Crop Production Lecture 2 2024 PDF

LECTURE 2 CROP PRODUCTION  LEARNING OUTCOMES From this lecture, students are able to: ▪ Understand the cropping pattern of crops. ▪ Understand the cropping system. ▪ Understand the plant necessities such as planting medium, fertilizer, pest control management. DEFINITION OF CROPPING...

LECTURE 2 CROP PRODUCTION  LEARNING OUTCOMES From this lecture, students are able to: ▪ Understand the cropping pattern of crops. ▪ Understand the cropping system. ▪ Understand the plant necessities such as planting medium, fertilizer, pest control management. DEFINITION OF CROPPING PATTERN Cropping pattern is an arrangement of crops in a particular land area.  OBJECTIVE DESIGNING A CROPPING PATTERN ❑ To have efficient utilization of orchard space and other resources. ❑ To have maximum solar radiation interception and distribution within the orchard canopies in order to achieve maximum fruit quality and yield. ❑ To minimize competition between trees for nutrients and moisture by having proper tree spacing. ❑ To have compatibility with various management practices such as pruning, thinning, harvesting, pest control etc.  Examples of cropping pattern Square pattern ❖ It is the most used method and easy to layout in the field. ❖ In this system, the plants are at the right angle to each other, every unit of four plants forming a square. Most easy and popular one. In this row to row and plant to plant distance is kept similar. Interculture operations can be done in both the directions. Triangular pattern ❖ In this system, trees are planted as in the square system but the plants in the 2nd, 4th, 6th and such other alternate rows are planted midway between the 1st, 3rd, 5th and such other alternative rows. ❖ This system provides more open space for the trees and for intercrop 3rd 1st 5th 2nd 4th Hexagonal pattern ❖ In hexagonal pattern, the trees are planted in the corners of equilateral triangles. ❖ Six trees thus form a hexagon with another tree at its center. ❖ This this system accommodates 15% more trees than the square system. ❖ The limitations of this system are that it is difficult to layout and the cultivation is not so easily done as in the square system. Rectangular pattern ❖ In this system, the plot is divided into rectangles instead of squares and trees are planted at the four corners of the rectangle in straight rows running at right angles. ❖ Like square system, this system also facilitates the interculture in two directions.  CROPPING SYSTEM Agriculture crops are planted and managed in one or a combination of the following systems: Mixed Rotational / Mono-croppin cropping relay cropping g (penanaman (penanaman (penanaman tunggal) campuran) giliran) Cash cropping (penanaman kontan)  MONO-CROPPING ❖In mono-cropping, a single species of crop are planted in an area at a time, without intercropping with another species. ❖The single crop species are managed until their products are harvested, felled and then re-planted. ❖For short-term crops (annuals): ❖ Paddy, maize, peanut, soybean or tapioca are planted as a sole crop on a moderate scale. The products are harvested after 3-6 months depending on crop species and the same species of crop are re-planted as a single crop in the following season. Paddy plantation Peanut plantation Maize plantation Tapioca plantation ❖For plantation crops (perennials): ❖ Rubber, oil palm, cocoa or coffee, they are planted on a large scale, often thousands of ha, and managed as a sole crop on a commercial basis. OIL PALM (ON PLANTATION SCALE), OFTEN GROWN ON MONO-CROPPING SYSTEM Perennial crops grown using mono cropping system…… Rubber Coffee Tea Cocoa plantation ❖ The mono-crops are maintained for 25-30 years or until their economic yields decline. ❖ The trees are then felled (zero burning) and the lands are re-planted with the same crop species but newly-developed clones or varieties are often included. ❖ Many private companies (e.g: IOI, Sime Darby, Sawit Kinabalu, SLDB, FELDA, Sabah Tea) prefer to grow the major industrial crops (oil palm, rubber, cocoa or tea) as a mono-crop for easier management, operation and processing.  MIXED CROPPING ❖ In this system, two or more crop species are planted in an area at a time or season. The species are arranged either in alternate rows or in a haphazard fashion (orchard style). ❖ The crop species have a similar or different maturation period i.e. perennial and annual species are planted together.  Examples of mixed cropping: 1. Maize are planted with hill or dry-land paddy 2. Peanut planted in the inter-rows of tapioca crop 3. Different fruit species + spices + vegetables. 4. Coconut + fruit trees + wet paddy (in low-lying areas).  ROTATIONAL CROPPING SYSTEM (TANAMAN GILIRAN) ▪ One crop species is planted on a piece of land in one season and a different species of crop is planted in the next season. ▪ This cropping system is practiced by smallholders, farmers, agricultural research stations in tropical and temperate countries. ▪ Normally short-terms crops are planted using rotational system.  SEQUENCE OF ROTATION 1st cycle - Shallow Rooted Crop (Maize) 2nd cycle - Lagume spp (Groundnut) (to enrich the soil) 3rd cycle - Vegetables Crop (Okra/Chilies) 4th cycle - Deep Rooted Crop (Tapioca) ▪ Repeat the cycle in the following seasons. ▪ A legume crop is included in the sequence because the vegetative parts which are high in nutrient contents are chopped and ploughed in as green manure. ▪ Crops chosen in the sequence should have different depth of root systems.  SEQUENCE OF ROTATION 1st cycle 2nd cycle maize groundnut 4th cycle 3rd cycle tapioca Vegetables The advantages of adopting this crop rotation system are : Reduce the outbreak of pests and diseases. Weed control: Some crops, like potatoes and squashes, with dense foliage or large leaves, suppress weeds, thus reducing maintenance and weed problems in following crops Enable nutrients from various soil levels to be absorbed by successive crops which have different depth of root systems.  CROP ROTATION IN PADDY FIELDS (WET PADDY) ✔Wet paddy are normally planted in the rainy season (main season), in areas without irrigation facilities. ✔Tobacco, roselle or vegetables (long bean, sawi or chilies) are planted in the off-season (when the paddy fields are dry). ✔Cattles are also allowed to graze any vegetation in the dry paddy field if crops are not planted in the off-season. CROP ROTATION IN PADDY FIELDS (WET PADDY)  CASH CROPPING ❖ In cash cropping, a short-term crop (an annual or biennial) is planted in between the rows of a perennial/main crop (e.g. oil palm, rubber) while waiting for the main crop to produce yield or income, which may take 3 years after planting. ❖ The short-term crops produce yields within 3-5 months after planting and this is a source of ready cash for the farmers/smallholders. ❖ The cash crop is planted only during the first 2-3 years after the main crop is planted. ❖ After this period, the inter-rows are shaded by the canopy of the main crop and the cash crop can no longer produce viable yields. The importance of cash cropping: To enable the smallholders to get cash/quick income in a short period while waiting for the main crop to produce yields. Helps in generating income for the country through the exports of cash crops. Cash crop helps to offset the price of vegetables. Examples: Chili, cucumber, ginger, maize  The perennial / main crops often used in this cropping system are: oil palm, rubber, coconut, cocoa, fruit spp. which have a long juvenile period. The common cash crops grown in between are: maize, pineapple, groundnut, banana, ginger, vegetables (okra, chili, long bean). The planting pattern: ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ - perennial crop ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ] cash crops ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ] cash crops ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ ♣ - perennial crop  OTHER AGRICULTURE PRACTICES Integrated farming Organic farming Agro - forestry  INTEGRATED FARMING In integrated farming, crop species, animals/poultry and fish rearing are combined in an integrated manner for a more sustainable agriculture. Often, the following commodities are included: i) crop species ii) livestock iii) aquaculture (fresh water fish), for hobby fishing iv) factories/house to process the produce v) mushroom cultivation vi) agro-tourism and family-day facilities CROP-LIVESTOCK INTEGRATED FARMING Poultry and Aquaculture Medicinal plants  Sugar palm Inflorescence Container to Collect the juice Processing of nira from sugar palms  ORGANIC FARMING A form of agriculture that relies on non-chemical techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost, and biological pest control. Benefit of Organic Farming: Reduce exposure to pesticides and chemicals Pesticides allow disease resistance to build up in plants, weeds, plant-eating-insects, fungi, and bacteria. Pesticides and chemicals sprayed on plants contaminate the soil, water supply, and air. Sometimes these harmful pesticides stick around for decades (maybe longer).  Combatting Soil Erosion ▪ Organic soil made up of decomposing plant and animal material that act as a glue to help bind soil together and keeps it anchored in place. ▪ Increasing organic matter from 1 to 3 percent can reduce erosion by 20 to 33 percent because it increases the water-holding capacity of soil.  Discouraging Algal Blooms ▪ Algae Blooms is runoff from the chemical fertilizers that often used in conventional farming. ▪ By using a biological fertilizer such as green manure and compost in organic farming, it can discourage the production of Algal Blooms. Organic Farming Encourages Biodiversity ▪ A rich mix of microorganisms, plants, and animals on the farm creates healthy soil, strong crops, and resilient natural systems that don’t require chemical intervention to manage pests and diseases.  AGRO-FORESTRY ❖ In agro-forestry, industrial crops, food crops, fruit trees, landscape plants, medicinal plants etc. are inter-planted with the forest spp. (e.g. sentang, jati, kapur baji, urat mata beludu etc.) which is the main crop planted by the farmers or private sectors. ❖ At times, livestock are also integrated in the agro-forestry system.  The crops, livestock and fish spp. used in agro-forestry: ❖Fruit trees: salak, durian, mangosteen, jackfruit, cempedak, dokong, durian spp. ❖Landscape plants: palms, ixora, helicornia, wild ginger, bougainvillea, Arachis pintoi and figs ❖Livestock: goats, sheep (free grazing) or dairy and beef cattle in feed-lot system ❖Freshwater fish: tilapia, Japanese carps, grass carps etc. Coffee bushes are grown with forest spp in Ecuador. Forest spp trees are Forest spp are planted planted with cocoa in the rice field in Indonesia  Growing media ▪ A substance through which roots grow and extract water and nutrients. ▪ In native plant nurseries, a growing medium can consist of native soil but is more commonly an "artificial soil" composed of materials such as peat moss or compost. Example of growing media Coco peat Perlite Peat moss Sand ❖ COCOPEAT ❑ Derived from coconut husks ❑ Coco peat is also added to soil enhance its drainage properties. ❖ PERLITE ❑ Made from expanded volcanic glass, heated to 1000°C until it ‘pops’ (like popcorn) to many times its original size. ❑ Extremely porous, so it can absorb water. ❖ PEAT MOSS ❑ Peat moss is essentially layers of partially decomposed plants such as moss or grass. ❑ Typically found in bogs and swampy areas and can take centuries to form. ❖ SAND ❑ Naturally occurring granular material that varies in texture and colour. ❑ Promote proper airflow in garden soil.  What is fertilizer? Any organic or inorganic materials of natural or synthetic origin that is added to the soil to supply one or more plant nutrient that essential for the growth of plants.  FERTILISER ORGANIC CHEMICAL FERTILISER FERTILISER Granules Powder Liquid Straight Mixture Compound  Fertilizer Granules Granular or dry fertilizer is a type of fertilizer which comes in a dry pelleted form. It can be blended with the soil to provide plants with nutrients Granules mix with soil  Straight fertilizer (Granules) Fertilizer that contribute single nutrient to the crops. Examples are urea, rock phosphate, ammonia, ammonium sulfate and muriate of potash.  Mixed fertilizer (Granules) A mixture of more than one straight fertilizer which can supply more than one plant nutrient element.  Compound fertilizer (Granules) Compound fertilizers contain multiple nutrients in each individual granule. The multiple-nutrient granules of compound fertilizers also allow the farmer to achieve uniform distribution of micronutrients throughout the root zone. More expensive than the other fertilizer. Examples of compound fertilizer LIQUID & POWDER FERTILIZER  Top Dressing Broadcasting Basal Application Application of solid fertilizer Plough sole placement Placement Deep placement Application of Solid Fertilizer (A) Broadcasting It is a process where the fertilizer is spread over the entire soil area evenly and uniformly. This may be done before the land is ploughed, before planting or while the crop standing. It may be of two types: Top Dressing & Basal Application (i) Top Dressing - It is the spreading of fertilizer on closely sown standing crops. - Ensure that the fertilizer does not come into direct contact with any part of the plant to avoid burning or scorching. - Avoid top dressing during heavy rains as the fertilizer will be leached from the soil or washed away. Top Dressing Application (ii) Basal Application (Broadcasting at sowing or planting) - During sowing time, fertilizers are uniformly spread over the soil and mixed properly. (B) Placement Fertilizers are placed in the soils irrespective of the position of seed, seedling or growing plants before sowing or after sowing the crops. Placement of fertilizer is normally recommended when quantity of fertilizers to apply is small and development of the root system is poor. The most common methods are Plough Sole placement and Deep placement. (i) Plough Sole placement In this method, fertilizer is placed at the bottom of the plough furrow in a continuous band during the process of ploughing. Every band is covered as the next furrow is turned. This method has been recommended in areas where the soil becomes quite dry up to a few inches below the soil surface during the growing season (ii) Deep placement Deep placement fertilizer involves point placement of a large fertilizer pallet (also known as briquette) near the root zone of the plant. Briquettes are centered between 4 plants at a depth of 7-10 centimeters within 7 days after transplanting. Placement is done either by hand or with a mechanical applicator The briquette releases nitrogen (N) gradually, coinciding with the crop’s requirements during the growing season This reduces fertilizer nitrogen losses, increase crops uptake efficiency and environmentally friendly technology. 1) Urea is poured into 2) Briquetter produce briquetter briquettes 3) Briquettes 4) Placement of briquettes by using mechanical applicator 5) Placement of briquettes by using hand  Application of Liquid Fertilizers ❑ Foliar Application - Application of a small amount of fertilizer or mineral through direct spraying onto the leaves. ❑ Injection into soil - Place liquid or gaseous fertilizer below the soil near plant roots. ❑ Fertigation - Distribution with water-soluble fertilizers and chemicals through an irrigation system ❑ Aerial Application - Involves spraying crops with crop protection products from an agricultural aircraft.  Foliar Aerial Application Application Fertigation Injection into soil  Nutrient Deficiency in Plant (Why crops need fertilizer?) ▪ Nutrient deficiency occurs when a plant lacks enough of an essential nutrient required for growth. Common nutrient deficiency : Nitrogen (N) - Nitrogen helps plant produce plant protein that encourage healthy foliage growth Phosphorus (P) - Phosphorus helps to grow strong roots. White lupin development response to low phosphate in Potassium (K) plant - Helps proper growth and reproduction of plant. It affects the plant shape, fruit size, fruit colours and taste.  PESTICIDES ❖Any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest. ❖Every pesticides contain: ❖ Active ingredient ❖ Inert ingredient ❖ Contaminants and impurities  PESTICIDES ORGANIC CHEMICAL PESTICIDES PESTICIDES Fungicides Insecticides Herbicides Bactericides Rodenticides PESTICIDES CLASSIFICATION HAZARD BAND CLASS STATEME SYMBOL COLOUR NT VERY Ia BLACK TOXIC Ib TOXIC RED HARMFU II YELLOW L III CAUTION BLUE IV WHITE  Plant Disease And Pest Management Exclusion - Consists of practices designed to keep pathogens (things that cause disease), vectors (things that spread disease) and infected plants out of disease-free areas. - The goal of this method of management is to prevent the disease from entering the area where the plants are growing. For example, never plant diseased or infested plants.  Eradication ▪ Eradication consists of eliminating, destroying or inactivating a disease organism after it has become established. ▪ This includes: Destruction of infected plants. Disinfection of storage bins, containers and equipment. ▪ It also involves cultural practices such as rotating crops and weeding.  Protection ▪ Protection establishes a chemical or physical barrier between the host and the cause of the disease. ▪ For example, there are chemical applications available to prevent a disease from becoming established, such as fungicides, insecticides, herbicides etc. ▪ Row covers that exclude insects that carry disease, fences and other physical barriers also provide protection from pests. Rows covers protecting crops  Resistance - This method of control focuses on planting resistant varieties. - Resistance is achieved by altering the genetic system of the host to make it less susceptible to the disease organism. Common Plant Diseases ❖ Blackspot ❖ Black spot is one of the most common diseases found on roses, but it can also occur on other ornamental and garden plants. ❖ Symptoms : Black, round spots that form on the upper sides of leaves. Lower leaves are usually infected first. Severe infestations cause infected leaves to turn yellow and fall off the plant. ❖ Cause: Fungal ❖ Powdery Mildew ❖ Powdery mildew is a fungal disease that affects many of our landscape plants, flowers, vegetables and fruits. ❖ Symptom: Powdery mildew is an easy one to identify. Infected plants will display a white powdery substance that is most visible on upper leaf surfaces, but it can appear anywhere on the plant including stems, flower buds, and even the fruit of the plant. ❖ Cause: Fungal  ❖ Canker ❖ Canker occurs primarily on woody landscape plants. ❖ Symptoms: Sunken, swollen, cracked or dead areas found on stems, limbs or trunk. ❖ Cause: fungal or bacterial pathogens. THE END