Copy of Psych 1000 2nd Half PDF

Oct 22 - Learning 6.1 /6.2 & 6.3 What are the main types of learning? 1. Classical conditioning: learning to link two stimuli in a way that helps us anticipate an event to which we have a reaction (associative learning) 2. Operant conditioning: changing behavioural responses in response to conseque...

Oct 22 - Learning 6.1 /6.2 & 6.3 What are the main types of learning? 1. Classical conditioning: learning to link two stimuli in a way that helps us anticipate an event to which we have a reaction (associative learning) 2. Operant conditioning: changing behavioural responses in response to consequences (contingencies) 3. Cognitive (latent) learning: learning that can occur without reinforcement and without being directly observable What If Learning Happened Without Talking Behaviourism: Started with proponents that mental life was much less important than behaviour as a foundation for psychological science How do We Learn By Acquiring Associations? Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Nobel Prize 1904 studying digestion Noticed his dogs salivated at the sound of a bell What is the language of classical conditioning? Neutral stimulus (NS) ○ A stimulus which does not trigger a response Unconditioned stimulus (US) and response (UR) ○ A stimulus which triggers a response naturally, before/without any conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS) ○ A stimulus that will trigger the learned CR Conditioned response (CR) ○ The learned response triggered by the CS What are some of the properties of classical conditioning? 1. Acquisition 2. Extinction (& spontaneous recovery) 3. Generalization and discrimination 1. Acquisition What gets “acquired” The association between an NS and a US How can we tell that an acquisition has occurred? The CS now triggers a CR (i.e., UR has now become a CR) Timing For the association to be acquired, the NS needs to repeatedly appear before the US 2. Extinction The diminishing of a CR that occurs when CS is presented without the US Spontaneous Recovery - (return to CR) After extinction and following a rest period, presenting the CS alone often leads to a spontaneous recovery 3. Generalization & Discrimination Generalization refers to the tendency to have conditioned responses triggered by related stimuli Discrimination refers to the learned ability to only respond to a specific stimuli, preventing generalization Other applications: Can implicit self-esteem be enhanced through classical conditioning? The game helps create an association between information about oneself and smiling faces (Baccus, Baldwin & Packer, 2004) How do we learn through the consequences of our actions? Operant conditioning involves adjusting to the consequences of our behaviours (functionalism) How does operant conditioning work? A behavioural response is followed by a reward or punitive feedback from the environment Thorndike’s law of effect: Reinforced behaviour is more likely to be tried again Punished behaviour is less likely to be attempted in the future Different than classical because the organism initiates this one What are the types of reinforcement? Any feedback that makes a behaviour more likely to reoccur Positive (additive) reinforcement adding something desirable Negative (subtractive) reinforcement removing something unpleasant Do We Need To Give A Reward Every Single Time? Continuous reinforcement ○ Organisms acquire the desired behaviour quickly Partial/intermittent reinforcement ○ the target behaviour takes longer to be acquired/established but persists longer without a reward How Can Reinforcements Vary? - Different schedules of partial/intermittent reinforcement Schedule the reinforcement based on an interval of time that has gone by Plan for a certain ratio of rewards per number of instances of the target behaviour What Is The Impact Of Fixed Vs Variable Time Intervals? Fixed interval: slow, unsustained responding rapid responding near the time for reinforcement Variable interval: slow, consistent responding What Is The Impact Of Fixed Vs Variable Ratio? Fixed ratio: high rate of consistent responding Variable ratio: Very robust—will resist extinction even if reinforcement stops! What are the types of punishments? Punishments make the target behaviour less likely to occur in the future Positive (additive) punishment Adding something unpleasant/aversive Negative (subtractive) punishment Removing something pleasant/desired What About Physical/Corporal Punishment Must occur immediately after the behaviour Need to be consistent; extremely important “Intensity” of punishment has little impact on the outcome Need an explanation for the punishment and what alternate action should have been done Best when combined with reinforcement to direct behaviour By itself typically only inhibits the behaviour, fails to provide direction Typically, no better than just reinforcement Which Form Of Operant Conditioning Is Used? “You’re playing video games instead of practicing the flute, so I am justified in yelling at you.” “You’ve yelled at your flute instructor, so I’m taking your favourite video game away.” “I will stop staring at you and bugging you as soon as I see you are practicing.” “After you practice, we’ll play a game! Can you distinguish classical and operant learning Problem: Willy is barking at a scary garbage truck. What is the most optimal response to change Willy’s behaviour toward the garbage truck? A. Pull on his leash and tell him to be quiet B. Ignore him C. Give him treats D. Take him inside Is there any place for thinking in learning? Classical and operant learning derived from behaviourism  The absence of thinking is assumed Radical behaviourists, such as Skinner, did not deny that thinking occurs, but they viewed thinking and feeling as covert (unobservable) behaviours How did we go from S-R to S-O-R? Behaviourists: ○ Stimulus -> Response (S-R) Cognitive: ○ Stimulus -> Organism -> Response (S-O-R) ○ The organism interprets the stimulus before responding ○ Walter Mischel (1930-2018) Behaviourists would typically explain the difference by learning histories ○ e.g., How each person has learned to react to critics through past experiences Cognitive would contend that the differing reactions stem from how they interpreted the critic in that given situation ○ e.g., constructive feedback vs. personal attack Important difference because it allows for people to have “will” / self-control, an ability to act differently than what they usually do OR how they impulsively would Can you learn by only observing? Observational learning: Changes in behaviour occur by watching others, typically role models Learning that occurs without reinforcement A form of latent learning, learning that is not directly and immediately observable Alex Bandura (1925-2021) Children do not receive direct reinforcement for each behaviour So, how do they learn? Albert came up with the idea to use a “Bobo doll” How was the study designed? Independent variable: Children exposed to 1 of 3 conditions: 1. aggressive models 2. non-aggressive models 3. no model Only observed the model, never reinforced Dependent variables: Imitation of physical acts e.g., striking the Bobo doll with the mallet, sitting on the doll and punching it in the nose, kicking the doll, and tossing it in the air Imitation of verbal acts e.g., "Sock him," "Hit him down," "Kick him," "Throw him in the air," or “Pow." Non-imitative acts e.g., physically aggressive acts directed toward objects other than the Bobo doll  :Slide 39 What do we learn then? S-O-R emphasizes the role of expectations in learning When the stimulus occurs, the outcome that is likely to occur becomes cognitively salient before responding ○ e.g., alcohol outcome expectancies: If I have a beer, then [...] I feel more relaxed. I feel more powerful. I like to socialize more than usual. Oct 24 - Memory 7.1/7.2 What Is Memory The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval (functions) Of information and skills (content) What Are The Key Steps To Forming Memories Encode: the information from the senses is transmitted to the brain in a way that allows it to be stored Store: the information is held in a way that allows it to be later retrieved Retrieve: reactivating and recalling the information, producing it in a form similar to what was encoded How Do We Know Something Is Remembered Recall: retrieve information previously learned and unconsciously stored Recognition: identify stimuli that match your stored information Relearning is a measure of how much less work it takes you to learn information you had previously learned What Are Memoires Formed From The Senses Analogous to an “echo” of all the sensations we take in Waiting for attention: if attention is placed on the information, it will move to short-term memory; otherwise, it disappears What Are The Main Different Types Of Memory Nondeclarative “implicit” memories the ones we are not fully aware of and thus don’t “declare” or talk about do not require attention/effort to encode and recall Declarative “explicit” memories: facts and experiences that we consciously know and recall require attention/effort to encode and recall What Are Some Types Of Nondeclrative Memories Procedural Memory Conditioned associations Info about space, time & frequency What Are Some Types of Declarative Memories Semantic Memory Episodic Memory Association Flashbulb memories How Are Explicit Memories Understood Encoding and storage of explicit memories Facilitated by the hippocampus Sleep (consolidation) Retrieval & use of explicit memories Working memory (executive function), directed by frontal lobes How Are Implicit Memories Understood Basal ganglia Involved with the encoding and storage of procedural memory and motor skills Cerebellum Involved in the encoding and storage of our conditioned responses What Are Flashbulb Memories Emotional responses can accentuate/facilitate the encoding of information Strong emotions, especially stress, can strengthen memory formation Flashbulb memories refer to emotionally intense events that become “burned in” as a vivid-seeming memory How To Facilitate The Encoding & Retrieval Of Memories The brain’s long-term memory does not get full (it is not like a hard drive) it gets more elaborately rewired and interconnected Estimates of the equivalent of 1000 billion to 1 000 000 billion bits of information (Landauer, 1986) E.g., Chao Lu (China) memorized 67 890 decimals of the number Pi What Facilitates encoding long term memories 1. Distributed practice and depth of processing 2. Strategies that rely on groupings Chunking and hierarchies 3. Strategies that rely on visualization How Can Practice Facilitate Long-Term Memory Encoding Spacing effect: best to spread out study/learning time (distribute it) over multiple short sessions The best strategy combines spacing with testing effect Testing (having to answer questions about the information) to retrieve information studied/learned greatly increases memory Much more effective than merely rereading How can visualization facilitate long-term memory encoding? Mental images are powerful aids to memory, especially when combined with semantic encoding What are common memory problems (non-disorder)? Decay theory proposes that forgetting occurs because traces fade with time Data support this theory for Sensory and STM, but not LTM If not decay, then what? Ineffective encoding Proactive Interference: Old learning interferes with new Retroactive Interference: New learning interferes with old How can recall be biased? When we recall our memories we filter or fill in parts to make our memories more consistent Each time we recall information our memories can change Misinformation effect Incorporating misleading information in the memory of an event Source amnesia Assign details of a memory to the wrong source Can Rich False Memories Of Crimes Be Constructed? Participants were interviewed 3 times The interviews were designed to include leading questions often used by law enforcement The objective was to see if they could get participants to have a false memory of a crime that never happened What Are False Memories Often due to the confusion between an event that happened to you and that happened to someone else Or the belief that you remember something that never happened Likely to happen when ○ You thought of the event often ○ You imagined more details of this event ○ The event is easy to imagine ○ Brings our attention to the emotional reaction and not to the facts False Memory Syndrome A condition in which the identity and relationships of a person rest on false memories, but perceived as real traumatic experiences Some cases induced by poorly trained and/or ill-intended therapists have been documented What are some of the perils of memory in this information age? The availability of information is unlike anything humanity has seen We encode automatically at least part of everything we are exposed to for the better and the worst Once encoded, information affects all of our perceptions ○ Top-down processing How to avoid some of the perils of memory? Because of multiple cognitive biases, we have the illusion that we control how the information we encode affects us But in reality, the research shows that overall, we don’t control it The best solution may now be to consciously filter (select) the information that you expose yourself to before exposing yourself to it Oct 29 - Human Thought 8.1 / 8.2 Human Thinking  A natural tendency to understand events and people, to explain and solve problems, to think! Overall, our thinking is different from that of a computer. It balances the need for speed with quality and accuracy Suitable for most situations ○ e.g., what to eat at lunchtime, how to get to campus and back home But, it can sometimes lead us to be incorrect, such as with procrastination ○ “I still have lots of time...” ○ “I’ll be more focused tomorrow.” ○ “I work better under pressure.” What is Cognition “Mental processes in acquiring knowledge” “Mental representation of a problem or situation” “How information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking and knowing.” “Any mental processing of information, including learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating and deciding” “[It] allows us to manipulate information internally to construct models of the world, plan our interactions with the world and regulate ourselves to meet goals.” One Definition Mental activities that allow us to: 1. represent the world internally 2. think about that world ○ which requires learning, remembering, and manipulating information 3. and guide our interactions with that world ○ which requires problem-solving, decision making and self-regulation What Do We Think About Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects, events, states, ideas, and/or people How Do We Develop Concepts Do NOT derive concepts from a definition that we have learned/memorized Typically derived from prototypes Mental images of an abstract most typical member of a category How Do We Organize Concepts Categorization: Create categories of objects according to a certain set of rules of by a specific definition Fit to a category is determined by comparing a target to the prototype of the category When Do Prototypes Fail Us 1. When examples stretch the qualities associated with the prototype 2. When the boundary between the categories of concepts is fuzzy 3. When examples contradict our prototypes What Are Some Problem-Solving Strategies Problem-solving: Thinking to answer a complex question or to figure out how to accomplish a goal when the solution or path to the solution is NOT clear Well-defined vs. ill-defined problems ○ e.g., I’m cold. vs. I need to find a topic for my paper How Could We Solve This Problem A father & son are currently 40 & 10; when will the son be half the father's age What Is An Algorithm A step-by-step strategy for solving a problem, methodically leading to a specific solution Aims to guarantee a solution Quality > speed What is A Heuristic Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that give some guidance on how to solve a problem Help generate solutions quickly Does NOT guarantee solutions consistently Speed > quality What Are Some Obstacles To Effective Problem Solving — What Are Common Heuristics 1. Representative Heuristics Judgement of likelihood based on the similarity or relationship with a particular category 2. Affect Heuristic Making decisions based on emotional reactions rather than careful analysis 3. Availability Heuristic Judgement of the frequency of an event based on how easily we can think of examples 4. Effort Heuristic Assuming things that took more effort to make are more valuable What Is Comofrmation Bias Tendency to search for information which confirms our current explanations (hypotheses, theories), disregarding contradictory evidence Solution? Is it to try to falsify instead of confirm What Is Cognitive Fixation The tendency to get stuck in one way of thinking, often because of how we understand concepts Limits our ability to think of a problem/solution from a new perspective Why Do We Have These Obstacles Then Allows to function and to be confident, sometimes even more confident than correct Overestimate the accuracy of our estimates, predictions, and knowledge Why? ○ Speed ○ Manage uncertainty ○ Gain power How Is Our Thinking Shaped By Language What is language? Use of symbols to represent, transmit, and store meaning/information Useful? ○ E.g., Storing information, sharing information, understanding others How Does Langauge Shape The Way We Think Linguistic determinism: the idea that our specific language determines how we think ○ E.g., Hopi and thinking about the past, (Benjamin Whorf, 1897-1941) Can you think about something that you do not have a word for? Can Langauge Impact How We Think About Ourselves Bilingual participants (“Chinese” & English) Completed a questionnaire in either “Chinese” or English Marked cultural differences in self-esteem -> much higher in Canada compared to China Are There Disadvantages To Bilingualism Critics of bilingualism are typically set up as false dichotomies Does learning two languages in childhood impair language development? Does knowing two languages make thinking more difficult? Are There Advantges To Bilingualism Earlier development of executive control (e.g., Bobb, Wodneicka & Kroll, 2013) Greater executive control (e.g., Bialystok, 2007)  Delayed loss of executive control (e.g., Luk et al.,2013) Greater attention control (e.g., Bialystok, 2001) Greater creativity (e.g., Ricciardelli, 1992) Beyond individual value Oct 31 - Motivation 11.1 & 11.3 What Is Human Motivation Motivation refers to a need or desire that energizes (effortful) behaviour and directs it towards a goal Combination of physiological and psychological processes What Is An Instinct A fixed (rigid and predictable) pattern of behaviour observed across all members of the species NOT acquired by learning, typically rooted in genes Does not involve rational decision-making (cognition) Typically is rationalized posthoc Do humans have instincts? What Drives Us A drive is an aroused/tense state related to a biological need that is not being met Some strong human needs include hunger, thirst, belonging, pain, and sex Shared among members of the species Are We Motivated By The Maintenance Of Homeostasis Drive reduction theory ○ Suggest we are motivated to restore homeostasis when a drive emerges Are We Motivated By Incentives Incentives are a reward that increases the likelihood of a behaviour (positive reinforcement) Incentives allow for learner response-reward pairings Incentives motivate by attracting the person to the reward As opposed to pushing the person, like a drive (negative reinforcement) How Do Push & Pull Forces Interact When both drives/needs (push) and incentives (pull) work in tandem, we are highly motivated While in some situations, incentives conflict with needs One way through which society can impact how we regulate our behaviour Are We Always Motivated To Maximize & Minimize A common assumption is that humans are always motivated to have more desirable outcomes and avoid undesirable ones Are We Motivated To Optomize Maximize, and minimize, but we are also motivated to optimize Optimal Arousal Theory: suggests we are motivated to increase or decrease our physiological arousal level to maintain an optimal level of arousal Particularly when it comes to performing difficult or intellectually demanding tasks Are We Motivated To Self Actualize Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Self-actualization: It represents the drive for personal growth, including creativity, moral development, problem-solving, and acceptance of facts. Critics? Are We Motivated To Experience Flow  Flow: A state of experience where a person, totally absorbed, feels tremendous amounts of exhilaration, control, and enjoyment. Occurs when people push their abilities to their boundaries and in so doing experience a merging of action and awareness Flow can occur throughout the spectrum of daily experience ○ e.g., playing a musical instrument, painting, sports Are We Motivated To Balance Needs - Self-determination theory Intrinsic motivation concerns active engagement with tasks that people find interesting and that, in turn, promote growth. Comprised of three needs: ○ Autonomy refers to feeling like we are causal agents of our own behaviour and the goals we pursue ○ Competence: People need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills ○ Relatedness: People need to experience a sense of belonging and attachment to other people. Achieved through balance between the needs, as opposed to maximizing any one of them What Can Hunger Tell Us About Human Motivation A physiological need ○ Physiological signals ○ Stomach contractions ○ Hypothalamus ○ Setpoint Which Food Do We Seek Some taste preferences are universal Other tastes are acquired and become favourites through exposure, culture, and conditioning Some are individually learned Aversions after only 1 incident Do Socio-cultural Influences Shape How Much We Eat Portion sizes and the “French Paradox” Cookbooks Supermarket Restaurants e.g., McDonald’s Paris and Philadelphia Restaurants were in similar neighbourhoods, had similar prices and the same types of foods Comparable meals were compared, item by item, by weighing the portions on a portable digital scale, accurate to 1 g Also examined non-identical chains, but similar type Local “Chinese”; Italian type (e.g., Olive Garden vs. Bistro Romain) On average, American portions were 25% larger Complex and multiple elements shaping even motivation tied to basic needs In this case, contributing to cultural differences ○ e.g., 22.3% of Americans are obese compared to 7.4% of French What Can The Need To Belong Tell Us About Human Motivation Strong (fundamental) need to bond with others Survival requires cooperation Married people are better off Loneliness is associated with a greater risk of psychological and physiological disorders The pain of social exclusion is associated with the activation of the same areas in the brain linked to physical pain Can Physical Pain Trigger Social Pain Experiment 2: Randomly assigned participants to  ○ Pain (yes, no) ○ Type of pain (Social vs. physical) Dependent variables ○ NRS (used to assess physical pain) ○ Feelings of belongingness Can Physical Pain Trigger Social Pain Demonstrated that physical pain can trigger social pain (by decreasing feelings of belongingness), even in the absence of social interaction What Motivates Us In Work Contexts Challenge with notable implications in a work context How to get people to increase their performance at work without affecting their well-being? Industrial and Organizational Psychology Nov 5 - Human Emotions 11.4 What Are Emotions? There is no unified definition of emotions States that come with physiological and psychological changes "I know it when I feel it" What Do Emotions Do A functional perspective suggests emotions are signals of motivation ○ E.g., Survival and fear; the need to belong and guilt Well-suited to help us manage the “push” of biological processes and the “pull” of socio-cultural forces Emotions Seem To Help Us Evaluate Read out of the person’s ever-changing motivational states Positive emotions signal the satisfaction of our motivational states Negative emotions signal the frustration of our motivational states Emotions Seem To Motivate General agreement that emotions function as one type of motivator, but views about their importance vary Early psychology focused on psychological drives as motivators (e.g., hunger, thirst) Followed by a view that emotions were the causal and immediate source of the motivated actions by humans ○ e.g., Air deprivation Take away the emotion, and you take away the motivation What Happens When We Feel? (arousal, behaviour, cognition) Bodily arousal Conscious experience thoughts, especially the labelling of the emotion Expressive behaviour How Do Emotions Emerge James-Lange theory Cannon-Bard theory Schachter-Singer “Two-factor” theory Automatic affective experiences James Lange Theory: Body Before Thoughts Our emotions directly follow the responses of our physiological reactions to stimuli Cannon-Bard Theory: Simultaneous Body Responses & Cognitive Experiences Our emotions occur simultaneously with our physiological reactions to stimuli Schachter-Singer “Two- factor” theory: Emotion = Body plus a label Emotions are the result of the physiological responses and the cognitive appraisal of this response Can Emotions Occur Without Cognitive Appraisal Robert Zajonc (1923-2008) Some emotional reactions (fears, likes, and dislikes) develop in a “low road” through the brain thus skip conscious thought Emotions with and without appraisal? Schachter-Singer highlights the role of appraisal in labelling consciously experienced emotions Lazarus: Even in emotional responses that operate without conscious thought, “top-down” cognitive functions can be involved What Are Some Different Types Of Emotion Emotion valence refers to the positive or negative quality of an emotion Arousal refers to the level of energy or activation associated with an emotion What Are Basic Human Emotions (Eckman) 1. Anger 2. Fear 3. Disgust 4. Sadness 5. Happiness 6. Surprise Are there emotions beyond basic emotions? Secondary or social emotions  ○ Complex emotional state that humans experience following socialization ○ Typically displayed with a combination of facial and body expression What Is The Difference Between Guilt & Shame Guilt: Typically occurs when we think a moral transgression occurred because of our “bad behaviour” Motivates reparation Shame: Typically occurs when we think a moral transgression occurred because we are a bad person Motivates withdrawal Are You Controlled By Your Emotions Often emotions provide us with useful information that helps us adapt to changing life circumstances But sometimes, the emotions we feel are not ideal for us to adapt to the situation ○ e.g., anger and getting a ticket Other times our emotions conflict with our roles ○ e.g., physician regulating disgust, flight attendants managing client Thankfully, you are NOT controlled by your emotions! Mastering the regulation of your emotions requires effort, but like other skills, it can be practiced and improved Fundamental life skill How can you regulate your emotions? There are many strategies; three common ones involve 1. awareness (monitoring) 2. Appraisal 3. coping strategies (e.g., mindfulness meditation) What does awareness mean when it comes to emotions? Recognize the emotions you are experiencing Label them Well captured the concept of emotional intelligence What Are Some Commonly Experienced Emotions 1. Shame 2. Irritable. 3. Nervous 4. Upset 5. Sad 6. Scared 7. Hostile 8. Blue 9. Jittery 10. Angry 11. Proud 12. Happy 13. Suprise 14. Peaceful 15. Joy 16. Excited 17. Confident 18. Astonishment 19. Awe 20. Calm What does appraisal mean when it comes to emotions? The start of an emotion is a life event—how you view that event (appraisal) affects how you will feel about it  ○ e.g., Is it overwhelming, and will I give up? [or] Is this a challenge, and will I tackle it? Remember hormones are slower to affect your system, and their action is typically longer ○ Change the appraisal now, but it might take a bit of time before physiological states change What are coping strategies when it comes to emotions? Strategies that people use to deal with stress (and negative emotions) ○ Problem focused vs. emotion focused How can coping focus only on emotions? ○ One strategy is meditating, including mindfulness mediation Mindfulness (or mindful awareness) is a mental state of consistent and flexible attention to the present moment, to both the word outside of us and the world within It involves an accepting attitude,nonjudgemental, with curiosity What Is Mindfulness Training In psychology, these training activities are non-religious and non-esoteric. They derive from meditation but do not necessitate formal meditation practice. They aim to strengthen attention/concentration skills, build self-awareness Rapid growth of programs/interventions Fits with an important ongoing change in psychology toward positive approaches Are All Types Of Coping Functional As a general rule, relying on external mechanism to regulate emotions can back fire ○ e.g., relying on others; relying on substances Alcohol myopia: “a state of shortsightedness in which superficially understood, immediate aspects of experience have a disproportionate influence on behavior and emotion, a state in which we can see the tree, albeit more dimly, but miss the forest altogether.”(Steele & Joseph,1990, p. 923) 1. Using alcohol to regulate anxiety and stress (e.g., fear; panic) 2. Using alcohol to feel better about one’s self (e.g., pride) 3. Using alcohol to lower inhibition to do things that otherwise they would not be able to experience (e.g., excitement) It Is Worth it To Vent Anger Anger is an uncomfortable emotion often experienced when we believe we were wronged The catharsis myth: Reduce anger by acting aggressively to release it (aka venting or “blowing off steam”) Counterproductive Teaches to act aggressively and often leads to feelings of guilt Nov 7 Personality p1 12.3 What Is Personality An individual’s characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours persisting over time and across situations How Can We Understand The Whole Person 1. Psychodynamic theories: Focus on inner conflicts between innate drives (sex + aggression) and social forces 2. Humanist theories: Focus on private, subjective experiences and personal growth  3. Trait theories: Focus on identifying clusters of traits (adjectives) that can help differentiate people 4. Social learning theories: Focus on the role of socialization and mental processes (e.g., schemas); emphasizes interaction between person and (social) environment What Is A Psychodynamic Approach To Personality Change of perspective: physical symptoms could be caused by purely psychological factors Fascinated by the unconscious Formulated a theory of the structure of human personality and its development Psychoanalytic therapy, linked to a psychodynamic understanding of personality What Are Components Of Personaitly According To Freud At the start life, personality is made up of the Id (“the pleasure principle”) Then the Ego develops (“reality principle”), negotiates the demands of the id with reality and, later, with the superego Around age 4 or 5, the child develops the superego, a conscience internalized from parents and society, following the ideals of a “morality principle” How Does Personality Emerge From These Components Personality emerges from the efforts of our ego, to resolve tension between our Id and the superego Stages of development (“Psychosexual stages”) are characterized by specific forms of tension Ego’s resolution efforts are assumed to Involve the use of “Defence mechanisms” How The Ego Protects Us The ego reduces anxiety by unconsciously altering reality Does this by using different “defence mechanisms” Denial: Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities Displacement: Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person Projection: Disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others Rationalization: Offering self-justifying explanations in lieu of the real threatening unconscious reasons for one’s action Regression: Retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage (where some psychic energy remains fixated) Reaction formation: Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites How Do You Acess The Unconscious Psychoanalysis techniques for revealing the unconscious mind: ○ Creative techniques such as free association ○ Looking for meanings for the “latent” content of dreams or slips of the tongue What Are Projective Tests Psychological assessment tools ○ Require people to respond to ambiguous or unstructured stimuli ○ Respondents project their unconscious thoughts and personality traits into their responses Criticisms ○ Test-retest reliability What Are Some Main Flaws In Freud's Research 1. Unfalsifiability For many elements of Freudian theories, it is impossible to derive clear hypotheses 2. Unrepresentative sampling A limited number of observations from a socioculturally and historically unique sample for theories that apply to humanity 3. Biased observations (confirmatory bias) He elaborated and examined his theory by making observations about his patients 4. Post facto explanations rather than predictions (hindsight bias) Easily explain any behaviour after it has occured What Has Research Taught Us About Freud’s Ideas Development appears to be lifelong, not set in stone by childhood Infant neural networks are not mature enough to create adultlike interpretations of childhood trauma We may ignore threatening information, but traumatic memories are usually intensely remembered, not repressed Dreams (and slips of the tongue) have many possible origins Gender and sexual identity seem to be more a function of genetics and social forces, as opposed to solely based on relationships with parents What Is Humanist Perspective On Personality Humanist psychology emerges in reaction to the dehumanizing ideas in behaviourism the dysfunctional view of people in psychodynamic perspectives A “Third Force” in psychology Humanism focuses on the conditions that support healthy personal growth As opposed to focusing on problems How Maslow Understood The Self-Actualizing Person Humans are fundamentally good and have an innate drive toward growth Personality is shaped by needs and the pursuit of self-actualization People are motivated by unfulfilled needs Lower needs in the hierarchy must be satisfied before higher needs motivate What Are Some Characteristics Of A Self-Actualized Person Efficient perception of reality: Judge situations correctly and honestly; easily sense dishonesty Acceptance of self, others and nature: Accept your own flaws, those of others and of environment Non-hostile sense of humour: Laugh at oneself and/or make others laugh without without hurting anyone Autonomy: Actions are free from external authorities or people; resourcefulness Profound interpersonal relationships: Relationships marked by deep loving bonds Peak experiences: Loss of awareness of time; mindfulness of the present moment; abilities are optimally challenged; without fear, constraints or contingencies What Is Rogers Person Centered Perspective Personality results from one’s sense of self A consistent set of beliefs and perceptions about oneself Includes both who you are (actual self) and who you want to be (ideal self) Maladjustment results from a mismatch between the actual and ideal selves What Are The Conditions To Facilitate Growth Unconditional Positive Regard Complete acceptance of the person without judgment Valuing the individual regardless of their behaviours or feelings Empathic understanding Active listening Genuineness (Congruence) Consistency between inner experience and outer expression How To Strive For A Congruent Self Much of the therapeutic approaches emphasize active listening ○ e.g., Non-judgemental mirroring What About Genetics Lacks an appreciation for the contribution of genetic influences ○ e.g., Rogers saw aggression solely as a result of a mismatch of selves Can Humanism Lead To Too Much Self-Centeredness Self-acceptance and self-actualization do not encourage self-transcendence but self-centredness Nov 12 Personality p2 12.1/12.2 What are today’s questions? 1. What is a trait-based approach to personality? 2. What are standardized approaches to assess personality traits/ types? 3. What is a social learning approach to personality? Is it necessary to have a theory of personality? Psychoanalytic and humanist approaches use complex theories to explain personality ○ e.g., the Oedipus complex Isn’t there a way to simply capture the type of person someone is? What makes them unique? 1. What is a trait-based approach to personality? Is there a way to conceive of personality as observable styles? Trait: An enduring quality that makes a person tend to act a certain way Gordon Allport (1897-1967) Can these traits be clustered? Allport and Odbert (1936) identified 18 000 English words the represent personality traits Factor analysis Raymond Cattell (1946) 16 factors Hans and Sybil Eysenck (1947) 2 dimensions What are the “Big Five” personality factors? Openness: Flexibility, nonconformity, variety Conscientiousness: Self-discipline, careful pursuit of delayed goals  Extraversion: Drawing energy from others, sociability Agreeableness: Helpful, trusting, friendliness Neuroticism: Anxiety, insecurity, emotional instability 2. What are standardized approaches to assess personality traits (types)? Personality Inventory ○ Questionnaire assessing many personality traits, by asking which behaviours and responses the person would choose Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI); Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI); The Big Five (NEO-PI) WHat is the Myers Briggs? Developed to examine personality as conceptualized by Jung by Myers and Briggs 16 personality type profiles Belongs to a private company now called The Myers-Briggs Company Taken by about 2 million people per year, mainly as part of hiring process About $30 each time it is administered 1. Where you focus your attention Extraversion (E) focus on outer world or Introversion (I) focus on inner world “You enjoy having a wide circle of acquaintances” “You find it difficult to speak loudly" 2. The way you take in information Sensing (S) take information from senses, in the moment or Intuition (N) take information from big picture “You like to keep a check on how things are progressing” “You often think about humankind and its destiny” 3. The way you make decisions Thinking (T) prefer decision made through logic or Feeling (F) make decisions based on subjective evaluation “You trust reason rather than feelings” “Your actions are frequently influenced by emotions” 4. How you deal with the outer world Judging (J) prefer planning and organizing or Perceiving (P) prefer to be spontaneous “You usually plan your actions in advance” “You believe the best decision is one that can be easily changed” What Is The Minnesota Multiphasic Personalty Inventory The difference between this approach and other test development strategies is that this one is fully atheoretical Development relied on patterns observed in the data using factor analysis MMPI-3 has 335 items to rate Owned by Pearson Cost varies by package (around $40) Clinical scales Hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathy, masculinity/femininity; paranoia, schizophrenia, hypomania, social introversion Validity scales designed to detect when clients are over-reporting or exaggerating the prevalence or severity of psychological symptoms ○ e.g., Client "faking bad"  designed to detect when test-takers are under-reporting or downplaying psychological symptoms ○ e.g., Client "faking good”, Denial/Evasiveness Supplemental scales e.g., Addictions Potential Scale How The Big Five Is Typically Assesed NEO Personality Inventory published in 1985 Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Openness to experience NEO-PI-R published in 1992 Covers all five trait domains of the Big Five What Do These Tests Predict What makes us unique is important to most people; feels like something that should matter If we are snowflakes, wouldn’t a test to figure out the configuration of that snowflake be great at predicting how we will act? Personality tests struggle to predict any one instance of a behaviour They predict the occurrence of behaviour over a long time ○ e.g., not whether or not you’ll have a drink tonight, but whether or not you’ll drink this month Is that really useful? What Is Social Learning Approach To Personality How do we interpret and respond to external events—social situations? To interpret, we use our memories, schemas and our expectations How do the personality and social environment mutually influence each other? What if you are in the same context over and over? Are You Always The Same Regardless Of Context Trait theory assumes that we have traits that are a function of personality, not context What about contextual factors such as social roles? ○ e.g., neighbours playing hockey vs. foreman and worker Reciprocal Determinism How personality, thoughts, social environment all reinforce/cause each other over time? How Else To Understand The Person The Self: Assumed to be the centre of personality by socio-cognitive approaches The main repository of our memories, schemas and expectations, which we use to interpret situations Functions: ○ Stores information about us ○ Guides the processing of thoughts, feelings and actions Where Does Self-Esteem Come In Self-esteem: The value of the self Increased self-esteem has been observed to buffer inflammatory responses to acute stress Is high self-esteem always a good thing? Be mindful of purely trait based explanations for complex patterns of thoughts, emotions and behaviours “She has... “daddy issues”.” “He’s “out of control”.” Nov 14 Social Psychology 13.1 How Did We Survive We form social groups and cooperate with others in these groups Psychologically that requires us to have some unique abilities ○ E.g., self-control, language, theory of mind, an ability to understand others What Is Social Psych It is the study of how people influence each other’s thoughts, emotions and behaviour Through their imagined, anticipated or actual presence How Do We Make Sense Of This Subjective World Sherif (1935) placed participants in an ambiguous situation Used the auto-kinetic effect Why Do We Need To Conform To Social Groups To get information (i.e., informational influence) When the situation is ambiguous, the actions of others (verbal and non-verbal) help us figure out reality This often happens when we do not have well-learned norms for a particular situation (making it ambiguous) ○ E.g., how to dress the first day at a new job? Is There More Than Information To Why We Conform In Sherif’s work there was no objective reference point Would people conform even if it goes against an objective reference point? What If It's Not Subjective Asch in 1951 asked participants to assess the length of lines Placed participants in group of confederates Participants were usually 1 or 2 away from end Why Did They Do It Many acknowledge afterwards that they knew their responses were wrong, but they were afraid of being ridiculed by others Good social skills come with an awareness of social conventions and cues A minority of others would say that they actually believed their choice to be the right one Cognitive dissonance What Is Cognitive Dissonance People want to maintain consistency between thoughts and actions and appear as a “good person” Inconsistencies between thoughts and/or behaviour create an unpleasant state of arousal (cognitive dissonance) Results from threat to people’s sense of themselves as rational, moral, and competent Motivates efforts to resolve inconsistencies Can Socially Informed Behaviour Inform Attitude An hour on boring and tedious tasks Then asked to persuade "another participant" that the tasks were interesting and engaging Independent variable was payment (no payment, 1$, 20$) Dependent variables: enjoyable? and do it gain? Why Did $1 Cause The Change & Not $20 You lied for 1$, how cheap are you! The only option to maintain self-image is to change attitude to fit with the behaviour they did Does Cogntoitve Dissonance Still Happen Today So Why Do We Conform To Social Groups 1. To get information (often referred to as informational influence) People privately accept and internalize information from others because the information disambiguates reality and provides a basis for correct perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs Particularly when the situation is ambiguous 2. To fulfill our need to belong (often referred to as normative influence) Public compliance, under actual or assumed surveillance, based on a need for social approval and acceptance What Do We Conform To Social norms can be defined as the perceived typical thoughts, feelings or actions of others in a group Typically acquired by observing those around us, particularly if we share group membership They are among the predictors that account for most variance in a range of domains Do We Perceive Norms Accurately Not always, even less with the rise of social media 1. Pluralistic ignorance: Occurs when most group members privately reject a belief, attitude, or behaviour but incorrectly assume that most others in the group accept it Leads to overestimating norms as dysfunctional 2. False polarization: People perceive the attitudes of those who disagree with them as more extreme than they are Leads to an exaggerated sense of ideological divide or conflict What Happens When Our Identity Becomes Group Based Originates from Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) and its extension Self-Categorization Theory (Turner et al.,1987) Social identity approaches help explain when social groups shape how we see ourselves ○ E.g., John and Mary talking at the U.C. Accessibility and the fit of the social category How Do People Respond When Their Group Is Perceived As Under Threat Increase ingroup vs outgroup divide Increase use of stereotypes when interacting with others Become focused on resource allocation Typically 2 options Leave the group Improve the group What Is Collective Action “Efforts by large numbers of people, who define themselves and are also often defined by others as a group, to solve collectively a problem they feel they have in common, and which is perceived to arise from their relations with other groups” (Tajfel, 1981, p. 244) Why Do Students Really Strike Strong student governments and organizations Which foster: A strong degree of identification among students Raise awareness of unjust changes in policy Foster confidence that collective actions are efficacious Rule 1: Effective leaders unite people within groups, and groups with each other. Be wary of the divisive leader Rule 2: If the root of a problem is collective, you have to face the problem standing side by side with others Because complex collective problems have solutions, when people work together  And only the solo road leads everyone to lose in the long run Rule 3: You have to make a difference Start small, organize, talk to your neighbour, and accept the awkwardness when you work with others And have an unwavering commitment to those with whom you stand, united Nov 19 Social Psychology 13.3 What Is An Attitude Its an evaluation of person, place, object, event, or behaviour Components of attitudes (ABC) Affective ○ Emotions or feelings toward Behavioural ○ Actions that results from Cognitive ○ Knowledge about What Do Attitudes Do A key component of how we understand others and value people and objects Assume that greater expressed value means approach or acquire Lay assumption that attitudes guide behaviour (i.e., our behaviour reflects our attitude) Do Attitudes Predict Behaviour Richard LaPiere 1934 2 years travelling the U.S. with a Chinese couple 251 hotel & restaurant; were turned down only once Wrote to them, 128 replied 118 said no (92%) only 10 said yes (8%) Why Does This Trouble Us The assumption is that private beliefs determine public behaviour Omits that people do not live in a social vacuum Situational influences also shape behaviour It does not mean people have weak willpower; it shows they have acquired, through social learning, motives that allow them to navigate their social world efficiently! When Do Attitudes & Behaviours Align 1. The attitude is stable 2. The attitude is easily recalled 3. The attitude is specfic to the behaviour 4. Opposing external influences are minimal 5. External influences align with the attitude When we think relevant others have similar attitudes Perceived social norms: what we perceive relevant others would do/think/feel or see as acceptable to do/think/feel in a given situation How Can Attitudes Be Changed Convincing others to see the world as we do Makes us feel secure Convince others to change their view for political or financial reasons  Gain power But how? Can People Be Persuaded To Change Attitudes Persuasion is a direct attempt to change someone’s attitude Attitudes can also be changed indirectly, such as when compliance leads to cognitive dissonance What Is The Central Route When interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favourable thoughts Change attitudes through the process of reasoning Provide good reasoning and high-quality arguments Need the recipient to have attention and motivation What Is The Peripheral Route When people are influenced by incidental cues Change attitudes through feelings and superficial associations Do NOT need the recipient to have attention and motivation Can use this approach to motivate a central route Can Compliance Lead To Attitude Change Subtly getting people to act in some desired way typically in a way that otherwise would be inconsistent with their attitude Different than persuasion persuasion changes attitude to change behaviour compliance changes behaviour and let’s cognitive dissonance work to create attitude change Compliance uses social needs as leverage to get people to act in a desired way Including the need to be consistent with ourselves and fulfill our commitments What Motive Could Bring Compliance Consistency and commitment are valued; they allow us to function together ○ e.g., hypocrite vs. honest Help us function ○ e.g., decreases cognitive load Can You Have Influence Without Pressure Jonathan Freedman and Scott Fraser (1966) Would suburban homeowners accept that their front lawn be out fitted with a very large sign with poor lettering: "DRIVE CAREFULLY" Independent variable: ○ Prior commitment or not ○ Display a little 3" (about 10 cm) sign BE A SAFE DRIVER or not Dependent variable: ○ % of agreed to the larger request What Is The Foot In The Door Technique Make a small request that is likely to be accepted to get the person to commit to an action plan Follow it with a larger request (which otherwise would most likely have been turned down) How Does It Work Commitment to small steps that people do not notice (lack awareness) or assume to be so simple they are harmless  Facilitated because we constantly underestimate the impact of social forces on our behaviour When we think about it, it threatens our sense of control, so we can’t ever really get ourselves to believe it Defence? Avoid the commitment in the first place, be careful about agreeing to small requests, particularly if they appear trivial! ○ E.g., signing a petition What Is The Bait & Switch Bait with an attractive offer, but the "bait" is not available when you get there and switch to a different option ○ E.g., the successor of the 1996 craze Tickle Me Elmo "Electronic Elmo" vs. the Furby craze of 1999 Defence? Marketing: A Darker Side To Social Psychology At the core of many marketing campaigns is an attempt to change the attitude of a target audience Application of psychology to develop techniques to market products or services A career path that some in psychology take What do these people do? ○ Get contracts, develop campaigns, implement campaigns, evaluate campaigns What background do they have? ○ Majors in domains related to marketing, business and/or psychology ○ Some also have master’s degrees (a few PhDs) ○ Need some experience ○ Most likely start with an entry-level position/internship How much do they make? ○ Wide range... I have seen as low as $35,000.00 per year to more than $250,000.00 per year ○ Stimulating and engaging but does offer many professional/ethical challenges When People Start To Rationalize Unethical Practices Ben and Jerry’s (now owned by Unilever) used Facebook to prime people about their “seven classic flavours” including Cherry Garcia Source amnesia, confound a friend’s post with advertising, boosted by “Likes” Did you know you could buy “Likes”? it gives off the feeling others are supporting this In 2012, Facebook manipulated the content of people’s News Feed They randomly assigned people to conditions in which the positive and negative emotional content of postings in their News Feed was manipulated Without telling them Consent? Assessment of risk? What Is Social Marketing Social marketing involves the application of marketing principles and techniques to promote the adoption of behaviours that improve the health and well-being of a target audience or society as a whole Delivering a positive benefit for individuals and society rather than for commercial profit or private gain Persuasion strategy: Educate a specific audience about risks and symptoms  Central route Persuasion strategy: Decrease binge drinking in young women by making salient the link between that behaviour and negative consequences Peripheral Persuasion strategy: Raise emotions (fear) tied with a behaviour to decrease its occurrence Do Fear-Based Messages Work Fear-based messages aim to arouse emotions to change attitude Can be effective But, they can be risky strategies because they can backfire Dismiss the message to avoid acknowledging the risk Best used in combination with instructions on how to avoid negative outcomes Is There Anything Persaision & Compliance Community and identity Insert clients’ brands into the lives of customers; get them to identify with the brand It affects thinking and behaviour Under-detected Persists over time Nov 21 Mental Health & Treatment 15.1 & 16.1 How Are Psychological Disorders Delineated Temporary or recurring lack of control over symptoms that: Deviate from socio-cultural norms (normal) Cause (emotional) distress Cause maladaptive responses Patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviour that are deviant, distressful, and maladaptive What Is Normal A deceptively simple question 1. What most people do/think/feel? (averages) 2. What most people should do/think/feel? (values) 3. What most people would expect you to do/think/feel? (expectations) Whether a behaviour varies from normality depends on the situation in which the behaviour occurs (context) Situational differences in normality are typically reflected in broader cultural and historical differences Variation across cultural groups; e.g., being outside Changes over time; e.g., homosexuality, hysteria What Is A Disorder According To APA —- What Is The Legal Defenition Of Mentally Unfit 16. (1) No person is criminally responsible for an act committed or an omission made while suffering from a mental disorder that rendered the person incapable of appreciating the nature and quality of the act or omission or of knowing that it was wrong How To Distinguish Psychological Disorders Patterns of maladaptive thinking, feeling or acting that create distress and deviate from norms Some patterns tend to go together  ○ e.g., worry and insomnia These groupings of symptoms are the basis for distinguishing one disorder from another one What Is The Diagnostic & Statistical Manual Versions: DSM-V (came out in 2013) Classification (groupings) is primarily based on 1. type and number of symptoms 2. aetiology of the symptoms 3. prognosis Main Groupings In DSM-V —- Why Create Classification Of Disorders 1. Increases reliability between psychologists’ assessments 2. Diagnoses create a verbal shorthand for referring to a list of associated symptoms 3. Diagnoses allow to statistically study similar cases, which helps improve practice 4. Diagnoses increase the likelihood of receiving treatment 5. Diagnoses help guide treatment choices, learning to predict outcomes of treatment 6. The DSM is used to justify payment by insurance providers for treatment What Are Some Of The Critique Of Diagnosing With The DSM The border between disorder and normalcy is often blurry The border between different disorders is also often blurry, particularly when considering co-morbidities Decisions about what is a disorder include value judgments shaped by prevailing cultural norms Diagnostic labels direct how patients view themselves and how others view them Are Labels Good Or Bad Empowerment from understanding what is going on Not justifying maladaptive responses but explaining them Acceptance of the unique challenges one faces ○ e.g., some things are harder for me Facilitate interactions with others ○ e.g., scheduling meetings with someone OCD and bathroom Misperceptions of the self ○ e.g., self-fulfilling prophecy Misperceptions by others Stigma: a collection of negative perceptions and beliefs Diagnostic labels are complex, which sometimes lay people view as “made up” ○ e.g., not everyone with ADHD is easily distracted all the time What Are Some Crituqes Of The DSM-V Specifically Pharmaceutical companies have had input to a level never observed before Increase in the number of disorders, which lay people sometimes equate directly to a problem Are some new disorders pathologizing otherwise challenging but normal responses? ○ e.g., Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder Combining diagnoses criteria that might be better off separate ○ e.g., initial substance abuse vs. long-time abusers For some disorders, the criteria could be clearer, decreased consensus among clinicians How Are Psychological Disorders Diagnosed Psychological disorders are typically seen as pathologies with a cause Diagnosis aims to identify the most probable aetiology of the symptoms of the disorder Oftenexclusionary diagnoses (per exclusionem) How To Search For The Parsimonious Aetiology Of Symptoms 1. What is the global assessment of this person’s functioning?  2. Are psychosocial or environmental problems present? 3. Is a general medical condition present? 4. Could it be a psychological disorder? What Are Some Of The Misconceptions & Challenges About The Diagnostic Process It’s easy to do; “anyone can do it” Assessments require skills challenging to develop and time to do Legally protected act (only medical doctors and psychologists) It takes time, but it shouldn’t It’s supposed to take time People seek it out like “candy” There are little to no barriers It is still challenging to get assessed What Are The Challenges Of Nonprofessional Attempts At Diganosis It is hard to take an independent and objective look at one’s self or the people we care about Over-reliance on online content, the majority of which is misleading or outright wrong Misleading: e.g., “Studies say [...]”; A “Harvard study” proved [...] False: e.g., not all disagreeable people have a narcissistic personality disorder; not everyone “is just a little ADHD” Personal cost Barrier to seeking professional help Societal cost What Is The Role Of Diagnosis In Treatment Aetiology guides the choice of treatment Treatment targets the aetiology intending to restore mental health can be provided Focus is often on addressing the dysfunctional patterns of behaviour and thoughts How Are Therapeutic Activities Selected What is the global assessment of this person’s functioning? Might not have time to diagnose Are psychosocial or environmental problems present? Fix the environment Is a general medical condition present? Fix the medical problem Could it be a psychological disorder? Is the disorder aethiology assumed to be stable over time? Disorders In Canada, On Campus, & In The World 1 billion in 2022, up from 450 million in 2004 Most likely underestimate because of the challenges to assess, particularly in developing countries Some disorders seem to be universal ○ e.g., depression, schizophrenia Some seem to be culture-specific ○ e.g., bulimia All impact psychological (e.g., sadness) and physiological health (e.g., high blood pressure) Nov 26 Mental Health & Treatment p2 15.3 What Are Important Aspects Of Anxiety Disorders Characterized by a permanent and irrational fear that typically causes people to avoid certain situations, people and/or objects  We will cover 1. Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) 2. Phobias 3. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) What Are Key Features Of Genralised Anxiety Disorder Apprehension and agitation persistent and uncontrollable Inability to identify the cause(s) of the anxiety (“free-floating anxiety”) Activation of the autonomic nervous system to a generalized wide range of stimuli What Are Key Features Of Phobias A phobia is more than just a strong fear or dislike. A specific phobia is diagnosed when there is an uncontrollable irrational, intense desire to avoid certain situations, people or objects What Are Key Features Of Obessive Compulsive Disorder Obsessions are intense, unwanted worries, ideas, and images that repeatedly pop up in the mind A compulsion is a repeatedly strong feeling of “needing” to carry out an action (even though it doesn’t feel like it makes sense) What are some of the prevalent neuroscientific aetiologies for anxiety disorders? Neurotransmitter imbalances Reduced GABA activity “Fear circuit” (Prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, amygdala) hyperactivity Facilitate greater attention to anxious cues What Are Some Prevalent Psycholligcal Aetolgies For Anexty Disorders 1. Conditioning and learning 2. Cognitive appraisal 3. Personality e.g., neuroticism How Can Classical Condtioning Help Explain Anxeity Disorders How Can Operant Condtioning Help Explain Anxiety Disorders It helps explain avoidance behaviour Negative reinforcement motivating anxious-avoidant responses The result is an increase in anxious thoughts and behaviours Maintain anxious responses How Can A Cognotive Approach Help Explain Anxiety Disorders Cognitive processes include anxiety-provoking thoughts, such as mistaken appraisals and rumination (worried thoughts) In anxiety disorders, such types of cognitions appear repeatedly and often automatically Facilitated by cognitive biases such as the availability heuristic Acquired through direct and observational learning ○ e.g., parents and their child What Are Important Aspects Of Depressive Disorders Cluster of disorders for which a disturbance of the person’s mood is assumed to be the underlying cause Typically involves clear-cut changes in affect, cognition, and neuro functions  Often inter-episode remissions Focus on Major Depressive Disorder What Are Key Feautres Of Major Depressive Disorders Two main clusters of symptoms ○ depressed mood ○ loss of interest or pleasure Most of the time, most days, during the same 2 weeks Will sometimes also manifest more in terms of somatic symptoms What are some of the prevalent neuroscientific aetiologies for depressive disorders Lowered norepinephrine and serotonin activity 1950s researchers noticed that BP medication caused depression symptoms Endocrine system High levels of cortisol What are some of the prevalent psychological aetiologies for major depressive disorder How Can Reciprocal Determinsim Helps Understand Major Depressive Disorders What Are Important Aspects Of Substance Use Disorders Disorders in which the need for obtaining a substance and/or its frequent use creates dysfunction In most societies, moderate use of some psychoactive substances (e.g., coffee, alcohol) is considered normal Challenges to see disorders in the fog of norms When Does An Unhelathy Habit Become A Disorder Loss of control over the use of the substance Impairment in daily functioning and continued use of substance despite adverse consequences Physical or emotional adaptation to the drug, such as in the development of tolerance (compulsion) Note that acknowledging the problem is NOT part of the list What are some of the prevalent aetiologies for substance disorders  The target is the brain Substance that can cross the blood-brain barrier Psychoactive substances typically affect areas of the brain tied to the neurotransmitter dopamine (among others) Neuroaptation: With time the brain adapts to the repeated/continuous presence of the substance, which leads to a greater tolerance Facilitated by biological factors (e.g., genetics), psychological factors (e.g., expectations) and social factors (e.g., peer group How Can Oppoentent Process Theory Help Explain Substance Use Disorders Early on the substance produces a hedonic state(affective pleasure) Positive reinforcement motivates the search for that experience again (acquisition; substance abuse) Opponent processes will start to change body to adjust to the presence of the substance build tolerance ​With repeated exposure, this first hedonic state will decrease in its value, a higher dose is needed for the same experience Eventually, when the substance is not taken, the body experiences a tense unpleasurable state (withdrawal) Negative reinforcement sets in and motivates the search for the substance (maintenance; substance dependence) What Are Some Concerns With Perscription Opiods Opioids and opioid-like medications used for pain management e.g., OxyNeo; Percocet; Dilaudid They are agonists, not the same as reuptake inhibitors Make sure to ask your doctor about non-addictive or less-addictive options Be willing to try these options first If you will get a prescription for opioids, talk to your doctor about the lenght of the prescription CDC results suggest 5 days What are basic aspects of Attention Deficit and Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) A neurodevelopmental disorder A persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development Complex patterns of challenges and strengths e.g., long focus on certain activities, resiliency What Are Assumed Aethiologies Genetic prediction to neurodiverse brain development ○ e.g., DAT1 Environmental causes ○ e.g., prenatal smoking Reciprocal determinism ○ Negative feedback, relationship challenges, negative self-view, negative choices Why An Increase In Diagnosis Inclusion in DSM III meant it could then be diagnosed, so that created a surge Goes up as treatment options go up Goes up as society changes ○ e.g., greater emphasis on self-regulation in schools and in society, changes in tobacco consumption, decreased resources in school, changes in demands on parents Medication Treatment For ADHD Typically dopamine and/or norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors Many have a stimulating side effect They are different than opioids, which are agonists Potential for misuse Evidence of neurogenesis changes Not a standalone treatment, part of a combination of treatment, such as CBT Nov 28 Mental Health & Treatment p3 16.2 & 16.3 How Do We Go From Symptoms To Treatment 1. What is the global assessment of this person’s functioning? Might not have time to diagnose 2. Are psychosocial or environmental problems present? Fix the environment 3. Is a general medical condition present? Fix the medical problem 4. Could it be a psychological disorder? Is the disorder aethiology assumed to be stable over time? What could change What Is The Logic Behind Treatment Psychological disorders typically result from a mismatch between a person’s abilities and the demands of an environment Two main avenues (not mutually exclusive): 1. Change something in the physical and/or social environment, alter the demands 2. Try to enhance the person’s abilities (using medication and/or psychotherapy) What Are Current Forms Of Treatment Supported By Reearch Biomedical therapy: the use of medications and/or other procedures acting on the body to reduce the symptoms of mental disorders Goal: address (neuro-)physiological changes associated with psychological disorders Psychotherapy: an interactive experience with a trained professional Goal: understanding and changing dysfunctional habitual patterns of behaviour, thinking, and/or emotions What Are Common Biomedical Therapies Habits That Imapct Biological Systems Life habits (sleep, nutrition, physical activity) ○ e.g., Exercise can boost serotonin levels and reduce stress Thinking habits ○ e.g., Changing negative thoughts can improve mood and alter activation brain activation patterns Both life and thinking habits are often underestimated and undervalued Perscription Mediacation Most work by altering a process associated with specific neurotransmitters The most commonly prescribed ones currently are reuptake inhibitors, followed by receptor blockers (antagonists) ○ e.g., Buproprion NDRI Used in combination with other therapeutic approaches In Quebec, Drs can prescribe exercise What Are Common Misconeptions & Stigma Tied To Medication “Medication radically changes who you are as a person” “Psychoactive medications are addictive, like opioids” Difference between an agonist (opioid) and a reuptake inhibitor Misuse by a few, provide examples used to change policies that affect many “A pill is a standalone cure” Medication is used in combination with other interventions (e.g., changes in environment; changes in thinking habits) What Are Other Biomedical Therapies Fecal transplant  Electroconvulsive therapy [ECT] induces a mild seizure that disrupts severe depression for some people Repeated transcranial magnetic stimulation Psychosurgery (e.g., microsurgery) What Are Common Psychotheraputic Approaches Behavioural approaches ○ Focus is on changing the behaviour, as opposed to cognitions ○ Assumes the cause is rooted in the reinforcement of the behaviour ○ E.g., negative reinforcement from avoiding locations with spiders Cognitive Approaches ○ Focus is on changing mental habits (typically will include some “homework”) ○ Assumes the cause is rooted in problematic thought patterns; that typically affect the normal appraisal of events, not the actual events ○ E.g., losing a job, an opportunity or a disaster? How Is Classical Condtioning Used In Behavioural Therapies 1. Counterconditioning Aims to create a positive response to an aversive stimuli ○ e.g., how to counter-condition little Albert 2. Systematic desensitization: Beginning with a tiny reminder of the feared situation, keep increasing the exposure intensity as the person learns to tolerate the previous level How Is Operant Conditioning Used In Behavioral Therapies Aims is to reinforce desired behaviours and NOT reinforce problematic behaviours Negative punishment? Often requires monitoring to identify the stimuli that trigger the response Differential Reinforcement of Other behaviour (DRO) ○ e.g., nail-biting How Did Cogntive Approach Infrom Therapy Aaron Beck showed how depression was worsened by errors in thinking Interpreting current events as signs of the worst possible outcome (catastrophizing) How does it work? Raise awareness by questioning without judgment to identify the cognitive error Change the faulty cognitive process through exercises What Is Cognotive Behavioural Therapy Assumes the route of the disorder is negative thought patterns and behaviour Intervention techniques aims to change thinking habits to impact behaviour and sometimes include intervention directly focused on behaviour ○ e.g., using CBT with OCD Change compulsionto wash hands using DRO Change obsessive thoughts about germs by education and awareness of the actual effects of germs Used with a wide range of disorders ○ e.g., neurodevelopment, anxiety, depressive Is CBT Efficacious Changes in thought Changes in behaviour Changing in brain activity What Is Dialetical Behaviour Therapy Assumes the route of the disorder is in emotional regulation and tolerance of distress Dialectical because patients are taught skills to facilitate acceptance of distressing experiences and behaviours and skills to change them at the same time Interventions aimed at improving emotional regulation and tolerance of distress, such as learning mindfulness medication skills Thus far seems most often used with personality disorders and depressive disorders How To Find The Best Suited Psychotheraputic Support For You  In Canada, the diagnosis of disorders can only be done by psychologists and medical doctors Psychologist is a protected title; only people registered with the College of Psychologists of the respective province can use that title Therapeutic alliance is one of the best predictors of positive outcomes—perhaps more important than the exact approach used in many cases You need to be asking questions: Trained psychologists will be able to tell you what kind of system they are using After a few sessions they should be able to share a therapeutic plan with you Dates, activities, goals, and re-evaluation You should have homework to do