Cultivation, Collection and Storage of Drugs PDF

Cultivation, Collection and Storage of Drugs Objectives At the end of the lesson, students should be able be able to: Define cultivation Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of cultivating herbal plants. Explain organic farming and methods of propagation. Identify the fa...

Cultivation, Collection and Storage of Drugs Objectives At the end of the lesson, students should be able be able to: Define cultivation Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of cultivating herbal plants. Explain organic farming and methods of propagation. Identify the factors affecting cultivation. Explain the elements of fertilisers. Discuss plant hormones and their application. Explain the collection, harvesting, and processing of crude drugs. Discuss the preservation and storage of crude drugs. Overview The crude drugs which reach the market and pharmaceutical industries will have passed through different stages that have some effect on the nature and amount of active constituents responsible for therapeutic activity. Those stages Making a drug useful to mankind. Includes such parameters which have some effect on plants. OVERVIEW Several countries - Rich herbal heritage Few can claim for their procurement only from cultivated species. Reliance on the wild source of crude drugs and lack of information on sound cultivation technology Resulted in gradual depletion of raw material from the wild source Recently, due to modern scientific information Some of these crude drugs are subjected to systematic cultivation. Cultivation of medicinal plants offers a wide spectrum of advantages over wild sources. Certain types of crude drugs are uneconomical due to their abundance in their habitat. e.g., Nux Vomica , Acacia and Myrobalan Cultivated – clove, cardamon, Indian hemp, poppy latex, tea, ginger, etc. Cultivation Cultivation is the process of tilling or loosening soil to prepare it for planting. It is often essential for maintaining soil health, preventing weed development, and encouraging crop growth. Can be done by hand using a hoe or by machine using a cultivator. The soil around existing plants is cultivated to destroy weeds and promote growth by increasing soil aeration and water infiltration. Advantages of Cultivating medicinal plants Cultivation: Medicinal plants require Intensive care and management Quality of medicinal material varies depending on the conditions Duration of cultivation Maintaince of all operational procedure Advantages of Cultivating medicinal plants Advantages of cultivation include: Ensures the quality and purity of medicinal plants. Crude drugs derive their utility from their chemical contents in them. E.g., Cultivation of rhizomes demands an adequate quantity of fertilisers and proper irrigation. Systematic cultivation results in raising a crop with a maximum content of volatile oil and other constituents. e.g., ginger, turmeric and liquorice can be cited to illustrate this point. If the cultivated plants are kept free of weeds, the contamination of crude drugs can be conveniently avoided. Advantages of Cultivating medicinal plants Collection of crude drugs from cultivated plants: gives a better yield and therapeutic quality. Achieve and maintain quality Needs skilled operation Skilled and experienced personnel E.g., collection to yield better quality products latex from poppy capsules and Pinus species oleo-resins Preservation of the green colour of senna leaves and minimising the deterioration of cardiac glycosides in freshly collected leaves of digitalis can be achieved only by highly skilled labour. Advantages of Cultivating medicinal plants Cultivation Method of crop planning ensures regular supply of a crude drug. Reduces shortages The cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants leads to industrialisation to a greater extent. E.g., Cultivation of coffee and cocoa in Kerala has given rise to several cottage and small-scale industries. The cultivation of cinchona in West Bengal establishment of the cinchona-alkaloid factory near Darjeeling. Gazibad- government-owned opium factory  well-planned cultivation of poppy Permits application of modern technological aspects such as mutation, polyploidy and hybridisation. Disadvantages of cultivation Disadvantages of cultivation include: High cost compared to the wild source Loss due to Ecological imbalances: Storms Earthquakes Floods draughts Factors affecting medicinal plants quality – Inter/Intra Species Variation Inter/Intra Species Variation in plants Primary and secondary metabolite variations. Results in a Variation of the individual constituents and thereby causes difficulties in standardisation. Variations are Genetically controlled, which is related to: country of origin for that particular species. Inter/Intra Species Variation Phyllanthuis amarus is an Amazionian species, P. niruri is an Andean species. They are morphologically very similar, and both are used as "Chanca Piedra" = "Stonebreaker". The phytochemical differences might mostly be on the different environments the plants grow in, seasonal effects. Phyllanthus Amarus and Niruri Phyllanthus sp. Phyllanthus Acidica Phyllanthus Emblica Environmental Factors Plant communities and environmental interaction Most common and unavoidable External factors: quantitatively affect the plant's metabolic processes through their effects on plant development, growth rates and partitioning of assimilates into vital metabolites. These factors can also trigger abrupt activation of qualitative changes in secondary metabolite production. Environmental Factors Climate (abiotic factor): often has an especially large influence on the biosynthetic levels and quality of secondary metabolites in plants (Coley, 1987). Conditions responsible for the growth of plants affect the quality of herbal ingredients present in a particular species, even if it is in the same country. Environmental Factors –soil Nutrients Soil nutrients Levels of proanthocyanidins increase following nutritional stress such as limitation in available phosphate). Low iron levels were shown to stimulate increased biosynthesis of phenolic compounds (Kouki and Manetas, 2002 and (Dixon and Paiva, 1995). Environmental Factors -sunlight To ensure optimal benefit from light incidences , plants have evolved biochemical protective mechanisms against potentially damaging elevated doses of UV radiation and extreme light intensities. In addition, corresponding mechanisms have developed in plants to optimise the absorption of useful light spectra. Environmental Factors - Sunlight UV-B radiation is potentially damaging to plants, impairing gene transcription and translation, as well as photosynthesis. (Jansen et al., 1998) Upon perception, light signals are integrated into the plant's intricate signalling network system resulting in converting light inputs into outputs that shape plant growth and development. Environmental Factors - Sunlight UV-B radiation impacts on the levels of a broad range of secondary metabolites, including phenolic compounds, terpenoids and alkaloids as part of outputs and/or intermediates in this complex biochemical interaction (Kazan and Manners, 2011, Rozema et al., 1997). Environmental Factors - Rainfall Growth reduction is expected under drought because water limitation reduces photosynthetic rates. Reduced water availability and high temperatures influence high phenolic production in plants (Alonso-Amelot et al., 2007, Glynn et al., 2004). Environmental Factors - Temperature Temperature stress in plants: is generally known to induce or enhance the active oxygen species-scavenging enzymes like superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase and several antioxidants. Environmental Factors - Temperature An exponential increase in a variety of volatile organic compounds, with A linear increase in temperature has been described in a range of plant species ; (Parker, 1977; Sharkey and Loreto, 1993 Sharkey and Yeh, 2001). Cold stress has been shown to stimulate an increase in phenolic production and their subsequent incorporation into the cell walls. Environmental Factors - Temperature Ozone: Elevated O3 levels increased the concentrations of terpenes but decreased the concentrations of phenolics in Ginkgo biloba leaves grown under greenhouse conditions (He et al., 2009). Altitude Herbivore and pathogenic attacks Salt stress  Location Potentilla fruticosa Plant part used Depending on the product required, it is crucial to choose the plant part that has excellent value. For example, the Bitter Orange tree (flower, skin, leaves) produces different types of oil. Although it is possible to extract a less qualitative orange blossom essential oil from the sweet orange tree, in addition to the essential oil extracted from the fruit, it is usually the bitter orange tree that is noted for its production of three essential oils.  Plant part used Bitter orange (Citrus aurantium var. amara) Sweet orange (Citrus aurantium var. sinensis) Neroli Neroli essential oil contains a high percentage of alcohols and esters, with monoterpenes, This a gentle oil to use. It is a very versatile essential oil. It can be used for such problems as menopause, PMS, stress, depression, anxiety, All types of skincare problems, wrinkles, scars, stretch marks, poor circulation, and rheumatism. Petitgrain Essential Oil Petitgrain is composed of a high percentage of esters, and also alcohols and monoterpenes. Its content of esters makes it a calming, balancing and valuable essential oil for skincare. Use petitgrain essential oil for acne, perspiration, skin toning, insomnia, stress, and emotional exhaustion. Bitter Orange Essential Oil Bitter orange (Citrus aurantium var. amara) essential oil is cold pressed from the fruit of the bitter orange tree. It has a citrus, floral aroma, although it is not as sweet as sweet orange essential oil. Bitter orange essential oil is composed predominately of monoterpenes, making this a stimulating and calming essential oil for digestive issues, anxiety, stress, and oily and dull skin. Other factors Time of Harvesting (Time of year (season), time of day) Soil type Post Harvesting Factors (storage: light, humidity, insects, microorganisms. transport etc.) Contaminants ( animal excretes, insects, soil) Pesticides and other toxic metals Sida cordifolia Syzygium cumini Part Uses Month in which Major active Used harvested/ ingredients collected Fruit, Diabete Fruits are Anthocyanins, seed, bark s collected glucoside, July-August ellagic acid, myricetin. Seeds contain alkaloid, jambosine, and glycoside jambolin Animal Source -Honey  Scorpion venom- cancer treatment, rheumatoid arthritis Gelatin Examples of medicines derived from animals Examples of medicines derived from animals Naturally occurring substances having non medicinal action Surgical dressings prepared from natural fibres Flavourings and suspending agents Disintegrants Filtering and supporting media Poisonous and hallucinogenic plants Raw materials for the production of oral contraceptives Allergens Herbicides and insecticides Method of Propagation Plant propagation is the branch of horticulture that deals with the deliberate (or intentional) production of new plants using various starter materials (e.g. organs, tissues), including their intensive but temporary care. Medicinal plants: can be propagated by two usual methods applicable to non-medicinal plants or crops. Referred to as the sexual method and asexual method Each of these methods has certain advantages, and also, disadvantages Method of Propagation –Sexual Method Sexual method (seed propagation) Plants are raised from seeds known as seedlings. Advantages: 1. Seedlings are long-lived (in perennial drugs) and bear more heavily (like fruits). Plants are sturdier. 2. Seedlings are comparatively cheaper and easy to raise. 3. Propagation from seed has produced some chance seedlings of highly superior merits may be important to specific products, such as orange, papaya, etc. 4. Propagation from seeds is the only method of choice for plants where other vegetative methods cannot be used. Method of Propagation –Sexual Method Limitations of the Sexual Method: Generally, seedling trees are not uniform in their growth and yielding capacity, as compared to grafted trees. They require more time to bear, as compared to grafted plants. The cost of harvesting, spraying pesticides, etc. is more than grafted trees. It is impossible to modify the influence of rootstocks on scion, as in the case of vegetatively propagated trees. Method of Propagation –Sexual Method Propagation - seed Seeds must be of good quality. They should be capable of a high germination rate, Free from diseases, insects, and other seeds, used seeds and extraneous material. The germination seed test: The capacity of seeds is tested by rolled towel test, excised embryo test, etc. The seeds are preconditioned with the help of scarification to make them permeable to water and gases. Method of Propagation –Sexual Method Germination : Seeds that will not be germinated are: should be stored in a cool and dry place to maintain their germinating power. Long storage of seeds should be avoided. Before germination: sometimes a chemical treatment is given with stimulants like: gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, thiourea, potassium nitrate or sodium hypochlorite. Gibbereilic acid (GA3) promotes germination of some type of dormant seeds and stimulates the seedling growth. Potassium nitrate solution freshly harvested dormant seeds are soaked  for better germination. Thiourea is used for those seeds which do not germinate in dark or at high temperatures. Methods of sewing seeds Methods of sowing the seeds Numerous methods of sowing the seeds of the medicinal plants. Broadcasting: the seeds are extremely small. Seeds are scattered freely in well-prepared soil for cultivation. Then seeds only need raking. If they are deeply sown or covered by soil, they may not germinate. Necessary thinning of the seedlings is done by keeping a specific distance, e.g. Isabgol, Linseed, Sesame, etc. Methods of sewing seeds Dibbling: Seeds of average size and weight sown by placing in holes. The number of seeds to be put in holes vary from three to five, depending on the vitality, sex of the plants and the size of the plant coming out of the seeds. For example, Fennel: four to five fruits are put in a single hole keeping suitable distance in between two holes. Castor: only two to three seeds are put. Papaya: the plants are unisexual, and only female plants are desired for medicinal purposes. five to six seeds are put together after the sex of the plants is confirmed Healthy female plant is allowed to grow while Male plants and others are removed. Methods of sewing seeds Miscellaneous: Many times, the seeds are sown in nursery beds. The seedlings thus produced are transplanted to farms for further growth, such as cinchona, cardamom, clove, digitalis, capsicum, etc. Special treatment to seeds: To enhance germination, special treatments to seeds may be given: Soaking the seeds in water for a day e.g. castor seeds and other slow- germinating seeds. Sometimes, seeds are soaked in sulphuric acid e.g. henbane seeds. Alternatively, testa is partially removed by grindstone or by pounding seeds with coarse sand, e.g. Indian senna. Several plant hormones like gibberellins and auxins are also used. Propagation- Asexual Method/Advantages Asexual method of vegetative propagation. The vegetative part of a plant ( stem or root) is placed in an environment that develops into a new plant. Asexual propagation - advantages: 1. There is no variation between the plant grown and the plant from which it is grown. The plants are uniform in growth and yielding capacity. Fruit trees, uniformity in fruit quality makes harvesting and marketing easy. Propagation- Asexual Method/Advantages 2. Seedless varieties of fruits can only be propagated vegetatively e.g. grapes, pomegranates and lemons. 3. Plants start bearing earlier as compared to seedling trees. 4. Budding or grafting encourages disease-resistant varieties of plants. 5. Modifying the influence of rootstocks on the scion can be availed of. 6. Inferior or unsuitable varieties can be overlooked. Propagation- Asexual Method/Disadvantages Disadvantages Asexual Method: 1. In comparison to seedling trees, these are not vigorous in growth and are not long-lived. 2. No new varieties can be evolved by this method. The asexual method of vegetative propagation consists of three types: (a) Natural methods of vegetative propagation. (b) Artificial methods of vegetative propagation. (c) Aseptic method of micropropagation (tissue culture). (a) Natural method of vegetative propagation: 1. It is done by sowing various parts of the plants in well-prepared soil. 2. The following are examples of vegetative propagation. Bulbs Natural method of vegetative propagation Methods of vegetative propagation (b) Artificial methods of vegetative propagation: The method by which plantlets or seedlings are produced from vegetative part of the plant using some technique or process is known as the artificial method of vegetative propagation. Methods are classified as under: 1. Cuttings (i) Stem cuttings (a) Softwood cuttings: Berberry. (b) Semi hardwood cuttings: Citrus, camellia. (c) Hardwood cuttings: Orange, rose and bougainvillaea (ii) Root cuttings: Brahmi. (iii) Leaf cuttings: Bryophyllum. (iv) Leaf bud cuttings. Methods of vegetative propagation Grafting (i) Whip grafting: Apple and rose (ii) Tongue grafting (iii) Side grafting: Sapota and cashew nut (iv) Approach grafting: Guava and Sapota (v) Stone grafting: Mango Methods of vegetative propagation Layering (i) Simple layering: Guava, lemon (ii) Serpentine layering: jasmine, clematis (iii) Air layering (Gootee): Ficus, mango, bougainvillaea, cashew nut (iv) Mount layering (v) Trench layering (vi) Tip layering Methods of vegetative propagation (c) Aseptic methods of micropropagation (tissue culture) It is a novel method for the propagation of medicinal plants. In micropropagation the plants are developed in an artificial medium under aseptic conditions from delicate pieces of plants like single cells, calluses, seeds, embryos, root tips, shoot tips, pollen grains, etc. They are also provided with nutritional and hormonal requirements. Elements of Fertilisers - Soil Every plant species has its own soil and nutritive requirements. The three important basic characteristics of soils are: physical, chemical and microbiological properties. Soil provides mechanical support, water and essential foods for the development of plants. consists of air, water, mineral matter and organic matter. Variations in particle size results in different soils ranging from clay, sand and gravel. Particle size influences the water-holding capacity of soil. Soil The type and amount of minerals plays a vital role in plant cultivation. Calcium favours the growth of certain plants whereas with some plants it does not produce any effects. The plants are able to determine their: own soil pH range for their growth; microbes should be taken into consideration, which grow well at certain pH. Nitrogen-containing soil has a great momentum in raising the production of alkaloids in some plants. Depending upon the size of the mineral matter, the following names are given to the soil. Soil Common soil – shallow upper layer - friable material - plants find a Foothold and nourishment. Clay – Highly weathered portion of soil  Consist of the finest particles  Provides cohesive and adhesive properties  Holds plant nutrients ( no nutrient leaching) Types of soil Types Particle size (diameter Fine clay Less than 0.002mm Coarse clay / silt 0.002 – 0.02mm Fine sand 0.02-0.2 mm Coarse sand 0.2 -2.00mm Type of soil on the basis of percentage covered by clay Soil Fertility Soil fertility can be maintained by addition of: animal manures nitrogen-fixing bacteria or by application of chemical fertilisers The latter is time-saving and surest of all the above techniques. Fertilisers Fertilizers and Manures Plant also needs food for their growth and development. carbon dioxide, sun-rays, water and mineral matter from the soil. Limited number of chemical elements plants build up fruits, grains, fibres, etc. And synthesise fixed and volatile oils, glycosides, alkaloids, sugar and many more chemicals. Fertlisers Chemical fertilisers- Animals are in need of vitamins, plants sixteen nutrient elements for synthesising various compounds. known as primary nutrients like -nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. secondary nutrients -Magnesium, calcium and sulphur ( small quantities) and hence Trace elements/micronutrients like copper, manganese, iron, boron, molybdenum, zinc Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and chlorine are provided by water and air. Every element has to perform some specific function in growth and development of plants. Specific symptoms also characterise its deficiency. Fertilisers Manures Farm yard manure (FYM/compost), castor seed cake, poultry manures, neem and karanji seed cakes, vermin compost, etc. Oil cake and compost usually consist of 3–6% of nitrogen, 2% phosphates and 1–1.5% potash. They are made readily available to plants. Bone meal, fish meal, biogas slurry, blood meal and press mud are the other forms of organic fertilisers. Fertilisers Biofertilizers Inadequate supply, high costs and undesirable effects if used successively, are the demerits of fertilisers or manures, and hence the cultivator has to opt for some other type of fertiliser. Biofertilizers are the most suitable forms that can be tried. These consist of different types of microorganisms or lower organisms, which fix the atmospheric nitrogen in soil Plant can use them for their day-to-day use. Thus, they are symbiotic. examples of biofertilisers Rhizobium, Azotobactor, Azosperillium, Bijericcia, Blue-green algae, Azolla, etc. THANK YOU