CRP 351 - Full T.M 1 - Agri Junction PDF

B. Sc (Agriculture) Optional Course CRP 451- Physiological Techniques in crop production (1+1)  Lecture. No. 1. Classification of abiotic stresses - Drought – types-Drought resistance and tolerance mechanisms- adaptations-Physiological...

B. Sc (Agriculture) Optional Course CRP 451- Physiological Techniques in crop production (1+1)  Lecture. No. 1. Classification of abiotic stresses - Drought – types-Drought resistance and tolerance mechanisms- adaptations-Physiological traits associated with drought -osmotic adjustment Stress refers to a condition that diverges from the normal range that a given plant encounters to such an extent as to prevent the plant from expressing fully its genetic potential for growth, development and reproduction. Stress, is a highly subjective phenomenon defined as a state of threatened homeostasis. Depending on their nature, external stresses are usually divided into biotic (i.e. herbivorous insects and pathogens such as fungi, bacteria and viruses) or abiotic (i.e. including, among others, high or low temperature, submergence or drought and salinity). During their lifetime, all living organisms inevitably and constantly face all sorts of environmental stresses that often occur suddenly and/or simultaneously. Classically, different strategies can be applied to minimize deleterious effects of stresses, such as resistance, tolerance, avoidance or escape. Being sessile, plants cannot escape and are therefore more prone to the deleterious effect of unfavorable environmental growth conditions. Because responses are critical to ensure their survival, plants have developed specific and efficient strategies that allow them to precisely perceive different environmental stresses and respond and/or adapt to them. Drought is classified into three major categories (Dai, 2011): (i) agricultural drought; (ii) meteorological drought; and (iii) hydrological drought. Meteorological drought is a period with less than average precipitation, associated often with above-normal temperatures, which precedes and causes other types of drought. Meteorological drought is caused by constant changes in large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns such as high pressure. Agricultural drought is a period with below average precipitation, less frequent rain events, or above-normal evaporation, resulting in reduced crop production and plant growth. Hydrological drought occurs when there is a reduced supply of water or water levels from river streams and other water storage structures such as aquifers, lakes, or reservoirs fall below long-term mean levels. A lack of rainfall triggers agricultural and hydrological droughts; but other factors, including high temperature, poor irrigation management, and external factors such as overgrazing and erosion also cause drought. Drought resistance Resistance: The ability of the plant to live, grow, and yield satisfactorily with limited water supply or under periodic water deficits Escape: Ability of a plant to mature before water stress becomes a serious limiting factor Avoidance: Ability of a plant to maintain high water status during drought (able to exclude stress) Tolerance: Ability of a plant to withstand water stress of low water potential (with out suffering injury posses repair mechanism) Drought Resistance Mechanisms Understanding the concept and components of drought resistance is a key factor for improving drought tolerance of crops. Drought resistance mechanisms have been extensively reviewed and summarized from crop physiology, plant breeding and molecular perspectives for different crops Drought resistance can be classified broadly into three categories (Taiz and Zeiger, 2002): (i) desiccation postponement (the ability to maintain tissue hydration or drought tolerance at high water potential); (ii) desiccation tolerance (the ability to function while dehydrated or drought tolerance at low water potential);and (iii) drought escape, where the plants avoid drought by completing life cycles before the onset of dry periods to sustain some reproduction. These drought resistance mechanisms vary with the geographical area based on soil and climatic conditions. For example, tolerance to extreme drought conditions (air 20. The most common heavy metal contaminants are Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn. Metals are natural components in soil. Some of these metals are micronutrients necessary for plant growth, such as Zn, Cu, Mn, Ni, and Co, while others have unknown biological function, such as Cd, Pb, and Hg. Metal pollution has harmful effect on biological systems and does not undergo biodegradation. Toxic heavy metals such as Pb, Co, Cd can be differentiated from other pollutants, since they cannot be biodegraded but can be accumulated in living organisms, thus causing various diseases and disorders even in relatively lower concentrations. Heavy metals, with soil residence times of thousands of years, pose numerous health dangers to higher organisms. They are also known to have effect on plant growth, ground cover and have a negative impact on soil microflora. It is well known that heavy metals cannot be chemically degraded and need to be physically removed or be transformed into nontoxic compounds. Arsenic (AS) Arsenic (atomic number 33) is a silver-grey brittle crystalline solid with atomic weight of 74.9, specific gravity 5.73, melting point 817°C (at 28 atm), boiling point 613°C, and vapor pressure 1mm Hg at 372°C. Inorganic arsenic compounds are mainly used to preserve wood. Organic arsenic compounds are used as pesticides, primarily on cotton plants.Arsenic exists in the −3, 0, +3, and +5 valence oxidation states, and in a variety of chemical forms in natural waters and sediments. Two most common forms in natural waters arsenite and inorganic arsenate, referred as As3+ and As5+. Arsenic is one of the contaminants found in the environment which is notoriously toxic to man and other living organisms. It is a highly toxic element that exists in various species. It is generally accepted that the inorganic species, arsenite [As3+] and arsenate [As5+], are the predominant species in most environments.The trivalent compounds (arsenites) are more toxic than the pentavalent compounds (arsenates). It has been reported that As3+ is 4 to 10 times more soluble in water than As5+. Although As5+ tends to be less toxic compared to of As3+, it is thermodynamically more stable due to it predominates under normal conditions and becomes the cause of major contaminant in ground water. Lead (Pb) Lead (Pb), with atomic number 82, atomic weight 207.19, and a specific gravity of 11.34, is a bluish or silvery-grey metal with a melting point of 327.5°C and a boiling point at atmospheric pressure of 1740°C. It has four naturally occurring isotopes with atomic weights 208, 206, 207 and 204 (in decreasing order of abundance). Soil and plants can be contaminated by lead from car exhaust, dust, and gases from various industrial sources. Since Pb2+ is not biodegradable, once soil has become contaminated, it remains a long-term source of Pb2+ exposure. Metal pollution has a harmful effect on biological systems and does not undergo biodegradation. Soil can be contaminated with Pb from several other sources such as industrial sites, from leaded fuels, old lead plumbing pipes, or even old orchard sites in production where lead arsenate is used. Lead accumulates in the upper 8 inches of the soil and is highly immobile. Contamination is long-term. Without remedial action, high soil lead levels will never return to normal.In the environment, lead is known to be toxic to plants, animals, and microorganisms. Effects are generally limited to especially contaminated areas. Mercury (Hg) Mercury is a naturally occurring metal that is present in several forms. Metallic mercury is shiny, silver-white, odorless liquid. Mercury combines with other elements, such as chlorine, sulfur, or oxygen, to form inorganic mercury compounds or salts, which are usually white powders or crystals. Mercury, which has the lowest melting point (−39°C) of all the pure metals, is the only pure metal that is liquid at room temperature. As any other metal, mercury could occur in the soil in various forms. It dissolves as free ion or soluble complex and is nonspecifically adsorbed by binding mainly due to the electrostatic forces, chelated, and precipitated as sulphide, carbonate, hydroxide, and phosphate. There are three soluble forms of Hg in the soil environment. The most reduced is Hg0 metal with the other two forms being ionic of mercurous ion and mercuric ion Hg2+, in oxidizing conditions especially at low pH. Hg+ ion is not stable under environmental conditions since it dismutates into Hg0 and Hg2+. Mercury is a persistent environmental pollutant with bioaccumulation ability in fish, animals, and human beings. Mercury salts and organomercury compounds are among the most poisonous substances in our environment. Environmental contamination due to mercury is caused by several industries, petrochemicals, minings, painting, and also by agricultural sources such as fertilizer and fungicidal sprays. Some of the more common sources of mercury found throughout the environment include but may not be limited to the household bleach, acid, and caustic chemicals (e.g., battery acid, household lye, muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), sodium hydroxide, and sulfuric acid), instrumentation containing mercury (e.g., medical instruments, thermometers, barometers, and manometers), dental amalgam (fillings), latex paint (manufactured prior to 1990), batteries, electric lighting (fluorescent lamps, incandescent wire filaments, mercury vapor lamps, ultraviolet lamps), pesticides, pharmaceuticals (e.g., nasal sprays, cosmetics, contact lens products), household detergents and cleaners, laboratory chemicals, inks and paper coatings, lubrication oils, wiring devices and switches, and textiles. Though mercury use in many of the above items being produced now is restricted or banned, there are still some existing, older products in use. Terrestrial plants are generally insensitive to the harmful effects of mercury compounds; however, mercury is known to affect photosynthesis and oxidative metabolism by interfering with electron transport in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Mercury also inhibits the activity of aquaporins and reduces plant water uptake. Mercury and its compounds are cumulative toxins and in small quantities are hazardous to human health. Phytoremediation Phytoremediation techniques have been briefly depicted in many literatures or articles. Phytoremediation is defined as an emerging technology using selected plants to clean up the contaminated environment from hazardous contaminant to improve the environment quality. For organics, it involves phytostabilization, rhizodegradation, rhizofiltration, phytodegradation, and phytovolatilization. These mechanisms related to organic contaminant property are not able to be absorbed into the plant tissue. For inorganics, mechanisms which can be involved are phytostabilization, rhizofiltration, phytoaccumulation and phytovolatilization. The root plants exudates to stabilize, demobilize and bind the contaminants in the soil matrix, thereby reducing their bioavailability. These all are called as phytostabilization process. Certain plant species have used to immobilize contaminants in the soil and ground water through absorption and accumulation by roots, adsorption onto roots, or precipitation within the root zone. This process is for organics and metals contaminants in soils, sediments, and sludges medium. Specific plant species can absorb and hyperaccumulate metal contaminants and/or excess nutrients in harvestable root and shoot tissue, from the growth substrate through phytoextraction process. This is for metals, metalloids, radionuclides, nonmetals, and organics contaminants in soils, sediments, and sludges medium. Phytovolatilization process is the plants ability to absorb and subsequently volatilize the contaminant into the atmosphere. This process is for metal contaminants in groundwater, soils, sediments, and sludges medium. Since phytotransformation/phytodegradation process is the breakdown of contaminants taken up by plants through metabolic processes within the plant or the breakdown of contaminants externally to the plant through the effect of compounds produced by the plants. This process is for complex organic molecules that are degraded into simpler molecule contaminants in soils, sediments, sludges, and groundwater medium. Plant roots take up metal contaminants and/or excess nutrients from growth substrates through Rhizofiltration the process, adsorption, or, precipitation onto plant roots or absorption into the roots of contaminants that are in solution surrounding the root zone. This process is for metals, excess nutrients, and radionuclide contaminants in groundwater, surface water, and wastewater medium. The breakdown of contaminants in the soil through microbial activity that is enhanced by the presence of the root zone is called rhizodegradation. This process uses microorganisms to consume and digest organic substances for nutrition and energy. Natural substances released by the plant roots, sugars, alcohols, and acids, contain organic carbon that provides food for soil microorganisms and establish a dense root mass that takes up large quantities of water. This process is for organic substance contaminants in soil medium. Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Uptake by Plant The plants act both as “accumulators” and “excluders”. Accumulators survive despite concentrating contaminants in their aerial tissues. They biodegrade or biotransform the contaminants into inert forms in their tissues. The excluders restrict contaminant uptake into their biomass. Plants have evolved highly specific and very efficient mechanisms to obtain essential micronutrients from the environment, even when present at low ppm levels. Plant roots, aided by plant-produced chelating agents and plant-induced pH changes and redox reactions, are able to solubilize and take up micronutrients from very low levels in the soil, even from nearly insoluble precipitates. Plants have also evolved highly specific mechanisms to translocate and store micronutrients. These same mechanisms are also involved in the uptake, translocation, and storage of toxic elements, whose chemical properties simulate those of essential elements. Thus, micronutrient uptake mechanisms are of great interest to phytoremediation. The range of known transport mechanisms or specialized proteins embedded in the plant cell plasma membrane involved in ion uptake and translocation include (1) proton pumps (″-ATPases that consume energy and generate electrochemical gradients), (2) co and antitransporters and (3) channels. Each transport mechanism is likely to take up a range of ions. After uptake by roots, translocation into shoots is desirable because the harvest of root biomass is generally not feasible. Plant uptake-translocation mechanisms are likely to be closely regulated. Plants generally do not accumulate trace elements beyond near-term metabolic needs. And these requirements are small ranging from 10 to 15ppm of most trace elements suffice for most needs. The exceptions are “hyperaccumulator” plants, which can take up toxic metal ions at levels in the thousands of ppm. Since contamination is translocated from roots to the shoots, which are harvested, contamination is removed while leaving the original soil undisturbed. Some plants that are used in phytoextraction strategies are termed “hyperaccumulators.” They are plants that achieve a shoot- to-root metal-concentration ratio greater than one. Nonaccumulating plants typically have a shoot-to-root ratio considerably less than one. Ideally, hyperaccumulators should thrive in toxic environments, require little maintenance and produce high biomass, although few plants perfectly fulfill these requirements. Metal accumulating plant species can concentrate heavy metals like Cd, Zn, Co, Mn, Ni, and Pb up to 100 or 1000 times those taken up by nonaccumulator (excluder) plants. In most cases, microorganisms bacteria and fungi, living in the rhizosphere closely associated with plants, may contribute to mobilize metal ions, increasing the bioavailable fraction. Their role in eliminating organic contaminants is even more significant than that in case of inorganic compounds.Heavy metal uptake by plant through phytoremediation technologies is using these mechanisms of phytoextraction, phytostabilisation, rhizofiltration, and phytovolatilization Phytoextraction Phytoextraction is the uptake/absorption and translocation of contaminants by plant roots into the above ground portions of the plants (shoots) that can be harvested and burned gaining energy and recycling the metal from the ash. Phytostabilisation Phytostabilisation is the use of certain plant species to immobilize the contaminants in the soil and groundwater through absorption and accumulation in plant tissues, adsorption onto roots, or precipitation within the root zone preventing their migration in soil, as well as their movement by erosion and deflation. Rhizofiltration Rhizofiltration is the adsorption or precipitation onto plant roots or absorption into and sequesterization in the roots of contaminants that are in solution surrounding the root zone by constructed wetland for cleaning up communal wastewater. Phytovolatilization Phytovolatilization is the uptake and transpiration of a contaminant by a plant, with release of the contaminant or a modified form of the contaminant to the atmosphere from the plant. Phytovolatilization occurs as growing trees and other plants take up water along with the contaminants. Some of these contaminants can pass through the plants to the leaves and volatilize into the atmosphere at comparatively low concentrations. Plants also perform an important secondary role in physically stabilizing the soil with their root system, preventing erosion, protecting the soil surface, and reducing the impact of rain. At the same time, plant roots release nutrients that sustain a rich microbial community in the rhizosphere. Bacterial community composition in the rhizosphere is affected by complex interactions between soil type, plant species, and root zone location. Microbial populations are generally higher in the rhizosphere than in the root-free soil. This is due to a symbiotic relationship between soil microorganisms and plants. This symbiotic relationship can enhance some bioremediation processes. Plant roots also may provide surfaces for sorption or precipitation of metal contaminants. In phytoremediation, the root zone is of special interest. The contaminants can be absorbed by the root to be subsequently stored or metabolised by the plant. Degradation of contaminants in the soil by plant enzymes exuded from the roots is another phytoremediation mechanism. Advantages of Phytoremediation Phytoremediation techniques may also be more publicly acceptable, aesthetically pleasing, and less disruptive than the current techniques of physical and chemical process. Advantages of this technology are its effectiveness in contaminant reduction, low-cost, being applicable for wide range of contaminants, and in overall it is an environmental friendly method. The major advantages of the heavy metal adsorption technology by biomass are its effectiveness in reducing the concentration of heavy metal ions to very low levels and the use of inexpensive biosorbent materials. Phytoremediation as possibly the cleanest and cheapest technology can be employed in the remediation of selected hazardous sites. Phytoremediation encompasses a number of different methods that can lead to contaminant degradation.Phytoremediation is a low-cost option and inexpensive approach for remediating environmental media, particularly suited to large sites that have relatively low levels of contamination. Phytoremediation can be an alternative to the much harsher remediation technologies of incineration, thermal vaporization, solvent washing, or other soil washing techniques, which essentially destroy the biological component of the soil and can drastically alter its chemical and physical characteristics as well as creating a relatively nonviable solid waste. Another advantage of phytoremediation is the generation of a recyclable metal-rich plant residue. Phytoremediation could be a viable option to decontaminate heavy-metal-polluted soils, particularly when the biomass produced during the phytoremediation process could be economically valorized in the form of bioenergy. The use of metal-accumulating bioenergy crops might be suitable for this purpose. If soils, contaminated with heavy metals, are phytoremediated with oil crops, biodiesel production from the resulting plant oil could be a viable option to generate bioenergy. Defense Mechanisms Employed by Plants against heavy metal Stress As mentioned earlier, plants possess a sophisticated and interrelated network of defense strategies to avoid or tolerate HM intoxication. Physical barriers are the first line of defense in plants against metals. Some morphological structures like thick cuticle, biologically active tissues like trichomes, and cell walls as well as mycorrhizal symbiosis can act as barriers when plants are faced with HM stress. Trichomes, for instance, can either serve as HM storage site for detoxification purposes or secrete various secondary metabolites to negate hazardous effects of metals. On the other hand, once HMs overcome biophysical barriers and metal ions enter tissues and cells, plants initiate several cellular defense mechanisms to nullify and attenuate the adverse effects of HMs. Biosynthesis of diverse cellular biomolecules is the primary way to tolerate or neutralize metal toxicity. This includes the induction of a myriad of low-molecular weight protein metallochaperones or chelators such as nicotianamine, putrescine, spermine, mugineic acids, organic acids, glutathione, phytochelatins, and metallothioneins or cellular exudates such as flavonoid and phenolic compounds, protons, heat shock proteins, and specific amino acids, such as proline and histidine, and hormones such as salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and ethylene. When the above-mentioned strategies are not able to restrain metal poisoning, equilibrium of cellular redox systems in plants is upset, leading to the increased induction of ROS. To mitigate the harmful effects of free radicals, plant cells have developed antioxidant defense mechanism which is composed of enzymatic antioxidants like superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), guaiacol peroxidase (GPX), and glutathione reductase (GR) and nonenzymatic antioxidants like ascorbate (AsA), glutathione (GSH), carotenoids, alkaloids, tocopherols, proline, and phenolic compounds (flavonoids, tannins, and lignin) that act as the scavengers of free radicals. As previously indicated some of the biological molecules involved in cellular metal detoxification can be multifunctional and have antiradical, chelating, or antioxidant activities. Exploitation and upregulation of any of these mechanisms and biomolecules may depend on plant species, the level of their metal tolerance, plant growth stage, and metal type. Some of the defense mechanisms used by plants against HMs will be discussed below. Phytochelatins (PCs) One of the mechanisms adopted by plants to detoxify HMs is the production of short-chain thiol- rich repetitions of peptides of low-molecular weight synthesized from sulfur-rich glutathione (GSH) by the enzyme phytochelatin synthase (PCS) with the general structure of (γ-glutamyl- cysteinyl) -glycine ( to 11) that have a high affinity to bind to HMs when they are at toxic levels. In plants, PCs are found to be part of the defensive act not only against metal-related stresses but also in response to other stressors such as excess heat, salt, UV-B, and herbicide. PCs are reported to be used as biomarkers for the early detection of HM stress in plants. Metallothioneins (MTs) MTs, which were first extracted from equine kidney in 1957, are another family of small cysteine-rich, low-molecular-weight cytoplasmic metal-binding proteins or polypeptides that are found in a wide variety of eukaryotic organisms including fungi, invertebrates, mammals, and plants as well as some prokaryotes. Contrary to PCs that are the product of enzymatically synthesized peptides, MTs are synthesized as a result of mRNA translation. Whereas PCs in plants may mainly deal with Cd detoxification, MTs appear to be capable of showing affinity with a greater range of metals such as Cu, Zn, Cd, and As. In plants, these ligands are involved in nullifying toxicity of HMs through cellular sequestration, homeostasis of intracellular metal ions, and metal transport adjustment. In addition to their role in HM detoxification, MTs are known to be active agents in a number of cellular-related events including ROS scavenger, maintenance of the redox level, repair of plasma membrane, cell proliferation, and its growth and repair of damaged DNA. Proline Proline is a proteinogenic five-carbon α-amino acid that acts as a compatible and metabolic osmolyte, a constituent of cell wall, free radical scavenger, antioxidant, and macromolecules stabilizer. Some other functions of Pro include promoting embryo/seed evolvement, extending stem length as well as moving plants from vegetative growth to reproductive stage. The production of elevated levels of Pro by higher plants is a typical nonenzymatic response to tensions caused by a wide range of biotic and abiotic stressors such as excessive salinity, drought, increased solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation, HMs, and oxidative stress ArbuscularMycorrhizal (AM) Symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi such as AM form a mutualistic symbiosis with roots of most vascular plant species under different climatic conditions in which they are beneficiary of photosynthetic assimilations provided by plants and in return they improve the mineral nutrition status of plants and can also enhance their tolerance towards some stresses and pollutants. Plant- fungal mutualism may act as a precursor in which it signals the herald of stress to symbiotic plants so that they can make their protective mechanisms active to ameliorate deleterious effects of stress earlier than nonsymbiotic plants. Principal mechanisms adopted by mycorrhizal fungi to cancel out impacts of HM stress on plants include acting as a barrier by depositing metals within cortical cells, binding metals to cell wall or mycelium as well as sequestering them in their vacuole or other organelles releasing heat-shock protein and glutathione, precipitating or chelating metals in the soil matrix via producing glycoprotein or making phosphate-metal complexes inside the hyphae, and reducing the strength of metals by heightened root and shoot growth. The varied strategies employed by AM when facing toxicity of HMs suggest that different species of mycorrhizal fungi might act specifically or adopt the remedial function which suits the prevailing condition in either rhizosphere or plant. Study questions 1. What are all the heavy metals? 2. Advantages of Phytoremediation 3. Explain Mechanisms adopted by Plants against heavy metal Stress 4. List out functions of Metallothioneins in heavy metal tolerance 5. Short notes on Phytochelatins (PCs) Lecture No: 9: Diagnosis and correction measures for nutritional disorders in Cereals, Pulses, Oilseeds, Fibre and Sugar crops. Plants need the right combination of nutrients to live, grow and reproduce. When plants suffer from malnutrition, they show symptoms of being unhealthy. Too little or too much of any one nutrient can cause problems. Plant nutrients fall into two categories: macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients are those elements that are needed in relatively large amounts. They include nitrogen, potassium, sulfur, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. Micronutrients are those elements that plants need in small amounts (sometimes trace amounts), like iron, boron, manganese, zinc, copper, chlorine and molybdenum. Both macro- and micronutrients are naturally obtained by the roots from the soil. Plant roots require certain conditions to obtain these nutrients from the soil. First, the soil must be sufficiently moist to allow the roots to take up and transport the nutrients. Sometimes correcting improper watering strategies will eliminate nutrient deficiency symptoms. Second, the pH of the soil must be within a certain range for nutrients to be release-able from the soil particles. Third, the temperature of the soil must fall within a certain range for nutrient uptake to occur. The optimum range of temperature, pH and moisture is different for different species of plants. Thus, nutrients may be physically present in the soil, but not available to plants. A knowledge of soil pH, texture, and history can be very useful for predicting what nutrients may become deficient. Nitrogen, phosphorous, and iron are the only nutrients that are commonly lacking in Arizona soils. Most of the others can be lacking under certain conditions, but deficiencies are quite rare. The following table lists nutrients that may be lacking in Arizona soils, and what deficiency symptoms often look like. Keep in mind that each plant variety is different and may display different symptoms. Nutrient disorders and corrective measures in cereals Rice (Oryzae sativa) Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms  Deficient plants appear stunted, thin and spindly with pale green to yellowish green leaves. The number of tillers and grain yields are reduced severely. Nitrogen is mobile in plants and under short supply conditions it is easily mobilized from older to younger leaves. The deficiency symptoms appear first and become more severe on older leaves. If deficiency occurs during the young stage of the crop, the whole plant appears uniformly pale green to yellowish green. The deficient rice field gives a clear impression of nitrogen deficiency by providing a yellowish green look to the entire crop. In later stages of the crop, older leaves become pale yellow while younger leaves remain green Correction Measure Use slow-release nitrogenous fertilizers such as sulphur-coated urea or urea supergranules in a basal dressing before planting. Top-dress soluble nitrogenous fertilizers such as urea in two or three split doses. For quick recovery, apply urea (2% w/v solution) as a foliar spray in standing crops. Foliar sprays are required to be repeated every 10–15 days. Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms Phosphorus-deficient rice plants appear dark green with narrow, short and erect leaves. Plants are stunted with reduced tillering. Stems are thin and spindly with retarded growth. The number of panicles and grains per panicle are drastically reduced. Phosphorus deficiency delays crop maturity. Nitrogen application gives no response, if phosphorus is deficient. Phosphorus is mobile in plants and under short supply conditions it is easily mobilized from older to younger leaves. The deficiency symptoms appear first and become more severe on older leaves. Symptoms begin with a dark green to bluish green coloration on older leaves. Younger leaves remain green and healthy. In some rice varieties having the tendency to produce rich amounts of anthocyanin pigment, red and purple colours may develop on affected older leaves. Correction Measure Application of phosphobacteria as a seed coating, or as a seedling dip. Application of P fertilizer 15-30 kg P ha-1 to the soil, Rock phosphate broadcast before flooding when soil pH is low. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms Rice crop has strong hidden hunger to potassium deficiency. Visual deficiency symptoms appear only in severe deficiency conditions and mostly during later stages of crop growth. Hybrid rice varieties are more sensitive to potassium deficiency than modern inbred improved varieties. Potassium moves readily from old to young leaves, therefore deficiency symptoms appear first on old leaves. Yellowish brown marginal necrosis begins from the tip of the leaf and advances down the margins towards the base. Dark rust brown spots appear on the leaf surface in some rice varieties. Bronzing of older leaves is also a characteristic symptom of potassium deficiency Correction Measure Foliar spray of KCl @ 5gram/lit at 15 days interval up to the disappearance of symptoms Calcium Deficiency Symptoms Chlorotic – necrotic split or rolled tips of younger leaves. Tips of youngest leaves become white rolled and curled. Necrotic tissue along the lateral margins. Correction Measure Apply CaCl2 or Ca containing foliar sprays for rapid treatment of severe Ca deficiency. Apply gypsum in Ca-deficient high pH soils, e.g., on sodic & high K soils. Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms Leaf chlorotic with white tips. Orange-yellow interveinal chlorosis on older leaves. Plant are pale colored with interveinal chlorosis first appearing on older leafs. Leaf number and leaf length are greater. The leaves are wavy and droopy. Correction Measure Foliar application of liquid fertilizers containing Mg (e.g., MgCl2 2%) Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms Deficient plants appear stunted, thin and spindly with pale yellow leaves. The numbers of tillers and grains per plant are reduced. Sulphur deficiency also delays crop maturity. 2. At initial stages of growth sulphur deficiency symptoms resemble nitrogen deficiency symptoms, as in both cases the whole plant appears pale green. In contrast to nitrogen deficiency where older leaves are more pale yellow than the younger leaves, sulphur deficiency produces more pronounced chlorosis on the young leaves with comparatively darker old leaves. Sulphur is less mobile in the plant than nitrogen, so under short supply conditions deficiency symptoms tend to appear first on younger leaves. Correction Measure For moderate S deficiency apply 10 kg S ha-1 application of 20-40 kg S ha-1. Use slow acting S forms (gypsum, elemental S) if leaching is likely to be a problem. Soil application of calcium silicate: 120-200 kg ha-1 or Potassium silicate: 40-60 kg ha-1. Boron Deficiency Symptoms White rolled leaf tips of young leaves. Reduced height with leaf tips white in colour and rolled. Death of the growing point. Correction Measure Soil application of borax at 0.5-3 kg ha-1 or as foliar spray during vegetative growth Copper Deficiency Symptoms Chlorotic streaks, bluish green leaves. Leaf tips become chlorotic with streaks on either side of the midrib, followed by appearance of dark brown necrotic lesions on the leaf tips. Leaves bluish green and leaf tip needle-like, while the leaf base appears normal. Tillering reduced. Correction Measure Soil application CuSO4 at 1-5 kg Cu ha-1 or apply cupric sulfate solution as foliar spray. Manganese Deficiency Symptoms Interveinal chlorosis starting at the tip of younger leaves. Pale greayish green interveinal chlorosis spreading from the tip of the leaf to the base. Necrotic brown spots develop and leaf becomes dark brown. New leaves short narrow and light green. Correction Measure Apply MnSO4 (5-20 kg Mn ha-1) in bands along rice row. Apply foliar MnSO4 (1-5 kg Mn ha- 1 in about 200 L water ha-1) Manganese Deficiency Symptoms Interveinal chlorosis starting at the tip of younger leaves. Pale greayish green interveinal chlorosis spreading from the tip of the leaf to the base. Necrotic brown spots develop and leaf becomes dark brown. New leaves short narrow and light green. Correction Measure Apply MnSO4 (5-20 kg Mn ha-1) in bands along rice row. Apply foliar MnSO4 (1-5 kg Mn ha- 1 in about 200 L water ha-1) Silicon Deficiency Symptoms Soft, droopy leaves and culms. Leaves become chlorotic which later become necrotic brown spots. Entire leaf becomes brown or pink. Reduced panicles per m2. Susceptible to lodging. Correction Measure Apply Calcium silicate @ 120- 200 kg/ ha (or) Potassium silicate @ 40- 60 kg/ ha for disappearance of symptoms Zinc Deficiency Symptoms Dusty brown spots on upper leaves. Stunted plants. Tillering decreases. Increase spikelet. Sterility leaf base of younger leaves, become chlorotic brown and blotches streaks on lower leaves. Lower leaves are chlorotic particularly at the base. Correction Measure Broadcast ZnSO4 in nursery seedbed. Dip seedlings or presoak seeds in a 2-4% ZnO suspension. Apply 5-10 kg Zn ha-1 as Zn sulfate, apply 10-25 kg ha-1 ZnSO4 7 H2O. Apply 0.5-1.5 % ZnSO4 ha-1 as a foliar spray. At tillering (25-30 DAT), 2-3 repeated applications at intervals of 10-14 days. Zn chelates (e.g., Zn – EDTA) can be used for foliar application. MAIZE (Zea mays Linn.) Nitrogen Deficiency Deficiency Symptoms Maize is highly sensitive to nitrogen deficiency. Deficiency symptoms appear even in mild deficiency conditions. Nitrogen-deficient plants are stunted with thin, spindly stems and pale green to yellow leaves. Deficient plants produce hardly one small ear per plant and the ears have hardly any grains with reduced kernel size, resulting in a drastic reduction in crop yield. Nitrogen is mobile in plants and under short supply conditions it is easily mobilized from older to younger leaves. The deficiency symptoms appear first and become more severe on older leaves. If deficiency occurs during the young stage of the crop, the whole plant appears uniformly pale green to yellow. In later stages of the crop, older leaves become pale yellow while young leaves remain green. Corrective Measures  Top-dress soluble nitrogenous fertilizers such as urea in two split doses.For quick recovery, apply urea (2% w/v solution) as a foliar spray in the standing crop. Foliar sprays are required to be repeated every 10–15 days. Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms Deficient plants appear stunted, thin and spindly with dark green leaves. The number and size of stomata in leaves are decreased. Root growth is drastically reduced. Phosphorus- deficient plants bear hardly one small ear with few grains, resulting in very poor crop yields. In acute deficiency conditions or in favouring winter season, the purpling may cover the entire plant. 7. In the most advanced stage, affected leaves burn and die. Corrective Measures: Phosphate-solubilizing microbial cultures;Phosphatic fertilizers -In deficient standing crops apply soluble phosphatic fertilizerssuch as ammonium phosphate with irrigation water. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms Potassium deficiency causes shortening of the internodes and dwarfing of plants with a general loss of the dark green colour of foliage. Affected plants produce small ears that are often very pointed and underdeveloped at the tip. Marginal chlorosis and necrosis of older leaves are the specific symptom of potassium deficiency. In severe deficiency conditions prominent red strips develop on the lower stem and leaf sheaths. Corrective Measure If potassium deficiency appears on a standing crop, apply soluble potassium salts such as potassium nitrate, potassium sulphate or potassium chloride with irrigation water. Foliar sprays of these salts are usually not recommended because a number of such sprays are needed to fulfil crop requirements. Calcium Deficiency Symptoms Calcium deficiency in maize can destroy the entire crop. Calcium-deficient maize plants are very stunted with distorted, torn and ragged foliage. Mildly calcium-deficient plants develop small ears and distorted tassels, but if deficiency is severe, maize plants fail to grow and die before maturity. The deficiency symptoms appear first and more severely on younger leaves. Calcium deficiency symptoms begin with yellow to white inter-veinal lesions on young leaves. If the deficiency persists and becomes more severe, the new emerging leaves fail to unroll and make a ‘bull-whip-like’ structure. As symptoms advance, the new leaves develop holes in the lamina. The torn and malformed leaves give the plant a ragged appearance. Corrective Measure Apply analysis-based recommended quantity of calcium- containing fertilizers well before sowing. Suitable calcium containing fertilizers may be gypsum (calcium sulphate), calcium nitrate or calcium chloride. In acid soils, lime or limestone (calcium carbonate) and dolomite (a mixture of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate) are more suitable calcium supplements. The foliar application of 2% w/v calcium sulphate (twice) is recommended in standing crops. Zinc Deficiency Symptoms Emerging leaves uniformly pale green. Chlorosis staring at the base progressive toward the tip. Margins with distinct red line. Bleached white patches on the leaves. Older leaves have yellow streaks or chlorotic striping between veins. Correction Measure Soil application of ZnSO4 20-25 Kg/ha or foliar spray of ZnSO4 0.5%. Iron Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency appears first in newly emerging leaves. Interveinal tissue turns pale yellow with green veins chlorotic pattern uniformly leaves turn yellow or white. Newly formed leaves exhibit chlorotic symptoms and the entire crop show bleached appearance. Correction Measure Soil application of 20-25 Kg FeSO4 or foliar spray of 1% FeSO4 at weekly interval CUMBU (PENNISETUM GLAUCUM) Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms Stunted plant growth, spindly pale yellow or deep yellow color near the tips and margins progresses toward the base. Correction Measure Foliar spray of Urea 1% or DAP 2%. Phophorus Deficiency Symptoms Grain filling inhibited. Stunted growth, spindly, dark green leaves with dark red coloration. Leave appear to be erect and leathery. Correction Measure Foliar spray of DAP 2% 2-3 sprays Potassium Deficiency Symptoms Symptoms first seen in older leaves. Irregular necrotic patterns intermingled with red pigmentation. Streaked patterns on the interveinal tissue symptoms at tips and margins move towards the base. Correction Measure Foliar spray of KCl 1% Calcium Deficiency Symptoms Plants stunted. Young leaf tips stick together form sword-like projections. Serrated leaf edges, leaves brittle, brown, sticky near margins and turn brown. Correction Measure Foliar application of CaSO4 2% twice. Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency appears in upper leaves. Emerging leaves pale yellow in color. Correction Measure Foliar spray of CaSO4 2% Boron Deficiency Symptoms Apical growing points stop developing leaves thick brittle and irregular chlorosis. Correction Measure Foliar spray of Borax 0.5 % at fortnightly intervals Iron Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency appears first in newly emerging leaves. Interveinal tissue turns pale yellow with green veins chlorotic pattern uniformly leaves turn yellow or white. Newly formed leaves exhibit chlorotic symptoms. Correction Measure Soil application of 20-25 Kg FeSO4 or foliar spray of 1% FeSO4 at weekly interval. Copper Deficiency Symptoms Younger leaf tips turn brown roll up and break. Correction Measure Foliar spray of CuSO4 0.2% Zinc Deficiency Symptoms Deficiencies first in the younger leaves. Emerging leaves uniformly pale green. Chlorosis staring at the base progressive toward the tip. Bleached white patches on the leaves. Older leaves have yellow streaks or chlorotic striping between veins. Correction Measure Soil application of ZnSO4 20-25 Kg/ha or foliar spray of ZnSO4 0.5% Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms Plants stunted, spindly pale yellow or deep yellow color near the tips and margins progresses toward the base heads small seed numbers reduced. Correction Measure Foliar spray of Urea 1% or DAP 2%. Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms Small root systems; grain filling inhibited. Growth stunted, spindly, dark green leaves with dark red coloration. Leaf sheaths bend upward with red coloration leaf. Leave appear to be erect and leathery. Roots turn dark brown purple or black. Correction Measure Foliar spray of DAP 2% 2-3 sprays Potassium Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency first seen on older leaves. Irregular necrotic patterns intermingled with red pigmentation. Streaked patterns on the interveinal tissue symptoms at tips and margins move towards the base. Correction Measure Foliar spray of KCl 1% Calcium Deficiency Symptoms Plants stunted. Young leaf tips stick together form sword-like projections. Serrated leaf edges, leaves brittle, brown, sticky near margins and turn brown. Correction Measure Foliar application of CaSO4 2% twice Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency appear first on older leaves irregular necrotic spots on tips and margins deep red color on leaves become brittle, turn brown Correction Measure Foliar spray of MgSO4 2% Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency appears in upper leaves. Emerging leaves pale yellow. Correction Measure Foliar spray of CaSO4 2% Boron Deficiency Symptoms Apical growing points stop developing leaves thick brittle and irregular chlorosis. Correction Measure Foliar spray of Borax 0.5 % at fortnightly intervals Copper Deficiency Symptoms Younger leaf tips turn brown roll up and break. Correction Measure Foliar spray of CuSO4 0.2% Iron Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency appears first in newly emerging leaves. Interveinal tissue turns pale yellow with green veins chlorotic pattern uniformly leaves turn yellow or white. Newly formed leaves exhibit chlorotic symptoms the entire crop show bleached appearance and dry. Correction Measure Soil application of 20-25 Kg FeSO4 or foliar spray of 1% FeSO4 at weekly interval. Manganese Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency appears first in younger leaves. Leaves pale color in a streaked pattern and long narrow lesions on leaves. Correction Measure Foliar spray of MnSO4 0.2% Zinc Deficiency Symptoms Deficiencies first in the younger leaves. Emerging leaves uniformly pale green. Chlorosis staring at the base progressive toward the tip. Margins with distinct red line. Bleached white patches on the leaves. Older leaves have yellow streaks or chlorotic striping between veins. Correction Measure Soil application of ZnSO4 20-25 Kg/ha or foliar spray of ZnSO4 0.5%  Nutritional disorders and corrective measures in Pulses Greengram (Vigna radiata) Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms : Nitrogen deficiency causes retarded growth of plants. Stems become thin and elongated. Branching and flowering are reduced drastically. Reduced pod formation and poor seed set result in poor yields. Nitrogen is fairly mobile within plants and under restricted supply conditions it is rapidly redistributed from older to younger leaves. The deficiency symptoms typically appear in lower leaves first. If deficiency persists, the symptoms move up the plant to the younger leaves. The old leaves become uniformly pale green and then turn pale yellow to yellow, while the young leaves remain light green. Later, the yellow older leaves turn white and drop early. Correction Measure : Top-dress soluble nitrogenous fertilizers such as urea. For quick recovery, apply urea with irrigation water or as a foliar spray in the standing crop. Foliar sprays require to be repeated every 10–15 days. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency in early growth stages shows up as irregular mottling around the edges of leaves. These chlorotic areas increase as deficiency becomes more severe, then they merge so that chlorosis occurs around the edges of the leaf. As deficiency becomes more severe, chlorosis progresses toward the center of the leaf. In early growth, necrosis may be on lower leaves but later in the season it may be on leaves in the upper parts of the plant. Correction Measure Foliar spray of KCl 1% at fortnightly interval Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms In early stages of deficiency the areas between the veins become yellow. These areas later turn deep yellow and rusty specks and necrotic blotches may appear between the veins and around the edges of the leaves. In later stages, Mg deficiency gives the appearance of early maturity. Correction Measure Foliar spray of MgSO4 @ 2% at fortnightly interval Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms The deficiency symptoms are first observed in younger leaves and then progress to lower leaves if the deficiency continues. The younger leaves turn chlorotic, initially becoming pale green and then pale yellow. The pattern of chlorosis appears uniform on the entire leaf lamina including the veins. In acute deficiency conditions the entire plant appears chlorotic. Correction Measure Foliar spraying of Calsium Sulphate 0.5-1.0 % can control the deficiency. Boron Deficiency Symptoms : Upper internodes of the stem are shortened, giving the plants a rosette appearance. Upper leaves near the growing points turn yellow and sometimes red. Symptoms are most severe at the leaf tips while the leaf bases remain green. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of Borax 0.2% at fortnightly intervals. Iron Deficiency Symptoms  Iron is immobile within plants and hence it is not readily redistributed from older to younger plant tissues under reduced supply conditions. Therefore, the deficiency symptoms become evident first on younger leaves. Young leaves become yellow (chlorotic) with contrasting narrow, dark green main veins, while older leaves remain green. Chlorotic young leaves then turn yellow to white and symptoms spread down the plant to lower leaves. Dead tissues in the form of spots appear particularly at leaf margins. Correction Measure Apply basal dose of soluble iron fertilizers such as FeSO4 (commonly at 25 kg/ha) or Fe chelates (10 kg/ha). Use of organic chelates proves to be more promising as they maintain iron in soil solution. In standing crops, apply FeSO4 or Fe chelates (0.5% w/v solution) and 0.1% w/v citric acid as foliar sprays. Foliar sprays are required to be repeated every 10–15 days. Manganese Deficiency Symptoms Leaves become chlorotic in interveinal areas while the veins remain green. Symptoms differ from Fe where the veins also become chlorotic. Whole leaves, veins excepted, become pale green and pale yellow. Brown spots and necrotic areas develop on lower leaves as the deficiency becomes more severe. Deficiency occurs on the new leaves, however, when later growth is normal the chlorotic leaves are no longer at top of the plant. Correction Measure Foliar spray of MnSO4 @ 0.5% at fortnightly intervals or soil application of MnSO4 @ 20 to 25 kg/ha Zinc Deficiency Symptoms Green gram is very sensitive to zinc deficiency. Deficiency symptoms appear more prominently during the initial stages of crop growth, usually within 2–3 weeks after sowing. Symptoms begin as a faint, pale green interveinal chlorosis of older leaves. Interveinal chlorosis starts from the tip of the leaf and proceeds towards the base. The loss of green colour of interveinal tissues looks like a bleaching effect on affected leaves. The main veins remain green and prominent. If deficiency persists and becomes more severe, the affected leaves develop chocolate brown necrotic spots and lesions on interveinal areas. As symptoms advance, tissues of the necrotic spot areas drop from the leaf lamina, making small holes in the affected leaf. Correction Measure Application of basal dose ZnSO4 at the rate of 25 kg per ha. Spraying of 0.5% ZnSO4 during 20, 30, 40th day after sowing. Redgram (Cajanus cajan) Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms Nitrogen deficiency in pigeon pea is usually found during the initial stages of crop growth when root symbiotic nitrogen fixation nodules are yet to develop. In mild deficiency, the entire plant appears uniformly light green If deficiency persists and become more severe, the older leaves show chlorosis. Interveinal chlorosis appears on the oldest leaves in the beginning of the deficiency symptom, which soon converts to a uniform pale green, greenish yellow or pale yellow colour. The midrib remains green and turns yellow at last. Interveinal chlorosis stage is mostly missing in severe deficiency conditions. Affected older leaves soon abscise. Correction Measure : The crop needs nitrogen during the initial stage of growth, when symbiotic nitrogen fixation by the plant is yet to start. Thus, a basal starter application of nitrogen at 20–25 kg/ha is important in nitrogen-deficient soils. Nitrogen deficiency in existing crops can be managed by applying urea with irrigation water or as a foliar spray Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms : The deficient plant develops a dark green to bluish dark green colour of the foliage. The older leaves become darker than the younger. The change in leaf colour is the only recognizable symptom of phosphorus deficiency in pigeon pea. In the most advanced stage, affected older leaves turn orange– yellow in colour and shed. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of DAP 2% at fortnightly interval. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms: Leaf tip yellow or brown. Yellowing spreads from the tip onward along he leaf margin and may coalesce with similar areas at extremities of the lateral veins. Leaf tip becomes scorched as symptoms become more severe. The scorching may spread around the leaf margin but typically there is a yellow band between the scorched area and the healthy green tissue in the early stages. The affected leaves not showing symptoms are generally dark green. Plants stunted. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of KCl 1% at weekly intervals. Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms : Magnesium is mobile in the plant and under short supply conditions it is transferred from older to younger leaves. The deficiency symptoms appear first and more severely on the older leaves. The youngest leaves remain green and apparently healthy Mild interveinal chlorosis, veins remain dark green. Interveinal areas become rusty brown or bronzed and may become necrotic so that narrow elongated streaks of dying tissue appear between the veins. The margins of the young leaves frequently in rolled. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of MgSO4 2% and 1% Urea Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms : Deficient plants become chlorotic. New leaves are first affected, but gradually the entire plant becomes uniformly chlorotic (Yellowish).If deficiency persists and becomes more severe, symptoms eventually move downwards, covering more leaves. Plant vigour, flowering and fruiting reduce drastically, resulting in poor crop yields. Correction Measure : Foliar spraying of Calcium Sulphate 0.5 % can control sulphur deficiency. Boron Deficiency Symptoms : Upper internodes of the stem are shortened, giving the plants a rosette appearance. Upper leaves near the growing points turn yellow and sometimes red. Symptoms are most severe at the leaf tips while the leaf bases remain green. Correction Measure : Spraying of Broron 0.2 % at two week interval by foliar spray. Iron Deficiency Symptoms :  In mild deficiency conditions or at the initial stage of deficiency, the topmost younger leaves develop temporary fading of interveinal tissues to a pale green to pale yellow colour. If the deficiency persists and becomes more severe, a bright pale yellow chlorosis develops in interveinal tissues (tissues between the veins), leaving the veins green and prominent. Interveinal chlorosis of top leaves is the specific symptom of iron deficiency. As the symptoms advance, prominent green veins also fade and become light green to pale yellow. In acute deficiency conditions, the entire leaf bleaches to papery white Correction Measure : Foliar spray of FeSO4 0.5% at weekly intervels. Manganese Deficiency Symptoms : Deficiency symptoms appear in older leaves of young plants. Leaves are yellow in colour. But veins are remain in green colour Young leaves turn completely yellow dark brownish black spots appear on the leaf. Correction Measure : Spraying of manganese sulphate (5g / Litre) at 10 days interval. Zinc Deficiency Symptoms : Stunted growth narrowing of leaves with pale green or yellow. Inter-veinal chlorosis starting from tip of leaflets and spreading to the remaining area leaving only the midrib green. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of ZnSO4 at 0.5% at fortnightly interval or soil application of ZnSO4 10-15 kg/ha. BLACKGRAM Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms Insufficient nitrogen supply restricts plant height. The leaf size and number of branches are reduced. Nitrogen deficiency reduces flowering, decreases the number of pods and pod length and reduces the number of seeds and seed size, ultimately resulting in low yields. In short supply conditions, nitrogen is readily transferred from older to younger tissues because it is fairly mobile within plants. Therefore, the deficiency symptoms tend to occur first and become more severe on the lower leaves, then working up the plant to the younger leaves. Correction Measure Top-dress soluble nitrogenous fertilizers such as urea. For quick recovery, apply urea (2% w/v solution) as a foliar spray in the standing crop. Foliar sprays must be repeated every 10– 15 days. Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms Crop maturity is delayed. The number and size of pods are decreased which leads to poor yields. Phosphorus is mobile within plants and is readily translocated from older to younger tissues of the plant under restricted supply conditions. Therefore, older leaves display deficiency symptoms first. Deficient plants become dark green in appearance and the lower stems turn purplish. If deficiency persists for long, the dark green leaves turn bluish green. Phosphorus- deficient plants often develop purple pigmentation on older leaves. Correction Measure If standing crops show the deficiency, apply soluble phosphatic fertilizers such as ammonium phosphate with irrigation water. Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms Leaves along with veins appear in green colour then it turns to yellowish colour. Basal leaves are green in colour. Later leaves spot are appear in between the veins. Leaves are curled downward direction. Lowest, leaves become white to yellow with the base of the leaf remaining green. Pale brown necrotic spots develop with dark brow margin. Brown spots appear on the pods. Correction Measure Foliar spray of MgSO4 1% at fortnightly intervals. Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms Deficient plants become chlorotic. New leaves are first affected, but gradually the entire plant becomes uniformly chlorotic. Correction Measure Folia spray of [email protected]% Boron Deficiency Symptoms Upper internodes of the stem are shortened, giving the plants a rosette appearance. Upper leaves near the growing points turn yellow and sometimes red. Symptoms are most severe at the leaf tips while the leaf bases remain green. Correction Measure Foliar spray of Borax 0.2% at fortnightly intervals. Manganese Deficiency Symptoms : Deficiency symptoms appear in older leaves of young plants. Leaves are yellow in colour. But veins are remain in green colour. Later, reddish pale yellow colour leaves are produced. Young leaves turn completely yellow dark brownish black spots appear on the leaf. Correction Measure : Spraying of 1% MnSO4 during 20, 30, 40 DAS or application 10 kg of MnSO4 as a basal dose. Zinc Deficiency Symptoms : Deficiency will appear one month after germination. Interveinal areas of leaves become yellow and die prematurely. Reduction of growth in plants. Yellowish smaller leaves, veins remain green in colour. Correction Measure : Application of basal dose ZnSO4 at the rate of 25 kg per ha. Spraying of 0.5% ZnSO4 during 20, 30, 40th day after sowing. Soyabean Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms : Growth will be stunted and leaves a very pale green.Nitrogen deficiency occurs because the soybean roots are not nodulated or nodules are not effective because of poor soil fertility or low levels of Mo. Correction Measure : Foliar spray Urea 1% at fortnightly interval Potassium Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency in early growth stages shows up as irregular mottling around the edges of leaves. These chlorotic areas increase as deficiency becomes more severe, then they merge so that chlorosis occurs around the edges of the leaf. As deficiency becomes more severe, chlorosis progresses toward the center of the leaf. In early growth, necrosis may be on lower leaves but later in the season it may be on leaves in the upper parts of the plant. Correction Measure Foliar spray of KCl 1% at fortnightly interval Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms In early stages of deficiency the areas between the veins become yellow. These areas later turn deep yellow and rusty specks and necrotic blotches may appear between the veins and around the edges of the leaves. In later stages, Mg deficiency gives the appearance of early maturity. Correction Measure Foliar spray of MgSO4 @ 2% at fortnightly interval Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms Deficient plants become chlorotic. New leaves are first affected, but gradually the entire plant becomes uniformly chlorotic. Correction Measure Foliar spraying of Calcium Sulphate 0.5-1.0 % can control the deficiency. Iron Deficiency Symptoms Iron deficiency of soybeans occurs on some soils when the pH is high. Frequently it is on soils which contain considerable quantities of free lime. With Fe deficiency, the whole leaf including the veins turns yellow. Interveinal areas turn chlorotic first then the veins become chlorotic and finally, under severe Fe deficiency, the leaves turn almost white. Correction Measure Foliar spray of FeSO4 1% at fortnightly intervals or soil application of FeSO4 5 to 10 kg/ha Manganese Deficiency Symptoms Leaves become chlorotic in interveinal areas while the veins remain green. Symptoms differ from Fe where the veins also become chlorotic. Whole leaves, veins excepted, become pale green and pale yellow. Brown spots and necrotic areas develop on lower leaves as the deficiency becomes more severe. Deficiency occurs on the new leaves, however, when later growth is normal the chlorotic leaves are no longer at top of the plant. Correction Measure Foliar spray of MnSO4 @ 0.5% at fortnightly intervals or soil application of MnSO4 @ 20 to 25 kg/ha Zinc Deficiency Symptoms Zinc deficiency of soybeans is not common. The leaves become chlorotic, then rusty brown in color. The veins remain green. The chlorosis is uniform over the leaf and not concentrated initially on the edges as occurs with deficiencies such as K. Correction Measure Foliar spray of ZnSO4 1% at fortnightly intervals or soil application of ZnSO4 20 to 25 kg/ha Nutritional disorders and corrective measures in Oilseeds Groundnut Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms The entire plant may become light green in appearance. Since nitrogen is a mobile nutrient within plants, it is rapidly translocated from older to younger leaves (if the plant is not supplied with sufficient nitrogen). The deficiency symptoms appear primarily on older leaves. In prolonged deficiency, the symptoms also become more severe on lower leaves. Older leaves become uniformly yellow while young leaves may remain light green Correction Measure Foliar spray of Urea 1 to 2% at fortnightly intervals. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms Symptoms begin as chlorosis at the tip and along the leaf margins of old leaves; some chlorosis may also occur in interveinal areas. Old leaves turn brown and become scorched from the tips and along the margins. Eventually, the old leaves dry and fall off early. Correction Measure Foliar spray of KCl 1 to 2% at fortnightly intervals Calcium Deficiency Symptoms Very rare in leaves and stems, small distorted leaves near branch tips, and terminal buds blacken and fail to continue to develop. Most common symptom in developing fruit is lack of kernel formation, darkened plumule if kernel develops, and reduced seed germination. Correction Measure Soil application of Gypsum 200 kg/ha Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms Initially, the whole plant appears light green. The younger leaves become pale green or pale yellow. The uniform chlorosis develops over the entire leaf, covering both the veins and the interveinal tissues. In acute deficiency conditions, the entire plant turns yellow Correction Measure Soil application of Gypsum 200 kg/ha. Boron Deficiency Symptoms Growth of young leaves restricted giving a rosette effect. The pod development is affected resulting in the production of ‘pop’ pods. Leaves small, branches stubby and stems may split pots show hollow heart and discoloration. Correction Measure Apply Borax 10 Kg + Gypsum 200 Kg/Ha At 45 Days After Sowing. Copper Deficiency Symptoms Chlorosis in younger leaves, distorted leaf lets and scattering of yellowish white spots on leaves. Correction Measure Foliar spray of CuSO4 0.2% at fortnightly intervals. Manganese Deficiency Symptoms Interveinal chlorosis and stunted growth. Correction Measure Foliar spray of MnSO4 0.5% at fortnightly intervals / soil appln. Of MnSO4 5-10 kg/ha. Iron Deficiency Symptoms A pale yellow chlorosis develops in interveinal tissues while the veins remain green and prominent; this chlorosis extends the full length of the leaves. As the chlorosis advances, veins also become chlorotic and the entire leaf may appear pale yellow. In the later stage, leaves turn almost white and may become necrotic. Correction Measure Foliar spray of 1% FeSO4 on 30,40 and 50 days after sowing. Zinc Deficiency Symptoms Light yellow stripes along with veins of leaf blade under acute condition-veinally chlorosis and cessation of growth of terminal bud. Older leaves may show slight chlorosis. Correction Measure Apply 25 kg ZnSO4/ha (basal) or foliar spray of ZnSO4 1% at fortnightly intervals. Sesame Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms The nitrogen-deficient plant shows poor growth. The stem becomes short and thin. The plant has poor branching. The number and size of capsules are drastically reduced and fewer seeds are produced per capsule. Crop yield declines sharply. Paling of the entire plant occurs due to lack of chlorophyll content in the leaves. Corrective Measures Urea (2% w/v solution) as a foliar spray in the standing crop. Foliar sprays must be repeated every 10–15 days. Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms Branching suppressed, stalks slender, lower leaves dull dark, grayish green. Necrosis of lower of majority of leaves is followed by defoliation. Correction Measure Soil application of single super phosphate 2% DAP foliar spray at fortnightly intervals. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms Symptoms develop initially as marginal chlorosis on lower leaves. The marginal chlorosis then rapidly proceeds inwards. The chlorotic tissues progressively become necrotic. The leaves eventually die and fall off prematurely. Correction Measure Apply potassic fertilizers to the soil at or before planting as per soil testing recommendations. In standing crops, apply soluble potassium salts with irrigation water. Calcium Deficiency Symptoms Terminal bud dies out following distortion of the tips and bases of young leaves. Hooking downward of the young leaf tips followed by twisting and puckering. Correction Measure Soil application of gypsum @ 50 kg/ha. Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms Lower leaves develop interveinal chlorosis, light yellow in color becoming orange later. Green color persists in midrib and veins giving a characteristics pattern. Correction Measure Foliar spray of 2% MgSO4 at fortnightly intervals. Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms Sulphur deficiency produce smaller new leaflets with yellow and erect petioles than the normal. Plants are smaller in size and modulation is poor. Correction Measure Foliar spray 0.5 - 1% of calcium sulphate Boron Deficiency Symptoms Yellowing of plant tops and of the youngest leaves. Upper leaves became dark green, coriaceous, with edges curved down. inhibits root elongation leading to the death of root tips. Correction Measure Foliar spray Borax 0.2% at fortnightly intervals. Iron Deficiency Symptoms Decrease the dry weight of leaves, stem root decrease in taproot length and its dry mass. The leaves show deficiency symptoms mild chlorosis. Correction Measure Foliar application of ferrous sulfate 0.5% at weekly interval. Manganese Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency symptoms appear in the form of interveinal chlorotic mottling of apical part of the second set of leaves. The entire laminae become severely mottled and the interveinal chlorotic areas develop light brown irregular necrotic patches. These patches, which are initially more conspicuous near the leaf apices, later spread to the entire laminae, which eventually turn severely necrotic. Symptoms gradually spread from the middle to the young and old leaves. Correction Measure Foliar spray of 0.2 – 0.3% MnSO4 solution 2-3 times at weekly intervals or soil application of MnSO4 10 kg/ha. Zinc Deficiency Symptoms Prevents seed formation thus reducing yield. Correction Measure Foliar application of ZnSO4 0.5% or soil application of ZnSO4 10 kg/ha. Sunflower Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms : Chlorosis of young leaves & old leaves (early stages), Marginal Chlorosis, Whole leaf Chlorosis Yellow-Pale green Death of whole leaf, Chlorosis followed by death. Thin stems, spindly stems pale green stems are seen fewer or smaller mature heads. Sunflower responds to 30-80 kg N/ha depending upon soil moisture status. Correction Measure Foliar spray of 1% Urea at weekly intervals. Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms: Interveinal Cholorsis Yellow – Pale green leaves, Interveinal necrosis stems: Short & Thin Stems. Bent petioles (resulting in leaves pointing downwards), Reproductive stage symptoms expressed: Delayed matureity, Fewer of smaller mature heads which set few grains/seed. Lower grain yield, Dark Brown necrotic lesions, Grey-dark brown necrotic lesions. Correction Measure Soil application of SPP or Foliar application of DAP 2%. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms : Deficiency symptoms appear on old leaves whilst young leaves remain green and healthy, Chlorosis of old leaves (early stages). Marginal chlorosis with Yellow-Pale green leaves & puckering of the leaves Necrosis on older leaves & interveinal necrosis. The stem show stout & Stunted stem growth. Leaf tips & or margins curl up or down giving a wavy appearance. Fewer or smaller mature heads which set few grains / seed Bronze / Pale brown necrotic lesions. Correction Measure : Soil application of Murate of potash 20 kg/ha at foliar spray of KCl 1%. Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms : Yellowing of older leaves; interveinal chlorosis Correction Measure : Foliar spray of MgSO4@1-2% Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms Plants showing paling/yellowing of leaves. Yellowing spreads from the base to the apex. Growth of plants is reduced. The size of capitulum is severely restricted. Inflorescence may remain covered within the bracts. Maturity of flowers is delayed. Correction Measure Application of 25 kg S/ha or 80 kg N+25 kg S. Boron Deficiency Symptoms : Young and middle leaves of plants develop small chlorotic patches. Chlorotic patches become more pronounced and develop orange coloured necrotic areas in young leaves. Shoot apex of plants may turn necrotic and cease to grow. Young leaves show severe curling and distortion. This leads to appearance of side branches bearing small leaves. Eventually all the young leaves turn necrotic. Correction Measure : Spray of Borax (0.2%) on capitulum at ray floret opening stage for increasing seed filling, Yield and oil content. Copper Deficiency Symptoms : Deficiency symptoms appear as interveional chlorosis of the upper half of the old leaves starting from the tip of the leaf. Chlorosis is generally restricted to the apical half of the lamina. Chlorotic areas later develop dark brown necrotic scorching, which spreads along the margins towards the base of the leaf. Laminae becomes shriveled and withered. Marginal scorching of the leaves becomes more pronounced and brown necrotic spots develop near the midrib. Correction Measure : 2 to 3 sprays of 0.2% copper sulphate solution at weekly intervals. Iron Deficiency Symptoms: Yellowing of young leaves; interveinal chlorosis Correction Measure : Foliar spray of [email protected]% Manganese Deficiency Symptoms : Deficiency symptoms appear in the form of interveinal chlorotic mottling of apical part of the second set of leaves. The entire laminae become severely mottled and the interveinal chlorotic areas develop light brown irregular necrotic patches. These patches, which are initially more conspicuous near the leaf apices, later spread to the entire laminae, which eventually turn severely necrotic. Symptoms gradually spread from the middle to the young and old leaves. Correction Measure : Foliar Spray Of 0.2 – 0.3% Mnso4 Solution 2-3 Times At Weekly Intervals Or Soil Application Of MnSO4 10 kg/ha. Zinc Deficiency Symptoms : Light yellow stripes along with veins of leaf blade under acute condition-veinally chlorosis and cessation of growth of terminal bud. Older leaves may show slight chlorosis. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of [email protected]%  Fiber crops Cotton Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms General yellowing of the older leaves. Stunted growth with few vegetative fruiting branches. Correction Measure Urea 1% foliar spray or DAP 2% can control this deficiency Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms Dark green stunted plants. Small leaves and the symptoms first appear on the lower or older leaves and progress upward on the stalk. Delay in blooming and fruiting. Correction Measure Foliar application of 2% DAP. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms Older leaves are chlorotic, droopy and have yellow spots between the veins the edges turn yellow then brown curt downward and die. Brown spots appear between vein dry the margins and tip of leaves. The tips curl and breakdown. The leaves brown-reddish brown of dry. The maturity and quality of both offered. Correction Measure Foliar spray of 1 % KCl Calcium Deficiency Symptoms Large plants and few fruiting forms. Crinkle leaf and poor root growth. Correction Measure Soil application of gypsum @ 50 kg/ha. Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms Leaf cupping and interveinal chlorosis, veins remain green; starts in young leaves. Correction Measure Foliar spray of MgSO4 @ 1 % Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms Pale green to yellow colour of young leaves at the top leave green colour which is similar to N deficiency, bur N deficiency begin near the bottom and not at the top. The plants are small and spindly with short, slender stalks. Correction Measure Foliar spray of MgSO4 @ 1 % Iron Deficiency Symptoms Yellowing of cotton leaves at top of plant following irrigation. Correction Measure Soil application of FeSO4 @ 5 kg/ha or foliar spray of 0.5% FeSO4. Boron Deficiency Symptoms Short leaf petioles with dark green rings. Excessive shedding of buds and young bolls. Ruptured nectarines, small bolls, and delayed maturity. Terminal bud dies, more lateral branches with short internodes. Black discolouration at the base of bolls. Bolls dry and fall young leaves become thick, brittle with water spots. Correction Measure Soil application of borax 0.5 kg/ha or foliar spray of borax 0.2 Manganese Deficiency Symptoms Yellowing of cotton leaves at top of plant following irrigation. Correction Measure Soil application of FeSO4 @ 5 kg/ha or foliar spray of 0.5% FeSO4. Zinc Deficiency Symptoms Pronounced inerveinal chlorosis differs from manganese in that leaves are more misshapen, tips of leaves elongated and parallel. Both old and young leaves show red pigmentation; leaves lose normal green colour of interveinal portions turn golden yellow colour. Brown spots extend from leaf tips to base and later dry. Plants show shorter appearance. Correction Measure Soil application of ZnSO4 5 kg/ha or foliar application of ZnSO4 1%. Sugar crops Sugarcane Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms: All leaves of sugarcane exhibit a yellow – green colour.Die back occur in older leaves. Retardation of growth.Cane stalks are smaller in diameter. Premature drying of older leaves.Roots attain a greater length but are smaller in diameter. Correction Measure : Soil application of N fertilizer or Foliar spray of Urea 1-2% twice at weekly interval. Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms : Colour of the leaves in greenish blue or red - purple discolouration on tips and margins, narrow and somewhat reduce in length.Reduction in length of sugarcane stalks, diameters of which taper rapidly at growing points.Poor or no tillering.Decreased shoot / root ratio with restricted root development. Corrective Measure: Foliar spray of DAP 2% twice at fortnight interval. Applying large amounts upto 1 tonne/ha of rock phosphate. Application of triple super phosphate @ 0.5 to 0.75 kg /ha Potassium Deficiency Symptoms : The plants will have depressed growth. Yellowing and marginal drying of older leaves andDevelopment of slender stalks.Orange, yellow colour appears in the older lower leaves which develop numerous chlorotic spots that later become brown with dead centre result in ‘firing’ apperance.Reddish discoloration which is confined to the epidermal cells of the upper surfaces and midribs of the leaves. Bunchy top appearance.Poor root growth with less member of root hairs. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of KCl 1% twice at fortnightly interval Calcium Deficiency Symptoms : Minute chlorotic spots with dead centers which later become dark reddish-brown. Plants weak with thin stalks and soft rid. Growth is retarded. Correction Measure : Soil application of 100kg/ha of Gypsum. Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms : Young leaves are light green or yellowish-green with smaller chlorotic spots that become dark brown. Rusty or freckled appearance spotting pronounced on the older leaves. Stalks show internal browning. Correction Measure : Soil application of MgSO4 25kg/ha or Foliar spray of MgSO4 2% twice at fortnight interval. Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms : Plants have an off-color or yellowish-green appearance like N deficiency the youngest leaves are more chlorotic. Stalks short thin and leaf area reduced. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of K2SO4 1% twice at fortnight interval. Boron Deficiency Symptoms Leaves become smaller; malformed leaves Correction Measure Foliar spray of [email protected]% Copper Deficiency Symptoms Symptoms occur in young leaves; leaves become yellow in color with smaller in size Correction Measure Foliar spray of CuSO4@2% Iron Deficiency Symptoms : Young leaves where pale stripes with scanty chlorophyll content occur between parallel lines. Leaves turn completely white, even in the veins and midribs. Restricted Root growth. Stunted appearance with constricted internodes Corrective Measure : Foliar spraying of 250-500g of ferrous sulphate dissolved in 100 lit of water or Soil application of 25kg/ha of ferrous sulphate or Application of 100 kg of ferrous sulphate mixed with 12.5 tonnes of farmyard manure for one hectare (or)Alternatively foliar spraying of 5 kg of ferrous sulphate with 2.5 kg of urea in 500 litres of water for one hectare should be done. The foliar spraying may be repeated at an interval of 7-10 days depending upon on the severity of the disorder. Manganese Deficiency Symptoms : A chlorosis in young leaves increases to a uniform yellow a gray metallic purplish luster develops on the appear surface. Upward curving of blade margins. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of MnSO4@1-2% Molybedenum Deficiency Symptoms : Resembles S deficiency. Pitting develops along the veins. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of sodium molybdate@2mg/litre Zinc Deficiency Symptoms : Light greening or yellowing first appears in younger leaves followed by pitting, collapse and drying of interveinal tissue, leaving the veins green Correction Measure : Foliar spray of [email protected]% SUGARBEET Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms : Yellowing of leaves. Premature senescence of older leaves. Seedlings yellow, center leaves green in colour. Correction Measure : Foliar spray Urea 1% twice at weekly interval. Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms : Plants smaller in size and have a deep green color ranging from a dull grey green to almost bluish-green. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of DAP 2% twice at fortnight interval. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms : Marginal tanning and scorching of mature leaves. Center leaves remain normal. Intreveinal scorching. Crinkled leaf surface of mature leaves. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of KCl 1% twice at weekly interval Calcium Deficiency Symptoms : Leaves crinkling downward and cupping or young leaf blades with chlorotic margins. Young blades become tip burn. The growing-point damaged. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of CaCl2 0.5% twice at fortnight interval Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms : Easily confused with K deficiency. Mature leaves become chlorotic, interspersed with interveinal necrosis. Base of the blade remains green, after forming a green triangle at the base. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of MgSO4 1% twice at Fortnight interval. Boron Deficiency Symptoms : Symptoms first appear in young leaves; crinkled appearance of leaves. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of borax @0.5% Copper Deficiency Symptoms : Green netted veining followed by a "bleaching" of the leaf blade tissues. Symptoms differ from the spotted necrosis of Fe deficiency. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of CuSO4 0.25% Iron Deficiency Symptoms : Yellowing of young leaves; leaves size become small Correction Measure : Foliar spray of FeSO4 0.5% twice at fortnight interval Manganese Deficiency Symptoms : Marginal chlorosis of young leaves, which later turn brown. Fruits with raised spots which are dark brown on black in colour. Leaves give striated appearance from the edges. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of MnSO4 @1% Study questions 1. Write the symptoms of major nutrients 2. Define hidden hunger 3. Write physiological disorders in cereals and pulses 4. What are all the immobile and mobile elements Lecture No: 10: Diagnosis and Correction Measures for Nutritional Disorders in Fruits and vegetable crops BANANA Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms : Nitrogen deficiency causes slow growth and paler leaves with reduced leaf area and rate of leaf production. Leaf petioles short, thin and compressed, thin profuse roots and lesser number of suckers are produced due to lack of N. Corrective Measure : Foliar spray of urea 2% at weekly intervals till disappearance of the deficiency symptom. Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms : The deficiency of P causes complete cessation of elongation, at a height of about two feet resetting of leaves with older leaves becoming increasingly irregularly necrotic, leaf production is reduced, and marginal chlorosis and premature death are caused.P deficiency causes a blue or dark green coloration of leaves. Corrective Measure : 40-60 g SSP / plant. Entire quantity of phosphorus fertilizer should be applied at the time of last ploughing or applied at the time of filling the pits. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency of potassium causes marked reduction in growth, interval profusely smaller, premature yellowing of plant. Purplish brown patches appear at the base of the petioles and in severe cases the centre of the corm may show area of brown, water soaked disintegrated cell structures. Fruits are badly shaped, poorly filled and unsuitable for marketing. Splits develop parallel to the secondary veins and the lamina folds downwards, while the midrib bends and fractures, leaving the distal half of the leaf hanging. Corrective Measure Foliar spray of KCl 2% at weekly interval till the symptom disappear. Calcium Deficiency Symptoms Characterized narrow land of marginal chlorosis of leaves turning into necrotic fallow. Leaves become small, growth shunted. Youngest leaves with thickened secondary veins. Splitting and curling of leaps edges. Distal end of midrib interveinal and marginal chlorosis. Corrective Measure Application of gypsum @ 250Kg/ha. Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms Magnesium deficiency symptoms show green banding around the margin and next to the midrib. Leaves turn yellowish with brown goods on the leaf margin. Plant height reduced marginal yellowing of leaf margin extends towards the midrib. Purplish mottling of leaf petiole and malformation of leaves. Fruits do not ripen well and become tasteless. Corrective Measure Spraying MgSO4 5% or application of dolomite lime stone 3t/ha effectively corrects the deficiency. Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms Deficiency causes chlorosis and delaying of green colour in newly emerging leaves, thinkening and leaf puckering, reduced plant growth and growth and reduced leaf size. The heart leaf becomes white and leaf blades become very soft and tear easily. Corrective Measure Application of ammonium sulphate @ 100g/plant. Boron Deficiency Symptoms Newly emerging leaves are malformed. Plants show shunted growth. Chlorotic streaks appear perpendicular to the veins. Incomplete leaf formation and inhibition of fruit and flower. Deficiency of boron may results in reduction in weight and size of the bunch and it will effects the proper filling of the bunch. Corrective Measure Soil application of 20 g Borax per tree. Borax acid 0.2% foliar sprays on 4th and 5th month after planting. Copper Deficiency Symptoms : Plants show overall droopy appearance with shortened intervals between petiole. Size of leaves reduced. Corrective Measure Application of 20 Kg CuSO4/ha in to the soil or foliar spray of 2% CuSO4 is recommended. Iron Deficiency Symptoms : Iron deficiency has been recorded in alkaline soils and is identified by interveinal chlorosis of young leaves. Corrective Measure Soil application of FeSO4 5/g/ha or foliar spray of 0.5% FeSO4 at weekly intervals is recommended. Manganese Deficiency Symptoms : Marginal chlorosis of young leaves, which later turn brown. Fruits with raised spots which are dark brown on black in colour. Leaves give striated appearance from the edges. Corrective Measure Weekly foliar spray of 2% MnSO4 up to the symptoms disappear. Zinc Deficiency Symptoms : Deficiency appears in the young plants. Interveinal chlorosis of leaves with chlorotic stripes. Leaves appear papery whole in colour. Finger twisted, short, thinner and light green colour. Corrective Measure Application of 50 g/plant ZnSO4 at time of planting is recommended or foliar application of ZnSO4 at 3 g/litre + urea (5g per litre) + 10 ml non ionic sticker in 20 litres of water. The above prepared solution is sprayed at 45 and 60 DAP. MANGO Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms : Yellow undersized leaves, severe retardation of growth, twigs become yellow in color. Fruits smaller and mature early. Leaves small with general yellowing Correction Measure : Application of recommended nitrogenous fertilizers (80 kg N/ha) or foliar application of Urea 2- 4% at fortnightly intervals. Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms : Retarded growth premature dropping of older leaves partial die-back from the tip small green younger leaves are borne at the tips of the branches. Some branches show die back. Leaf tip necrosis and premature abscission of leaves. Correction Measure : Soil application of single super phosphate or foliar application of ortho phosphoric acid 0.5%thrice is highly recommended. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms : Darkening of leaves, reduced growth and vigour. Appearance of white, yellow or orange chlorotic spots in older leaves and distributed irregularly over both under and upper leaf surfaces. Necrotic areas develop along the leaf margins. Poor growth of roots. Die back with tip burn with small leaves. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of KCl 2% at fortnightly intervals will give the best results. Calcium Deficiency Symptoms : Abnormal growth of young leaves and growing points resembling boron deficiency severe deficiency leads to death of the bud. Correction Measure : Soil application of gypsum at 50 kg/ha is recommended as the remedy. Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms : Reduction in growth premature defoliation yellowish brown chlorosis featured by a green wedge down the central part of the leaf bronzing starting from the edge of the leaf rounded margin between each pair of lateral veins. Correction Measure : Soil application of MgSO4 5-10 kg/ha a foliar spray of MgSO4 2% at fortnightly intervals. Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms : Symptoms first appear on young leaves with fading of green colour. Growth is stunted. Leaf tip remains green and with severe deficiency the whole leaf turns yellow. Correction Measure : Soil application of sulphur fertilizer Boron Deficiency Symptoms : Deficiency is common in high rain fall areas, high temperature, soil acidity and calcareous soils. Fruits become brown in colour. Flesh may become soft and watery which cracks down to the centre. Correction Measure : Application of 5-10 kg Borax / ha a foliar spray of 0.25% Borax at 10 days interval Copper Deficiency Symptoms : Shoots produced on long drooping S-shaped branches of previous growth are weak lose foliage and die back. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of Copper oxy chloride 0.2% at fortnightly intervals will give the best results. Copper Deficiency Symptoms : Shoots produced on long drooping S-shaped branches of previous growth are weak lose foliage and die back. Correction Measure : Foliar spray of Copper oxy chloride 0.2% at fortnightly intervals. Manganese Deficiency Symptoms : Deficiency appears on the middle of the plant. Interveinal chlorosis of leaves. Reduced growth leaf symptoms appear very late leaves show a yellowish green background with a fine network of green veins on the upper surface and disappearing after a few weeks mature leaves thicker and blunted. Specks of light grey to grayish brown colour appear under mid deficiency. Correction Measure : Foliar application of MnSO4 0.2% at fortnightly intervals. Zinc Deficiency Symptoms : Leaf blade thickens leaf shape is distorted leaf margin up or down the tip may curve back interveinal areas leaves are usually smaller thickened leaf blade brittle spaced leaves show a rosette appearance. Some twigs die back flower panicles of trees showing little leaf symptoms are usually small irregular in shape drooping spikes. Correction Measure : Soil application of ZnSO4 10 kg/ha or foliar spray of ZnSO4 0.5% or nitrozinc at 150 ml /100litres of water. Grapes Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms Pigmentation seen in old leaves; the rate of leaf growth is affected. Correction Measure Soil application of super phosphate or foliar spray of DAP@1-2% Potassium Deficiency Symptoms A dull, dark green color will appear on the leaves. In mid-to late summer, leaves may have a bronze color, especially on the west-facing side of the trellis. Some leaves may have dark spots or blotches. This symptom often has been characterized as black leaf of grapes Marginal chlorosis, browning, and drying may occur as the deficiency becomes more severe. Other possible symptoms include brown dead spots or areas throughout the leaf. In sever cases, more than half of the leaves on a vine may show these symptoms. Severe potassium deficiency greatly reduces vine vigor, berry size, and crop yield. Symptoms of potassium deficiency generally develop in mid-shoot leaves followed by older basal leaves. Correction Measure Foliar sprays of K2SO4or KNO3 can be effective to temporarily reduce a severe K deficiency. Soil application in general 40-160 kg per acre have been adequate. Foliar spray KNO3 1% is recommended. Calcium Deficiency Symptoms Growth of the plant is reduced. symptoms are first seen at the growing points of the plant, which may become necrotic and die. Marginal leaf chlorosis followed by necrosis will be evident on the youngest leaves. Flower buds will fail to develop. The youngest leaves will remain small and deformed and will tend to curl upward at the margins. Correction Measure Foliar spray of CaSO4 1% or soil application of gypsum @ 50 kg/ha. Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms Symptoms of Mg deficiency develop on the older leaves first. Chlorosis (yellowing) appears between the veins of the leaves while the veins remain green. As a vine becomes more severely affected, interveinal chlorosis intensifies in older leaves and spreads to younger leaves toward the terminals of canes. The younger terminal leaves may not exhibit symptoms until the entire vine is extremely deficient. Early symptoms: green leaf margins with yellow between the veins. Deficiency of magnesium appears first on basal leaves of shoots as a yellowing between veins. Symptoms progress to dead blotches on the leaves, which may be a rusty-red. Advanced stage yellow between veins interspersed with brown or often rust-colored areas. First chlorosis of basal leaf margins, than between and secondary veins, leaf margin burn may develop, interveinal areas become white yellow or red depending on variety. Correction Measure Mix magnesium sulfate at the rate of 6 kg per 200 litres of water. Two applications usually are adequate. Apply the first shortly after bloom and the second two weeks later. Each spray application requires about 400 to 500 litres of the mixture per acre to adequately cover the vines. Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms Whole orchard or spot-wise stunted growth of pale-green plants. Correction Measure Foliar spray of MgSO4@1% Boron Deficiency Symptoms Poor fruit set clusters will tend to be small, and berries will not fully develop on the rachis. Terminal buds may not break in the spring, and ends of shoots sometimes are distorted. Borax or borate, B carriers, can be sprayed on in the spring when needed. Pre-bloom sprays seem to be an effective way to get B into flower parts. Use foliar applications at an annual rate of one pound of actual boron per acre. Correction Measure Foliar spray of Borax 0.2% at soil application of Borax 25-50 g/plant. Iron Deficiency Symptoms Leaf veins remain green interveinal portion turns yellow young leaves small but not deformed. Correction Measure Foliar spray of 0.5% FeSO4 Manganese Deficiency Symptoms Symptoms first appear as interveinal chlorosis, or yellowing of the younger terminal leaves.Applying fertilizer-grade manganese sulfate at 20 to 40 gm per vine, or 100 to 200 kg per acre, depending on vine size and severity of the deficiency. Correction Measure Foliar application of Mn can be sprayed for immediate effect mix manganese sulfate at the rate of 160 gram plus 80 gram of hydrate lime per 200 litres of water. Two application usually will provide season-long control of manganese symptoms. First appln.just after bloom or when symptoms first appear and second two weeks later. Zinc Deficiency Symptoms Poor fruit set and stunted shots with small, misshapen leaves foliar application of zinc is the most effective method for treating Zn deficiency. Correction Measure Neutral zinc products containing 50-52% Zn, or zinc oxide (75-805 Zn) are both effective as foliar sprays. Zinc spray applications are most effective in improving fruit set when applied during the period of two weeks prior to bloom up to full bloom. If foliar deficiency symptoms persist or reappear, a second application may be necessary. ACID LIME Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms Dull green, yellowish, smaller leaves. Die back of twigs, thin and bushy appearance of tops with sparse bloom. Vein chlorosis. New leaves are greater than older. Correction Measure Foliar spray urea 2% at 15 days interval. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms Slower growth, shedding of leaves at blossom tine. New shoots poorly attached to twig. Smaller leaves, twigs die peak, scorching of leaf tips, small brown resinous spots on leaf. Small wrinkled spotted leaves. Small fruits, thin peel. In mandarin – yellowing and bronzing of leaves become twisted, wrinkled and spindy twigs. Correction Measure Foliar spray of KNO3 2% at fortnightly interval. Application of 200g N, 100g P2O5 and 200g K2O / tree/year. Boron Deficiency Symptoms Premature wilting, water soaked spots on leaves. Premature shedding of leaves, bushing appearance curling of leaves, splitting and curling of veins. Fruits with gum spots and lumpings, hand abnormal shape and small. Correction Measure Foliar spray of [email protected]% Copper Deficiency Symptoms Reduced growth and dark green colour of leaves, twin led malformed leaves. New leaves shriveled, bushy growth. Correction Measure Foliar spray of CuSO4 each 0.5% at fortnightly interval. Manganese Deficiency Symptoms Fine network of green veins as a light green background on young leaves. Leaf remains fairly green. Dark green irregular bands on mature leaves, along the midrib. White spots develop in interveinal area with die back symptom. Correction Measure Foliar spray of 0.5% MnSO4 at fortnightly interval. Zinc Deficiency Symptoms Irregular and chlorite leaf spots, mottled leaf, small leaves, severe dieback of twigs. The area near midrib and lateral veins remain green. Terminal twigs with narrow small erect leaves. Small, thin skinned fruits. Correction Measure Foliar spray 2% ZnSO4 with 1% lime at fortnightly interval. SAPOTA Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms Stunted growth. The bark of the shoots turned reddish-brown in colour. On elongating shoots the immature leaves were amber to bright red in colour while the mature leaves remained small and yellow-green in colour. Early abscission of leaves, smaller and fewer fruits. Correction Measure Foliar sprays of urea 2% were more effective treatment with 250 g N per tree from both sources increases the fruit weight and yield. Phosphorus Deficiency Symptoms Pigmentation seen in older leaves; leaf size become small Correction Measure Foliar spray of DAP 2% at fortnightly intervals. Potassium Deficiency Symptoms Light brown specks scattered all over the leaves which appeared later merged forming necrotic patches between the large veins. Browning on the under side of the leaves and chlorotic areas between veins due to K deficiency. Correction Measure Application of KCl at 80 kg per hectare. Application of K2SO4 instead of potassium chloride to the sapota plants. Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms Leaves become lighter green which gradually turned greenish yellow, remaining deeper green along the mid rib and larger veins. Leaves turned yellow with scattered brown lesion on the leaf blade. Interveinial chlorosis on older leaves followed by necrosis of distal leaf edge. Correction Measure Application of dolomite or spraying magnesium nitrate 1% can avoid the deficiency. Sulphur Deficiency Symptoms Yellowing of young leaves; growth of the leaf eill be affected Correction Measure Foliar spray of CaSO4@1% Boron Deficiency Symptoms Leaves were yellowish-green in colour the older leaves showed signs of burning at the tips and along the margins which abscissed prematurely. The tip burning of young leaves and splits or crack on the mi