare Implicit teaching: observing parent behaving anxiously around minority group members 19. What are the four conditions necessary for intergroup contact to be effective at reducing prejudice? Ingroups and outgroups should have equal status in the school Groups should work together to achieve common goals Members from different groups must be able to get to know each other Authorities are clearly support the effort to improve intergroup relations The Social Context of Prejudice 20. What is “Social Identity”? The part of a person’s self-concept that derives from membership in groups important to the person  21. What are the two hypotheses that explain how social identity can lead to intergroup bias? Be able to describe each. Categorization- Competition Hypothesis: - Viewing people in terms of ingroups and outgroups is sufficient to generate intergroup competition. - Results in people taking an “us” versus “them” approach - Arouses feelings of competition and a desire to win - Competitive feelings lead to ingroup favoritism effect Self-Esteem Hypothesis: The need for self-esteem motivates group members to protect and enhance the positivity of their group. 1. Intergroup bias results in positive social identity by demonstrating the ingroup is better than the outgroup 2. People with low self-esteem engage in intergroup bias to raise their self-esteem 3. When an event threatens people’s self-esteem, they can defend it through intergroup bias 22. What are the three factors that influence what people see as their social identity? 1. Self-categorization: Categorizing oneself as a group member becomes more likely as the perceived difference between the ingroup and an outgroup increases 2. Optimal distinctiveness: Modification to self-categorization theory People more likely to identify with groups that provide most satisfying balance between personal and group identity 3. Threat to the group: Events that threaten well-being of the group generate stronger identification 23. What was the possible issue that we discussed for why social identity theory may not provide a good explanation for prejudice against out-groups? - In-group favoritism vs. outgroup derogation: Preference for ingroup does not necessarily translate into rejection of outgroup 24. How does Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT) explain prejudice? Relative Deprivation Theory RDT predicts: People: Compare their current situation to similar past situations Compare themselves to other people in similar situations If, as a result, they decide they lack some resource they deserve to have: They perceive the situation as being unfair They become dissatisfied with the situation  25. What is “distributive justice”? What is “procedural justice”? Distributive justice: Perception that outcomes are being distributed on an expected basis: E.g., people who deserve more get more If distributive justice is low: - Situation is perceived as unfair - Dissatisfaction and resentment result Procedural justice: Fairness of the process by which rewards are distributed Resentment exacerbated if procedural justice appears to be low as well In sum: RDT says that prejudice results from people perceiving unfair distribution of resources AND blames an outgroup 26. What are the two forms of relative deprivation that we talked about? Which is more likely to lead to prejudice? Two forms of relative deprivation: Personal relative deprivation: Degree to which a person feels deprived as an individual Group relative deprivation: Degree to which person feels that a group he or she belongs to has been deprived of some benefit Group relative deprivation is related to prejudice but personal relative deprivation is not 27. What is relative gratification? How can it lead to prejudice? Relative Gratification: Satisfaction derived from the belief that one’s ingroup is better off than others Both relative deprivation and relative gratification can lead to prejudice: People who are relatively deprived: Focus on losses and experience resentment and hostility toward those they blame for them People who are relatively gratified: Focus on group’s superior position relative to outgroups 28. According to Realistic Conflict Theory, why are people prejudiced? Proposes that people: Are motivated to maximize the rewards they receive in life (even at the expense of others) Dislike outgroups because they are seen as competing with the ingroup for resources  29. Be able to describe the Robber’s Cave studies and how they tested realistic conflict theory. The work of Muzafer Sheirf (Robber’s Cave) Participants: 11-to-12 years old boys Attending a summer camp Assigned to one of two groups Groups were given time to: Interact Create group cohesion Have natural leaders emerge Groups competed for prizes Outcome: Derogation of and aggression toward the outgroup Derogation was alleviated when boys were given a goal where they had to cooperate 30. What is meant by “instrumental” in the “instrumental model of intergroup competition”? Instrumental Model of Intergroup Competition Instrumental = Prejudice and discrimination are viewed as instruments/tools that majority group members use to reduce competition from other groups Situational antecedents of competition Ideological antecedents of competition Psychological effects of competition Intergroup consequences of competition 31. What were the situational and ideological antecedents of intergroup competition we discussed? Situational antecedents of competition: Resource scarcity (or perceived scarcity) can lead groups to turn to competition with other groups Examples: Following a natural disaster, during an economic crisis Ideological antecedents of competition: Social Dominance Orientation: - People high in SDO are ideologically predisposed to see the world as competitive and resources as zero-sum  32. In what way does social dominance orientation (SDO) lead to inter-group competition? How does right wing authoritarianism (RWA) lead to competition? Social Dominance Orientation: People high in SDO are ideologically predisposed to see the world as competitive and resources as zero-sum Right Wing Authoritarianism: - People high in RWA ideologically predisposed to see outgroups as competitors over society’s culture and values 33. Know the psychological effects of intergroup competition? Psychological effects of competition: Increases the perception that resources are zero-sum Example: As White Americans perceptions of discrimination against Black Americans has decreased, their perception of anti-White bias has increased 34. Know the intergroup consequences of competition for dominant and subordinate groups. How does the stability/instability of the oppression experienced by subordinate groups affect how they respond to competition? Intergroup consequences of competition: Dominant group (i.e., those that came out on top in the competition) response: Often respond with discrimination and exploitation of subordinate groups Subordinate group responses: If the oppression is seen to be stable: - System justification theory: People have a motivation to justify the status quo. - The need to bolster the system is internalized by disadvantaged groups, and even expressed most strongly by them. If the oppression is seen as unstable: - Move to challenge the status quo. Push for greater group equality - Dominant group response is determined by whether they see subordinate group position as legitimate or not - Examples: U.S. civil rights movement in 1960s, LGBTQ rights movement more recently  35. According to “Integrated Threat Theory”, what are the three perceived threats that could lead to prejudice? Be able to give short descriptions of each. Prejudice derives from three types of perceived threat: - Intergroup anxiety: based on concern over saying/doing the wrong thing - Perceptions of realistic threats: based on intergroup conflict/competition - Perception of symbolic threats: based on differences in values/attitudes/beliefs,etc. Exam 3 review sheet From Prejudice to Discrimination 1. Be able to define: “Blatant discrimination”, “Covert discrimination”, “Subtle discrimination”, and “Microaggressions” Blatant discrimination: Unequal and harmful treatment that is typically intentional and quite visible Covert discrimination: Unequal and harmful treatment that is hidden, purposeful,and often maliciously motivated: Behavior that attempts to ensure failure in situations such as in the workplace Subtle discrimination: Unequal and harmful treatment that is typically less visible and obvious…Often not noticed because people have internalized it as normal, natural, or customary…Can be active or passive Micro-aggression: Small-scale, everyday behaviors that demean other social groups or members of those groups: Behavior can be verbal or nonverbal 2. Know the different types of microaggressions that we discussed. Denial of Belongingness: Unspoken message that members of certain groups “do not belong here” Assumptions of criminality or danger: Unspoken message that members of certain groups are dangerous Assumptions of inferiority: Unspoken message that members of certain groups are inferior intellectually, socially, culturally, etc. Assumptions of correctness of a stereotype: Unspoken message that group stereotypes are correct and apply to individuals Denial of individuality: Unspoken message that all members of certain groups hold the same attitudes/beliefs and so one member can speak for all members  3. Know what “internal motivation to control prejudice” is and how it relates to feelings of prejudice. Motivation to Control Prejudice: People will sometimes feel an impulse to behave in a prejudiced way but will restrain their behavior Internal motivation – stems from a personal belief that prejudice is wrong 4. Know what “external motivation to control prejudice” is and how it relates to feelings of prejudice. External motivation – is a result of social pressure People high in external motivation feel socially pressured to appear unprejudiced 5. What is “restraint motivation” and how is it different from external motivation to control prejudice? Restraint Motivation: The awareness that saying and doing some kinds of things (e.g., telling a racist joke) would cause trouble. Also combined with a willingness to not say or do those things as a way to avoid arguments. - Example: agreeing with the statement: “I always express my thoughts and feelings, regardless of how controversial they may be” Difference from external motivation: - External MTP: concern with conforming to social norms about appearing non-prejudiced - Restraint motivation: desire to avoid arguments 6. How do “social norms” impact the expression of prejudice? Informal rules groups have that indicate how to be a good group member: Govern behavior and attitudes Social norms can dictate what group are and are not acceptable targets of discrimination: Public expression of prejudice toward groups is highly correlated with social approval of that expression 7. What is “regressive prejudice”? Regressive Prejudice: unintended expressions of prejudice by people who are otherwise low in prejudice - Occurs because controlling prejudiced responses requires attention and mental resources - When these resources are reduced, people regress from controlling prejudice to expressing it  8. What are the four factors that influence regressive prejudice? Be able to describe how each can lead to regressive prejudice. - Control over behavior: To avoid responding in a certain way, people must have control over their behavior…Prejudice may “leak out” through nonverbal behavior when trying to control its effects on other behaviors - Executive function: Cognitive processes involved in controlling behavior or cognitive demands, makes it more difficult to control the effects of prejudice on judgments and behavior - Disinhibitors: Factors can reduce motivation to control expressions of prejudice - Moral Licensing: Past moral behaviors allow people to engage in future immoral behaviors. 9. What are the five “disinhibitors” we talked about that can lead to regressive prejudice? Disinhibitors: factors can reduce motivation to control expressions of prejudice; they include: - Anonymity - Strong emotions can cause people to ignore social norms - Alcohol consumption also can lead people to ignore norms - Implied approval of authority figure - Other people’s behavior can alter what the social norms in that context 10. What is moral licensing? What are the two explanations for moral licensing that we discussed? Moral licensing: - Past moral behaviors allow people to engage in future immoral behaviors. - Reminding people of past good deeds makes them less likely to act selfishly later on. - Participants who previously demonstrated that they aren’t prejudiced were more likely to exhibit prejudice after the fact. - Example: White participants who expressed support for Obama exhibited bias in a hypothetical hiring situation that favored a white vs a black candidate 11. What are the ways that people respond to learning that they have acted in a prejudiced manner that we discussed? Reactions to Having Acted in a Prejudiced Manner - Leads to feelings of discomfort and, among people low in prejudice, feelings of guilt - Can lead to actions that reaffirm person’s self-image as not prejudiced  The Experience of Discrimination 12. Know the definition of “social stigma”. What is the difference between a “majority group” and a “dominant group”? Social Stigma: An aspect of someone’s identity that sets them apart from the dominant group in society and increases the likelihood that they will be the target of discrimination - Stigmatized groups differ from dominant/privileged group in terms of appearance or behavior Majority group vs dominant groups: - “Majority” simply refers to the size of a group relative to others - “Dominance” is determined by a group’s power and influence in society - Dominant groups in a society are not necessarily also the majority group ( E.g., British during rule of India, White South Africans) - Membership in a dominant group is a status seen as natural and normal, and is usually taken for granted by its members 13. What/who determines whether an identity/characteristic is stigmatized? Stigma is determined by the dominant group - Depends on historical and cultural context 14. Know the four aspects of social stigma that we discussed. Be able to define each aspect and describe how it can make a specific stigma more/less likely to be the target of prejudice. Stability - Some stigmas are stable/irreversible - Other stigmas are unstable and can change over time - Temporary stigmas are often more benign Concealability - Some stigmas can be hidden or concealed to avoid discrimination Controllability - Is the onset under the control of the stigmatized individual? - People feel more pity and less anger if they see a stigma as uncontrollable rather than one the person chose Danger/Peril - Members of some stigmatized groups are perceived to be dangerous - Groups assumed to be more dangerous are more stigmatized  15. What is the “Personal/Group Discrimination Discrepancy” (PGDD)? Personal/Group Discrimination Discrepancy (PGDD): People’s belief that their group, as a whole, is more likely to be discriminated against than they, themselves, are as individuals 16. What were the two cognitive explanations for the PGDD that we discussed? PGDD Cognitive Explanation: 1. A function of the way people process information: - Group examples more readily come to mind because group information is more easily processed than individual information 2. People use different comparison standards to judge their own vs. group’s level of discrimination: - People consider their experiences in comparison with own group members - Compare group’s discriminatory experiences to other group 17. What were the motivational reasons we discussed for why someone would want to deny being the target of discrimination? PGDD Motivational Explanations: - People have reasons for believing they are not personally discriminated against - Want to deny or minimize own experiences with discrimination People May: - Feel responsible for any poor treatment they receive - Deny discrimination to justify not taking action against unfair treatment - View their own situation as relatively harmless compared to others - Not want to acknowledge they do not fit in with social group There are social costs of claiming discrimination: - Avoid costs by distancing themselves from claims of unfairness - Awareness of costs can affect decision to report discrimination  18. What is “Stereotype Threat”? What are the key features of stereotype threat that we discussed? Stereotype Threat: Fear of confirming a negative stereotype about one’s group results in underperformance in stereotype relevant domain. Key Features of Stereotype Threat: - It can affect everyone, even high status groups - Stems from situational pressures that bring the stereotype to mind, not merely from internalization of the stereotype - Reduces working memory capacity - Most likely to occur when tasks are difficult or frustrating 19. What is the psychological process through which stereotype threat undermines academic performance? Threat to social identity and/or self-esteem - Heightens sensitivity to diagnostic information (i.e., risk of confirming stereotype) - Imposter syndrome: Can have strongest effect on high performing students Key Features of Stereotype Threat: - It can affect everyone, even high status groups - Stems from situational pressures that bring the stereotype to mind, not merely from internalization of the stereotype - Reduces working memory capacity - Most likely to occur when tasks are difficult or frustrating 20. Be able to describe how “Value Affirmation” can reduce stereotype threat. Value Affirmations: heighten salience of important values to help cope with Identity Threat - Reaffirms personal integrity and self worth 21. How do student/teacher beliefs about the nature of intelligence impact student motivation? Know what it means to hold an “Entity theory” of intelligence and what it means to hold an “Incremental theory” of intelligence. Beliefs about Intelligence: Student and Teacher beliefs about the nature of intelligence matter. Entity Theory: Belief that intelligence is “fixed” - An entity that exists within us and that we can’t change Incremental Theory: Belief that intelligence is “malleable” - Something that can be increased through effort  22. How can a lack of belongingness trigger stereotype threat? Many members of minority (and/or stereotyped) groups can feel like they simply “don’t belong” in college If few members of the group are present, emphasizing differences can trigger “representation based concerns” (i.e., Stereotype threat) 23. What are the consequences of a lack of belongingness for University students that we discussed? Feeling out of place in college Difficulty deciding on a major, finding internships, building a resume Under utilize University resources. Fail to seek out assistance from the Professor when they struggle. 24. What is the argument made by recent research that questions the effect of stereotype threat? Recent work called into question how big of an effect ST has in real life test taking situations Study of 212 previous ST experiments: Studies that used blatant manipulations of threat (e.g., telling female participants that women often underperform on the test) showed much larger effects Is this realistic though? Studies that used subtle, but more realistic manipulations showed smaller effects 25. According to the “Minority Stress Model”, why might minority group members experience greater stress than majority group members? Situational factors unrelated to one’s minority group membership are sources of general stress that affect people’s well-being ○ Examples: job loss, illness, or death of a loved one ○ Everyone experiences these Minorities experience additional stressors that majority group members do not Stigmatized groups members also experience non-normative life events that produce high levels of stress Chronic experience of prejudice or major individual incidences of prejudice can produce chronic stress  26. What are the “External stressors” that stigmatized groups might experience that we discussed? What are the “Internal stressors”? External Objective events which a stigmatized group member may or may not identify as acts of discrimination: Examples: microaggressions, bullying, violence Internal Stigmatized group members’ expectation that they will be rejected because of group membership 27. What are the two factors we discussed that affect stigmatized group members’ ability to compensate for discrimination? Ability to compensate depends on: - Demands of prejudice-related situation - Must not be so high that person cannot overcome them - Person must acquire skills needed for compensation - May be unintended consequences – misjudging requirements of situation Prejudice Beyond Race 28. What is a “Gender belief system”? Know what it means for gender stereotypes to be both “descriptive” and “prescriptive”. Gender Belief System: Set of cultural beliefs about men and women Ex: Is “gender” a binary or is it more complex? The traits and roles people should possess based on their gender Perceptions of role violators Both descriptive and prescriptive 29. What are the three ways we discussed that gender stereotypes influence emotion expression? Gender and Emotion Expression - Overall, women perceived more likely to experience and express emotion - Men more likely only for Anger and Pride - Gender and anger interpretation - Anger in men interpreted as only anger - Anger in women interpreted as anger and sadness - Anger expression in a group context (e.g., juries) makes… - Men more persuasive - Women less persuasive  30. What was the main finding of the research looking at how people think the “perceived agency” of men and women has/will change over time? Increase in perceived agency in women over time People predict more change in the future 31. What is the “Discrimination-Affection Paradox”? Discrimination-Affection Paradox Women are viewed positively but still experience discrimination Gender-based prejudice is still widespread - Affects women more negatively than men - Ex: Wage gap What underlies this apparent contradiction? - It depends on the “role” the person occupies  32. What were the different “gender subtypes” that we discussed? How might those explain the Discrimination-Affection Paradox? Gender “Subtypes” - Over 200 gender-associated subtypes have been identified - Associated mostly with: - Occupation (e.g., Businessman, Secretary) - Family roles (e.g., Housewife, Family man) - Ideologies (e.g., Traditional, Feminist) - Physical features (e.g., Athletic Woman/Man) - Sexuality (e.g., Sexy woman, macho man) Each subtype is associated with the distinct set of characteristics - E.g., “Career woman”: intelligent, determined, knowledgeable, and goal oriented - Perceptions of these subtypes impacts likeability judgements a. How a person is judged depends on the “role” they occupy b. People judge women in more “traditional” roles as more warm and likeable 33. What were the two types of prejudice, according to Role Congruity Theory, for why women are less likely to pursue high-level positions? Women in leadership positions: Role Congruity Theory - Two types of prejudice prevent women from pursuing high level positions - 1. Belief that women are less likely than men to be successful in leadership roles - 2. Higher Probability of women receiving negative evaluations if in jobs - Female leaders violate expectations about what” - Leaders should be like - Women should be like 34. What is “Heterosexism”? Heterosexism - A belief system that values heterosexuality as inherently normal and superior - Imposes heterosexual norms that individuals are expected to follow in order to be considered normal and moral  35. How have attitudes toward gay men and lesbians changed over time? Attitudes toward Lesbians and Gay Men - Public opinion of gay men and lesbians has rapidly changed: - Clear shift toward greater acceptance - Does not necessarily translate toward acceptance of gays and lesbians as individuals (i.e., at the interpersonal level) Perceptions of gay/lesbians over time Perceptions of same-sex marriage over time 36. What were the two common stereotypes of bisexual people that we discussed? Attitudes Toward Bisexual Men and Women - Heterosexism degrades any nonheterosexual behavior – including bisexuality - Common stereotypes: - Is transitory or curiosity rather than distinct sexual orientation - Bisexual people are gay but in denial and afraid to come out - They are confused 37. What were the reasons someone may choose to conceal their sexual identity that we discussed? What were the consequences of concealing one’s sexual identity that we discussed? Concealing sexual identity - Homosexuality is a “concealable” identity - Some choose to pass as heterosexual at least sometimes: - Fear social rejection, loss of employment, or physical violence - The decision of how and when to disclose one’s homosexuality is not simple - Research has found that inter-racial interaction can be “cognitively taxing” for white individuals - Often comes from concerns about appearing prejudiced - Results in awkward, unpleasant interactions - Similarly, concealing sexual identity can also be cognitively taxing  38. Know what “sex assigned at birth”, “gender identity”, “gender expression”, and “sexual orientation” are and how they are different. Transgender People - Important to distinguish between: - Sex assigned at birth - Gender Identity: A person’s internal sense of their own gender - Gender Expression: How one externally manifests their gender identity through behavior, mannerisms, dress, etc. - Sexual Orientation: A combination of attraction, behavior and identity for sexual and/or romantic partners 39. According to the four concepts in question 32, what is the definition of someone who is transgender? What is the definition of someone who is cisgender? Transgender - someone whose gender identity differs from that typically associated with the sex they were assigned at birth Cisgender – people who are gender conforming and/or don’t identify as transgender 40. What are the predictors of attitudes toward transgender people that we discussed? Predictors include: - Age - Older people are less accepting than younger people - Political affiliation - Democrats are more accepting than Republicans - Relationships - Those who know someone transgender are more accepting  41. What were the negative and positive stereotypes of older adults that we discussed? Stereotypes of Older Adults Negative Stereotypes : a. Severely impaired b. Shrew/curmudgeon c. Despondent d. Recluse Positive Stereotypes : e. Golden ager f. Perfect grandparent 42. What were the four areas we discussed where older adults face age discrimination? Age-Based Discrimination Four areas in which discrimination against older adults is particularly acute: - Under-representation in the media - Discrimination in the workplace - Language people use in conversation with older people - Treatment of older adults in the health care system 43. What does it mean for young people to use “patronizing speech” when interacting with older people? What is “elderspeak”? Communicating with Older Adults - Younger people often use patronizing speech when interacting with older adults - Patronizing speech – change in conversational strategies to reflect age stereotypes: - Simplifying one’s speech - Using a demeaning, emotional tone - Keeping the conversation at a superficial level - Elderspeak – extreme patronizing talk; the tendency to use baby talk in conversations with older people: - Higher voice pitch - Slow speech rate - Shorter utterances 44. What are the limitations of disability research that we discussed? Limitations of the Stigma of Disability Research - Researchers tend to: - Focus on those with visible impairments that are relatively permanent - Base findings on self-report - Employ confederates to gauge people’s reactions to PWDs: - But confederates often aren’t disabled themselves - Focus on one-time interactions 45. What are the issues related to communication between disabled people and non-disabled people that we discussed? Communication Between PWDs and the Nondisabled - As with older adults, people sometimes infantilize PWDs: - Stems from belief that PWDs need help or special considerations - Belief is based on good intentions: - But PWDs find it patronizing and infantilizing - Can lead to the problem of “over-helping”: - Can lead to greater dependence and reduced self confidence - Most nondisabled individuals have had limited interactions with PWDs: - Leads to uncertainty about how to interact - Often leads to anxiety  - Both nondisabled and disabled people feel awkward in social interactions that involve members of both groups Post-Exam 3 review sheet 1. What are the reasons we discussed for why intergroup attitudes and prejudice may be resistant to change? - Are often rooted in values and beliefs important to the person - Involve the person’s social and personal identities - Are reinforced by a social network of family and friends 2. Know how people might use self-regulation to reduce their level of prejudice. - People have a goal to be non-prejudiced - People monitor their behavior in relation to that goal - Acting in a prejudiced manner contradicts self-image of people who see themselves as unprejudiced - This process requires cognitive effort, but can become automatic over time 3. Know what stereotype suppression and what stereotype rebound are. - Attempt to push unwanted thoughts out of mind and replace them with more acceptable thoughts - Technique is effective while focusing on suppressing the unwanted thought Rebound Effect: - Enhanced return of suppressed thoughts that follows an attempt to suppress 4. Know what the effects of stereotype suppression are. More use of suppressed stereotype Stereotype comes to mind more easily Greater desire to avoid member of stereotyped group Better memory for stereotype Decreased memory for individuating information Greater use of stereotypes in general 5. What are the two possible explanations for why stereotype rebound occurs? Priming - To be able to keep unwanted thoughts suppressed, must be aware of those thoughts: - Unwanted thoughts are more readily available when suppression is lifted Cognitive effort - Suppressing stereotype depletes cognitive resources needed to control it 6. Know and be able to describe the four conditions that make intergroup contact successful as reducing prejudice. 1. Equal status between groups  - Groups should have equal status within the contact situation: - If status is unequal, members of ingroup may derogate lower-status outgroup members under conditions of task failure 2. Cooperation in achieving common goals - Groups should work cooperatively in pursuit of common goals: - Contact without cooperation does not affect attitudes toward outgroup members 3. Acquaintance potential - Opportunity for members of interacting groups to get to know each other as individuals: - Ideally, acquaintance leads to friendship - Intergroup friendships are related to lower prejudice 4. Institutional support - Authorities must establish expectation for lower prejudice and less discrimination: - Difficult to disentangle the effects of institutional support from the effects of other factors - May act through other factors; - E.g.: Institutional support —> intergroup cooperation - Eg. Cooperation —> reduced bias 7. Know the consequences that intergroup contact can have. That is, what things does contact increase and decrease? Intergroup contact reduces prejudice by leading people to see members of the outgroup as individuals Awareness that members of both groups have complex social identities lessens the importance of group boundaries 8. Know and be able to describe the three processes through which contact can influence attitude change. Personalization: Intergroup contact reduces prejudice by leading people to see members of the outgroup as individuals: Viewing people as individuals leads to more liking and less prejudice toward them Awareness that members of both groups have complex social identities lessens the importance of group boundaries Attitude generalization: Salient categorization model: Positive attitudes generated by contact will generalize to the group only if the outgroup members are seen as typical of their group. Categories must remain salient for generalization to occur Outgroup members must be seen as typical of their group while still disconfirming aspects of the group stereotype Requires intergroup contact situation to balance competing processes: Outgroup members must be seen in non-stereotypical terms But must also perceived as typical of their group Common social identity: Ingroup and outgroup members recategorize themselves into a single group that shares a common identity Drawbacks: Dominant group members might define common ingroup in terms of themselves Minority group members may resist joining a common identity with the majority group Dual identity as possible solution: Retain valued current identity while taking on higher order common identity Know the four things we discussed that could “replace” prejudice. Be able to describe each and know the possible problems with each. Racial Color-Blindness People should ignore racial and ethnic group membership, acting as if these distinctions do not exist Has small negative correlation with prejudice Problems: Inconsistent with people’s inability to ignore basic social categories Suppression can have rebound effects Can desensitize majority-group members to racial bias Reduce majority-group members’ motivation to address issues of inequality Assimilation Minority groups should give up their own cultures and replace them with majority culture: ○ If everyone has the same culture, then group differences and prejudice will disappear ○ Implies disrespect for other cultures Positively correlated with prejudice Multiculturalism Holds that race and ethnicity should be given attention rather than ignored Based on belief that prejudice develops from a lack of knowledge about and respect for other groups Negatively correlated with prejudice Shortcomings:  Associated with stronger perceptions of group differences and stereotyping Can be used as legitimizing myth to justify inequality: ○ By attributing outcome disparities to “deficiencies” in minority group culture ○ Can be used as a moral credential to dismiss allegations of prejudice Polyculturalism Holds that there is no such thing as pure culture: ○ People of all cultures are interconnected by history of mutual interaction and influence Appreciation for interconnectedness leads to understanding of and respect for all cultures 9. How are multiculturalism and polyculturalism similar and how they are different? Multiculturalism: Associated with stronger perceptions of group differences and stereotyping Can be used as legitimizing myth to justify inequality: By attributing outcome disparities to “deficiencies” in minority group culture Can be used as a moral credential to dismiss allegations of prejudice Polyculturalism: Holds that there is no such thing as pure culture: People of all cultures are interconnected by history of mutual interaction and influence Appreciation for interconnectedness leads to understanding of and respect for all cultures Multiculturalism vs. Polyculturalism: Similarity: recognizes and celebrates individual cultures Difference: emphasizes links among cultures rather than differences between them Has negative correlation with prejudice