COR-008-FIRST-PERIODICAL-EXAM-REVIEWER.pdf

COR 008 FIRST PERIODICAL EXAM Coverage: 1. Four branches of earth science (4 items) 2. Theories about origin of the solar system (3 items) 3. Earth’s spheres (4 items) 4. Physical and chemical properties of minerals (6 items) 5. Ores and industrial minerals of th...

COR 008 FIRST PERIODICAL EXAM Coverage: 1. Four branches of earth science (4 items) 2. Theories about origin of the solar system (3 items) 3. Earth’s spheres (4 items) 4. Physical and chemical properties of minerals (6 items) 5. Ores and industrial minerals of the Philippines (2 items) 6. Physical, Biological, and Chemical Weathering (4 items) 7. Metamorphism (3items) 8. Energy Resources: Geothermal and Hydrothermal (6items) 9. Water Resources and properties (4 items) 10. Soil Resources (3items) 11. Evaluation Human Activity (4items) 12. Rocks (types and examples) (7items) Concept Notes: BRANCHES OF EARTH SCIENCE Geology-is the study of the origin, history, and structure of Earth. It includes the study of the processes that shape Earth. The most important branch of Earth science for understanding the Earth's interior. Meteorology -is the science of the atmosphere and its phenomena (the study of the weather). includes the study of weather patterns, clouds, hurricanes, and tornadoes. Astronomy -is the study of outer space and the physical bodies beyond the Earth. Oceanography -is the study of everything in the ocean environment, which covers about 70% of the Earth’s surface. THEORIES ABOUT ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM SOLAR NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS - Solar System was formed because of the condensation of hydrogen gas and dust referred to as interstellar gas and dust cloud. Something VORTEX THEORY- It was proposed by Rene Descartes. The solar system was formed into bodies with nearly circular orbits because of the whirlpool-like motion in the pre-solar materials. COLLISION THEORY- Proposed by George-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon. The planets were formed by the collision of the sun with a giant comet. KANT-LAPLACE THEORY- Proposed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon Laplace. A great cloud of gas and dust began to collapse because of gravitational pull. As the cloud contracted, it spun more rapidly. The spinning cloud flattens with the bulge at the center. JEANS-JEFFREYS’ TIDAL THEORY- Proposed by Harold Jeffreys and James Jeans. The planets were formed from the substance that was torn out of the sun. EARTH’S SYSTEM 1. Lithosphere also called as Geosphere; it is the Earth’s solid surface, often called the crust of the Earth. Includes the Earth’s interior, rocks and minerals, landforms and the processes that shape the Earth’s surface. 2. Hydrosphere The liquid water component of the Earth. The solidified water found on Earth’s surface is known as Cryosphere. It is important because it contains water, which sustains a variety of life forms and plays an important role in regulating the atmosphere and surrounding ecosystems 3. Atmosphere is a gaseous sphere and it envelopes the Earth. It consists of a mixture of gases composed primarily of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapor. It is important because it makes Earth livable. It blocks some of the Sun’s dangerous rays from reaching Earth. It traps heat, making Earth a comfortable temperature. And the oxygen within our atmosphere is essential for life. 4. Biosphere The biological component of the Earth systems. Includes all life on Earth, including man, and all living organisms together with the dead organic matter products by them. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS Luster – used to describe how light is reflected from the surface of a mineral. Hardness – a measure of the resistance of a mineral to being scratched. Moh’s scale is used to measure the hardness of a mineral consists of 10 minerals arranged from 10 (hardest to 1 (softest). Color – the least used property in determining what mineral is present in a rock. Crystalline Structure – visible expression of a mineral’s internal arrangement of atoms. Cleavage – the tendency of a mineral to cleave, or break, along flat, even surfaces. Fracture – the uneven breakage of a mineral. Magnetism – refers to the ability of some minerals to be attracted to a hand magnet. Reaction to acid – Some mineral especially carbonate minerals, react visibly with acid. Specific Gravity – refers to the weight of that mineral divided by the weight of an equal volume of water. Taste, Odor, feel – Some minerals have distinctive taste (halite is salt, and tastes like it). ROCKS (TYPES AND EXAMPLES) IGNEOUS ROCKS- formed by the process of crystallization, hardened magma or lava. Key features: 1.) usually made of two or more minerals 2.) may be light or dark colored 3.) usually made of mineral crystals of different sizes 4.) sometimes has openings or glass fibers 5.) may be fine-grained or glassy. Examples: Granite, Rhyolite, Andesite, Diorite, Basalt and Gabbro, Obsidian, Pumice and Tuff Igneous rocks are rocks formed from the crystallization of a liquid (molten rock). Igneous rocks may be divided into two categories. Intrusive or plutonic rocks crystallize from magma beneath the earth's surface. Extrusive or volcanic rocks crystallize from lava at the earth's surface. The texture of an igneous rock (fine-grained vs coarse-grained) is dependent on the rate of cooling of the melt: slow cooling allows large crystals to form, fast cooling yields small crystals. Magmas and their resultant plutonic rock bodies cool and crystallize slowly and are characterized by coarse-grained texture, in which the mineral crystals are visible to the unaided eye. On the other hand, lavas cool quickly at the earth's surface and are characterized by fine-grained texture, in which the crystals are too small to be seen by the unaided eye. Very quickly cooled lavas, typically those quenched in water, will have a glassy texture. They cool too quickly to form crystals. Glasses do not have an orderly arrangement of atoms and there are therefore no minerals, in the strict sense, in them. Volcanic glass is called obsidian. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- formed by the process of lithification – involves compaction of sediments that settle at the bottom due to the presence exerted by the layers of sediment above and cementation that involves the action of chemicals that bind these sediments together Key features: 1.often contains fossils 2.often has layers, flat or curved 3.usually composed of pieces cemented or pressed together 4.has great color variety 5.may have cross-bedding, mud cracks, worm burrows, raindrop impression Examples: Conglomerate, Breccia, Sandstone, Siltstone and Shale. METAMORPHIC ROCKS- formed from previously existing rock such as igneous and sedimentary rocks. When subjected to heat and pressure, they undergo the process of metamorphism and they are eventually converted into an igneous rock Key features: 1. may have alternate bands of light and dark minerals 2.may have layers of visible crystals 3.usually made of mineral crystals of different sizes 4.rarely has pores or openings 5.may have bent or curved foliation Examples: Slate, Schist, Gneiss, Marble, Quartzite Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: Some kinds of metamorphic rocks -- granite gneiss and biotite schist are two examples -- are strongly banded or foliated. (Foliated means the parallel arrangement of certain mineral grains that gives the rock a striped appearance.) Foliation forms when pressure squeezes the flat or elongate minerals within a rock so they become aligned. These rocks develop a platy or sheet-like structure that reflects the direction that pressure was applied. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks: Non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have a platy or sheet-like structure. There are several ways that non- foliated rocks can be produced. Some rocks, such as limestone are made of minerals that are not flat or elongate. No matter how much pressure you apply, the grains will not align! Another type of metamorphism, contact metamorphism, occurs when hot igneous rock intrudes into some pre-existing rock. The pre-existing rock is essentially baked by the heat, changing the mineral structure of the rock without addition of pressure. PHYSICAL, BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL WEATHERING Physical weathering is the process that breaks rocks apart without changing their chemical composition. Physical weathering occurs when physical processes affect the rock, such as changes in temperature or when the rock is exposed to the effects of wind, rain and waves. Water can get into cracks in a rock and, if it freezes, the ice will expand and push the cracks apart. Pressure-Release Fracturing – Over millennia, tectonic forces may raise the granite to form a mountain range. As the granite rises, the overlying rock erodes and the pressure decreases. When the pressure diminishes, the rock expands, but because the rock is now cool and brittle, it fractures as it expands. Frost Wedging- Water accumulates in a crack and then freezes, the ice expands. Ice pushes rock apart but at the same time cements it together. When the ice melts, rock fragments tumble from a steep cliff. Abrasion – rocks, grains of sand, and silt collide with one another when currents or waves carry them along a stream or beach. During these collisions, their sharp edges and corners wear away, and the particles become eroded. The mechanical wearing of rocks by friction and impact is called abrasion. Thermal Expansion and Contraction – Rocks at Earth’s surface are exposed to daily and yearly cycles of heating and cooling. They expand when they are heated and contract when they cool. When temperature changes rapidly, the surface of a rock heats or cools faster than its interior, and as a result, the surface expands or contracts faster than the interior. Biological weathering is caused by the movements of plants and animals. For example, a rabbit can burrow into a crack in a rock making it bigger and eventually splitting the rock, or a plant may grow in a crack in a rock and, as its roots grow, cause the crack to widen. Organic Activity – if soil collects in a crack in bedrock, a seed may fall there and sprout. The roots work their way into the crack, expand, and may eventually widen the crack. Chemical weathering involves the interaction of rock with mineral solutions (chemicals) to change the composition of rocks. In this process, water interacts with minerals to create various chemical reactions and transform the rocks. 1.Dissolution – we are all familiar with the fact that some minerals dissolve readily in water while others do not. If you put a crystal of halite in water, the crystals rapidly dissolve to form a solution. 2.Hydrolysis – water reacts with a mineral to form a new mineral with the water as part of its crystal structure. Most common minerals weather by hydrolysis. For example, feldspar, the most abundant mineral in Earth’s crust, weathers by hydrolysis 3.Oxidation is the reaction of rock minerals with oxygen. Iron rusts when it reacts with water and oxygen. 4.Carbonation - the process of rock minerals reacts when carbon dioxide and water combines forming carbonic acid. METAMORPHISM A process that leads to changes in mineral contents, texture and chemical composition of a pre-existing rock In most extreme environments, the temperatures approach those at which rocks melt. However, during metamorphism the rock must remain essentially soli, for if complete melting occurs, we have entered the realm of igneous activity. Types of Metamorphism 1. Contact Metamorphism Happens when rock minerals and texture changes due to heat. 2. Regional Metamorphism A change in the rock happens in a larger area, a large-scale action of heat and pressure. Agents of metamorphism: Heat – the most important because it provides energy to drive the reactions that result in the recrystallization of minerals Pressure Chemically active fluids Metamorphic processes cause many changes in rocks, which includes: Increased density Growth of larger mineral crystals Reorientation of the mineral grains into layered or banded appearance (foliation) Formation of new minerals. METALLIC ORES AND INDUSTRIAL MINERALS OF THE PHILIPPINES Quartz – primarily used in the manufacture of glass/ other important use include 1.)abrasive material for sand blasting and scouring cleansers; 2.) in founding work as grinding media and grit for sanding andsawing; 3.) as flux in the smelling of metals and in the manufacture of rubber, paint and putty; 4.) essential component of cellular phone, watches, clocks, game consoles, television sets, computers, navigational instruments and other similar products; 5.) as lenses and windows in lasers for optical grade quartz variety. Gold minerals – gold is chiefly used for jewelry. Gold, being s good semi-conductor, is ideal for electronics and electric appliances. It can be made into thread and used in embroidery. Gold is also used in photography as toners and as a help to increase color stability. Gold is also beneficial in restorative dentistry. Gold id used as the reflective layer on some high-compact discs. Feldspar Minerals – feldspar is commonly used in the ceramic, pottery, and glass industries. It is utilized as glaze in dinnerware, enamel ware, bathroom and building tiles, and as a flux that lowers the melting temperature of other materials. It is also a component in soaps, abrasives, bond for abrasivewheels, cements, concretes, insulating materials, fertilizers, poultry frit, tarred roofing materials and a sizing material in textiles and paper. Copper Minerals – copper is a good conductor of electricity, it is used in all electrical wirings in building construction, power generation, and the production of industrial machinery. Copper is integral to all electronic products and appliances, heating and cooling systems and telecommunication devices and gadgets. It is also an essential component in motors of vehicles, radiators, connectors, brakes, bearings of cars and tricks, alloy castings, electroplated protective coatings and undercoats for nickel, chromium, zinc, etc., that are used in the manufacture of cooking pans and utensils. Chromite – used in the production of stainless steel to induce hardness, toughness, and chemical resistance. Chromite forms alloy with iron and nickel and is used in making heating units such as ovens and other appliances. Chromium-bearing chemicals are used in the tanning process of leather. Calcite – used in the construction industry as cement raw material; in steel and glass industries as an acid neutralizer; in pharmaceutical industry as an ingredient of antacid tablets; in the animal industry as a feed additive; and in mining industry as absorbent of harmful gases emitted by fossil fuels and as reducer of coal dust in the air. Calcite is a component of paints, as cleaning and whitening agent and as abrasive in toothpaste. ENERGY RESOURCES Geothermal Energy -A natural heat from the interior of the Earth that is converted to heat buildings and generate electricity. Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high pressure. When the water reaches the surface, the pressure is dropped, which causes the water to turn into steam. The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that produces electricity. The steam cools off in a cooling tower and condenses back to water. The cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to begin the process again. Hydrothermal Energy -Hydropower, or hydroelectric power, is one of the oldest and largest sources of renewable energy, which uses the natural flow of moving water to generate electricity. Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Then a generator converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy. IMPOUNDMENT The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment facility. An impoundment facility, typically a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water in a reservoir. DIVERSION A diversion, sometimes called a “run-of-river” facility, channels a portion of a river through a canal and/or a penstock to utilize the natural decline of the river bed elevation to produce energy. PUMPED STORAGE Another type of hydropower, called pumped storage hydropower, or PSH, works like a giant battery. A PSH facility is able to store the electricity generated by other power sources, like solar, wind, and nuclear, for later use. These facilities store energy by pumping water from a reservoir at a lower elevation to a reservoir at a higher elevation. WATER RESOURCES AND PROPERTIES Two main sources of water 1. Surface Water – water present in the surface of the earth. Examples: oceans, rivers, lakes, reservoir, ponds, and streams. 2. Underground Water - lies under the surface of the land, where it travels through and fills openings in the rocks. The rocks that store and transmit groundwater are called aquifers. Water has several properties that make it a unique substance namely: Polarity - The polarity of molecules determines the force of attraction between them in their liquid state. Capillary Action - the ability water has to flow upward against the force of gravity, due to cohesion and adhesion. Surface Tension - a measure of the force necessary to stretch or break the surface of a liquid Density - a measure of how compact the atoms or molecules are within a substance or how much mass there is in a given space (volume) High specific heat and high boiling SOIL RESOURCES SOIL A part of the regolith that supports the growth of plants. It consists of inorganic particles and organic matter. provides the structural support to plants used in agriculture and is also their source of water and nutrients. Four components of soil: o Mineral matter, or broken-down rock o Humus, which is decayed remains of organisms o Water o Air The soil profile is arranged according to the following horizon: O Horizon consists largely of organic materials A Horizon consists of largely mineral matter and humus is generally present. Biomantle - most biological productive layer; earthworms, fungi, and bacteria live this layer E Horizon Light-colored layer that contains little organic material; site of ELUVIATION and LEACHING Leaching – the loss of water-retaining plant nutrients to the water table B Horizon considered as the Zone of Accumulation The “Subsoil” Horizon C Horizon Characterized by partially altered parent materials The “Regolith” Horizon R Horizon consists of unweathered parent material. The “Bedrock” Horizon The O and A horizons together make up the TOPSOIL. The O, A, E and B horizons constitute the SOLUM (true soil). EVALUATION HUMAN ACTIVITY Human Impacts on the Environment Humans impact the physical environment in many ways: overpopulation, pollution, burning fossil fuels, and deforestation. Changes like these have triggered climate change, soil erosion, poor air quality, and undrinkable water. Overfishing is catching too many fish at once, so the breeding population becomes too depleted to recover. Overfishing often goes hand in hand with wasteful types of commercial fishing that haul in massive amounts of unwanted fish or other animals, which are then discarded. Ecotourism prioritizes environmental conservation and education about the local culture. Its purpose is more deliberate than regular travel. Traditional tourism does not concern itself with its impacts on the environment. Instead, it prioritizes the traveler's experience above all else. Energy conservation generally includes actions to reduce the amount of end-use energy consumption. For example, installing energy-efficient lights is an efficiency measure. Turning lights off when not needed, either manually or with timers or motion sensor switches, is a conservation measure.