Earth Science PDF

| EARTH SCIENCE -coverages Earth's Habitability - Comparison of Venus, Earth's Habitability - Comparison of Venus, Earth, and Earth, and Mars Mars Earth's subsystem Rock - Forming mineral...

| EARTH SCIENCE -coverages Earth's Habitability - Comparison of Venus, Earth's Habitability - Comparison of Venus, Earth, and Earth, and Mars Mars Earth's subsystem Rock - Forming minerals (physical and chemical properties) Importance of Minerals - Minerals Classification of Rocks - Rock cycle, Bowen's reaction series) Ore minerals Fossil fuel - coals Geothermal Energy Water resources | EARTH SCIENCE 1  Earth’s subsystems Earth is a closed system, meaning it exchanges energy Biosphere but not matter with its surroundings. This has important It encompasses all the living organisms on Earth, which implications. interact with the other subsystems. The Earth's mineral resources are finite and all we Biogeochemical cycles, such as the nitrogen and will ever have oxygen cycles, describe the movement of Changes in one part of the system will eventually chemicals through the Earth system. affect other parts Geosphere Atmosphere Includes rocks of the crust and mantle. Thin gaseous layer that surrounds the Earth, composed metallic liquid outer core and solid metallic inner primarily of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace gases. core. Hydrosphere Includes the Earth's water reservoirs, with the oceans containing 97% of the planet's water. Rock forming minerals Mineral Naturally occurring inorganic solid, well defined chemical composition, ordered atomic structure Types of Fractures (crystalline). Earthy fracture - Earthy fracture - resembles broken soil. Common in soft, loosely bound Properties (physical) minerals like limonite and kaolinite. Hackly fracture - irregular, sharp edges. Found in native metals like copper and silver. Color most obvious characteristics of a mineral, but generally Splintery fracture - features sharp, elongated not the most useful diagnostic feature. Individual points. Often seen in fibrous minerals like mineral types may come in a vast variety of colors. chrysotile, but can occur in non-fibrous minerals such as kyanite. Streak Uneven fracture - is a rough, irregular surface. Color of mineral when it's powdered. Common in minerals like arsenopyrite, pyrite, and Quartz = White streak magnetite. Hematite = reddish brown streak Hardness Luster Measure of the ability of a mineral to resist scratching. | EARTH SCIENCE 2  The way it's surface reflects the light. This property is dependent on the chemical composition and the crystalline structure of a Non-metallic mineral Metallic luster - shiny because it reflect like a Crystal Habit polished piece of metal or dull looking because it reflects light like metal rust. Refers on the overall shape of crystal Transparency/diaphaneity - light transmitted These shapes are influenced by the atomic structure through a mineral of the mineral, but they can also be influenced by the environment of crystal growth. Opaque - no light transmitted (ex. Hematite) Translucent - allows some light to pass Common Crystal Habit through, objects cannot be seen properly. (ex. Jadeite) Blocky/Equant: Box-like or spherical (e.g., pyrite) Transparent - both light and image are visible. (ex. Muscovite) Tabular: Flat, like paper (thin) or cards (thick) Prismatic: Elongated with parallel faces (e.g., quartz, tourmaline) Cleavage and Fracture Bladed - Long thin crystals may be flattened like Cleavage - describes how a mineral breaks into flat the blade of a knife. Actinolite is often bladed. surfaces (usually one, two, three or four surfaces). Acicular – Needle-like Fracture - mineral breaks into forms or shapes other than flat surfaces. Specific Gravity Ratio of a mineral's weight to the weight of an equal volume of water. Numerically equivalent to density. Calculating Density formula: D= m /v m - mass v - volume Properties (physical) Silicates Silicates are minerals composed of silicon and oxygen, the two most abundant elements in Earth's crust. These elements combine to form the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron, which serves as the fundamental building block of silicate minerals. | EARTH SCIENCE 3  Rock cycle Magma - heating from all types of rocks Igneous rock - cooling of magma Sediment - erosion and weathering of all types of rocks Sedimentary rock - compaction/cementation of sediment Metamorphic rock - heat and pressure of igneous and sedimentary Bowen’s Reaction Series Norman Bowen( 1887- 1956) Investigated the crystallization of magma As magma cools, certain minerals crystallize first at a relatively high temperature, followed by crystallization at lower temperature. | EARTH SCIENCE 4  Ore Minerals Mineral processing process of extracting minerals from ore and refining them for human use. MINING Project Design It is the process of mineral extraction from a rock seam This involves review of all available data. or ore. Field exploration Surface mining - Utilized to extract ore minerals This stage involves physical activities in the selected that are close to Earth’s surface project area 1. Open pit mining - The most common type of REGIONAL RECONAISSANCE - identify targets surface mining. It means a big hole or pit in the or interesting mineralized zone covering a ground. The pit in mine is created by blasting with relatively large area explosives and drilling. It is used to mine gravel DETAILED EXPLORATION - involves in-depth and sand and even rock surface and subsurface activities to identify and 2. Dredging - It is a process of mining materials from define potential mineral targets the bottom of a body of water, including rivers, PROSPECT EVALUATION - Assesses market lakes, and oceans profitability through resource analysis, drilling, 3. Strip mining - It involves the removal of a thin strip metallurgical testing, and environmental/societal of overburden(earth & soil) above a desired deposit cost evaluation. 4. Placer mining - It is mining of stream bed (alluvial) Pre-Production Feasibility Study deposits for minerals The feasibility study validates all collected data and Underground mining - Utilized to extract ore information. Independent assessors use it to attract minerals from the orebody that is deep under the investors and secure funding for project production. Earth’s surface | EARTH SCIENCE 5  Mineral processing Mineral processing is the process of extracting minerals from ore and refining them for human use. 1. Sampling - Taking a representative sample of the ore for analysis 2. Analysis - Evaluating the valuable components of the ore through chemical, mineral, and particle size analysis 3. Comminution - Crushing and grinding the ore to separate the valuable minerals 4. Concentration - Separating the valuable minerals from the raw materials 5. Dewatering - Filtering, settling, and drying the mineral concentrate Fossil Fuel (Coal) Coal LIGNITE - aka brown coal, is the lowest grade it is formed from the accumulation of plant remains coal with the least Types of Coals concentration of carbon. ANTHRACITE - The highest rank of coal Peat - consists of partially BITUMINOUS - contains 70 to 86% carbon and 46 to 31% volatile matter decomposed vegetation. It isn’t coa SUB-BITUMINOUS - coal is black in color and dull (not shiny),and has a higher heating value than lignite.70 to 76% carbon and 53 to 42% volatile matter Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy Dry steam plants Geothermal energy harnesses Earth's internal heat from the most common type, which use steam from rocks and fluids beneath the crust. This renewable underground reservoirs to power turbines and generate source extends from shallow depths to magma layers electricity. miles below. Flash steam The heat originates equally from the planet's formation Uses underground hot water sources. Water above 4.5 billion years ago and ongoing natural radioactivity. 182°C (360°F) is pumped to a low-pressure area, Geothermal reservoirs exist in all sedimentary basins, rapidly evaporating into steam. This steam powers a manifesting as geysers, hot springs, steam vents, and turbine to generate electricity. underwater hydrothermal vents. Binary cycle plants Thermal energy, contained in the earth, can be used which use the heat to warm a secondary liquid with a directly to supply heat or can be converted to lower boiling point, which then vaporizes and turns a mechanical or electrical energy turbine. | EARTH SCIENCE 6  Water resources Water is Earth's most abundant surface substance. Oceans cover 71% of the planet, containing 97.5% of Earth's water. Only 2.5% is fresh water with low salt concentrations. about 96% of all liquid freshwater can be found underground. The remaining small fraction is on the surface or in the air PERCOLATION Process by which water moves downward through the soil under gravitational forces. AQUIFER is a body of rock and/or sediment that holds groundwater | EARTH SCIENCE 7