Earth Science Energy Resources PDF

**8E A R T H S C I E N C E** **ENERGY** - Ability to do work; take many forms **NON RENEWABLE ENERGY** - From the sources that will run out or will be replenished in our lifetime **→ FOSSIL FUELS** - Formed from fossilized, buried remains of plants and animals → High in carbon content +--------...

**8E A R T H S C I E N C E** **ENERGY** - Ability to do work; take many forms **NON RENEWABLE ENERGY** - From the sources that will run out or will be replenished in our lifetime **→ FOSSIL FUELS** - Formed from fossilized, buried remains of plants and animals → High in carbon content +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **FOSSIL** | **FUELS** | +===================================+===================================+ | **OIL** | (PETROLEUM) - mined then | | | transported to refineries to | | | become usable fuels | | | | | | → *Petroleum* -- from Greek: | | | *petra (rock)* + *oleum (oil)* | | | | | | → fractional distillation | | | | | | → refined into usable fuels -- | | | gasoline, propane, kerosane | | | | | | **CRUDE OIL** - A fossil fuel | | | that is made up of hydrocarbon | | | chains, and is mostly used in | | | making diesel, asphalt and | | | kerosene | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **COAL** | \- solid | | | | | | → Mostly made up of carbons | | | | | | → carbon - heavy rocks | | | | | | → flammable black hard rock -- | | | used as a solid fossil fuel | | | | | | → sedimentary rock formed from | | | peat --- by the pressure of rocks | | | laid down | | | | | | → anthracite, bituminous, | | | subituminous, lignite | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **NATURAL GAS** | \- Composed mostly of *METHANE* | | | | | | → used as a fuel to make | | | materials and chemicals | | | | | | → occur in coal deposits -- coal | | | bed methane | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **NUCLEAR ENERGY** | → A non renewable energy that | | | generates electricity from the | | | splitting of atoms | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **[HOW COAL WAS FORMED:\ ]** \- Before the dinosaurs, many giant plants died in swamps  \- Over the million of years, the plants were buried under water and dirt \- Heat and pressure turned dead plants into coal **[PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS FORMATION:]**  \- - - Tiny marine plants and animals died and were buried on the ocean floor \- Over time, the marine plants and animals were covered by layers of silt and sand \- Over million of years, the remains were buried deeper and deeper \- The enormous heat and pressure turned the remains into oil and natural gas  \- Today, we drill down through layers of sand, silt and rock to reach the rock formations that contain oil and natural gas deposits **[ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS: ]** **FOSSIL FUELS:** - - **RENEWABLE / ALTERNATIVE ENERGY** →Energy sources which are not based on the burning of fossil fuels or the splitting of atoms **SOLAR ENERGY** - A renewable energy that uses the energy from the sun **BIOFUEL** - A renewable energy that generates electricity with the help of the recently dead organisms **HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY** - A renewable energy that uses the flow of water to generate electricity **GEOTHERMAL ENERGY** - A renewable energy that uses the heat from the Earth\'s crust **WIND ENERGY** - uses wind turbines to generate electricity **[CONVERTING ENERGY INTO ELECTRICITY:]\ ** **01 HEAT ENERGY** → Energy from bond breaking/formation in fuels is converted into energy **02 KINETIC ENERGY** - Heat energy is used to convert water to steam which has kinetic energy **03 MECHANICAL ENERGY** - Steam's kinetic energy becomes mechanical energy → makes turbines and other mechanisms turn **04 ELECTRICAL ENERGY** - Mechanical energy from the mechanisms create electricty via electromagnetism **GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES** - the physical processes which create and modify *landforms* on the surface of the earth → can be *ENDOGENOUS (Endogenic)* vs. *EXOGENOUS (Exogenic)* processes → Involves the rock cycle **EXOGENOUS PROCESSES** *(GRADATIONAL)* - A geomorphic process that happens on the surface of the Earth, and modify relief → they comprise ***degradation*** and ***aggradation*** they modify relief → these processes are carried through by Geomorphic Agents: gravity, flowing water (rivers), moving ice (glaciers), waves and tides (oceans and lakes), wind, plants, microorganisms, animals, and humans → a continuum of processes \[*weathering, mass wasting, erosion, transportation, deposition* +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **DEGRADATION PROCESSES** | **AGGRADATION PROCESSES** | | | | | → *Denudation Processes* | → Deposition by river and streams | | | | | \- Weathering | a. | | | | | \- Mass wasting | | | | | | \- Erosion and Transportation | | | | | | **EROSION** - earth materials are | | | worn away by natural forces | | | | | | → small kind of mass wasting and | | | has normal movement | | | | | | **TRANSPORTATION** - Process of | | | moving the resulting sediment | | | | | | **DEPOSITION** - eroded rocks and | | | sediments settle somewhere new | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **WEATHERING** - disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ - no transportation involved → Produces **REGOLITH** - product of weathering; loose materials from rocks →involves the mechanical or physical disintegration and/or chemical decomposition that fragments rock masses into smaller components that amass on-site, before being moved by gravity or transported by other agents → The processes begin in microscopic spaces, cracks, joints, faults, fractures, lava vesicles and other rock cavities **[TYPES OF WEATHERING:]** **01 PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL WEATHERING** -- Disintegration and decay of rocks via weather elements: high temperatures, extreme cold and freeze-thaw cycles → No change in chemical composition of rocks - - -  **02 CHEMICAL WEATHERING** - breakdown of rocks by chemical mechanisms → decomposes rocks through a chemical change in its minerals → ***Oxidation** -* important in iron-rich rocks - reddish coloration like rust → ***Hydrolysis*** - igneous rocks have much silica which readily combines with water → ***Carbonation and Salution*** - carbon dioxide dissolved in water reacts with carbonate rocks to create a soluble product (calcium bicarbonate) **03 BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING** - weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by plants, animals and microbes  **MASS WASTING** - Downslope movement of rock, soil and other debris due to the pull of gravity → Factors affecting or inducing the event: - - - - - - **[FACTORS AFFECTING MASS WASTING]** **01 ANGLE OF REPOSE** - highest angle that the side/slope of a mound of unconsolidated sediments will achieve under the influence of gravity **02 WATER** - Moist sand will be able to achieve steeper sides (higher angle of repose) - the water is enough to fill in some spaces for additional surface tension, cohesion and adhesion which keeps the sediments together → Too much water, the grains will tend to slide past one another and become more fluid (lower angle) **03 SOIL COVER** - Soil is basically a mixture of rocks, regolith (weathered rock materials), organic matter, water and air → Expansion and contraction of soil containing clay minerals affect the stability and consolidation of the material potential for mass wasting → Because of expansion, intergranular contact may be decreased and it increases the susceptibility to a mass wasting event **04 GEOLOGIC FEATURES** - Presence of Structures and rock types → Structures: beddings, joints and faults → ***JOINTS AND FAULTS*** - provide additional conduits for water to pass through inner regions of rock mass → ***BEDDING PLANE*** - zone of weakness of a rock that may increase the potential of slide **05 TRIGGERING EVENTS** - Earthquakes → Excessive Rainfall → Volcanic Eruptions  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Distance travelled affects *Clast size, Clast shape, and Class | | sorting* | | | | → Farther from source means rounder and smaller | | | | → ***Steepness of slope*** - poorly sorted and angular | | | | → ***Strength of Current*** | | | | - - | | | | → ***Agent of Transport*** (water, wind or ice) | | | | - - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES** - a geomorphic process that often happens beneath the surface of the Earth, and create relief → are large - scale landform building and transforming processes **01 TECTONIC PROCESSES** - (Also called Diastrophism) a.Folding: anticlines (up), synclines (down), mountains b.Faulting: rift valleys, c.Lateral Faulting: strike slip faults **02 IGNEOUS PROCESSES** \- a. Volcanism: Volcanic eruptions Volcanoes b.Plutonism: Igneous intrusions - - tectonic activity **MAGMA** - This comes form igneous rocks and some semi molten materials composed of molten rocks and minerals → A molten or semi-molten rock mixture found under the surface of the Earth. This mixture is usually made up of four parts: - - - - **[MAGMA FORMATION:]**  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **DECOMPRESSION MELTING** - Involves the upward movement of Earth\'s | | mostly solid mantle. | | | | → This hot material rises to an area of lower pressure through the | | process of ***CONVECTION*** | | | | → Areas of lower pressure always have a lower melting point than | | areas of high pressure. | | | | → This reduction in overlying pressure, or decompression, enables the | | mantle rock to melt and form magma. | | | | → often *[occurs at divergent boundaries]*, where | | tectonic plates separate. The rifting movement causes the buoyant | | magma below to rise and fill the space of lower pressure. The rock | | then cools into a new crust | | | | → Decompression melting also occurs at mantle plumes (hot spots), | | columns of hot rock that rise from Earth\'s high pressure core to its | | lower-pressure crust. | +=======================================================================+ | **TRANSFER OF HEAT** - Magma can also be created when hot, liquid | | rock intrudes into Earth\'s cold crust. | | | | → As the liquid rock solidifies, it loses its heat to the surrounding | | crust. Much ike hot fudge being poured over cold ice cream, this | | transfer of heat is able to melt the surrounding rock (the \"ice | | cream\") into magna | | | | → Transfer of heat often happens at convergent boundaries, where | | tectonic plates are crashing together. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **FLUX MELTING** - occurs when water or carbon dioxide are added to | | rock | | | | → These compounds cause the rock to melt at lower | | | | temperatures. This creates magma in places where it originally | | maintained a solid Structure. | | | | → Much like heat transfer, flux melting also occurs around subduction | | zoned | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **PLUTONISM** - The formation of intrusive igneous rock by solidification of magma beneath the earth\'s surface → James Hutton (and others) - Plutonism Theory: rock forming processes are driven by heat contained within the interior of the Earth **VOLCANISM** - Any of various processes and phenomena associated with the surficial discharge of molten rock, pyroclastic fragments, or hot water and steam →eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of a planet → Volcanoes are evidences of the internal heat that the earth can release unto the surface **METAMORPHISM** - Alteration of the composition or structure of a rock by heat, pressure, or other natural agency \- The process by which rocks are changed in composition, texture or structure by extreme heat and pressure +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **[TYPES OF METAMORPHISM:]** | | | | **1. Contact Metamorphism** - due to proximity to igneous | | | | Intrusions | | | | **2. Cataclastic Metamorphism** - due to mechanical deformation (ie | | the sliding of rock material between faults) | | | | **3. Hydrothermal Metamorphism** - due to high temperatures and | | moderate pressures by hydrothermal fluids | | | | **4. Regional Metamorphism** - occurs in large areas and accompanied | | by deformations from non-hydrostatic or differential stress | | conditions | | | | **5. Burial Metamorphism** - due to temperatures reached when rock is | | buried to depths of several hundred meters | | | | **6. Shock/Impact Metamorphism** - due to stresses from the impact of | | extraterrestrial material or large volcanic eruptions | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **HYDROLOGIC CYCLE : Principal Natural Components** **PRECIPITATION** - snow or rain **INFILTRATION** - to the soil **SURFACE RUNOFF** **GROUNDWATER** - moves to the surface or the oceans **EVAPOTRANSPIRATION** - movement from water bodies, soil, and living things +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Water makes up 71% of the Earth's surface | | | |  | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **SURFACE WATER** - 1% of freshwater on Earth → It is present naturally or artificially in formations where water can accumulate called ***reservoirs*** **GROUNDWATER** - It refers to the sub-surface water contained in pore spaces in regolith and bedrock. → The volume of groundwater is 40 times larger than surface water. → Accessible groundwater is no more than 750m below the ground. → Natural formations where water accumulates underground is called ***aquifers*** **GROUNDWATER MINING** - If the rate of withdrawal of groundwater exceeds the natural recharge, the volume of groundwater will steadily decrease. → This may result to lowering of the water table, drying up of springs and streams, compaction of the aquifer, and land subsidence (ground sinking). → Groundwater is complicated to monitor because it is hidden from view   +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **MAIN CAUSES OF WATER CONTAMINATION:** | | | | → untreated sewage | | | | → agricultural pesticides and fertilizers | | | | → leakage of harmful chemicals (gas stations, refineries, and other | | industries) pollution | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **RA 9275 The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004** - an act is proposed to protect the country's water bodies from pollution from land-based sources +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Freshwater is not distributed equally across the globe.** | | | | **Canada:** 0.5% of the world's population has 20% liquid freshwater | | | | **China:** 19% of the world's population has 7% liquid freshwater | | | | **Asia:** 60% of the world's population has 30% liquid freshwater | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **FRESHWATER WITHDRAWALS** - It is the amount of water taken from the natural environment to be used for human activity. **Agriculture**: growing of crops and maintaining livestock **Industry**: creating manufactured goods **Domestic**: everyday activities (showers, laundry, drinking, etc.) **DESALINATION** - a process to extract freshwater from saltwater, removing the unwanted salt content. → This is viewed as the popular solution to droughts. Due to the widespread use, desalination is becoming cheaper. → On the other hand, the environmental impact of large-scale desalination must also be considered **SOIL** - It consists of matter in three states - solid, liquid, and gas → The solid component consists of a mixture of mineral grains plus material of biologic origin. → It is a product of weathering processes and a medium capable of supporting plant growth → The water in the soil wets the mineral grains. The soil moisture tends to contain high levels of dissolved substances. Both the nutrients and moisture in the soil allow plants to grow → ***Carbon dioxide, methane,*** and ***oxygen*** fill the open spaces in the soil → **semi non-renewable** resource since it takes a long time for water and nutrients to accumulate inside it. **SOIL TEXTURE** - refers to the proportion of particles that fall into each of the three size ranges, namely clay, silt, and sand **HUMUS** - partially decayed organic matter in soil, critical to soil fertility **SOIL TEXTURE TRIANGLE** - It is a diagram which helps identify the type of soil based on its composition  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **4 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL:** | | | | **SOIL DEPTH** - Thickness of a soil from the surface to a | | root-limiting layer such as bedrock or seasonal water table | | | | **SOIL TEXTURE** - The relative amount of sand, silt, and clay in | | each soil. Affects more specific characteristics like porosity, | | drainage, and permeability | | | | **SOIL STRUCTURE** - The shape and size of soil aggregates. | | Influences the size distribution of pores in the soil | | | | **\ | | ORGANIC MATTER** - Amount of organic matter within a soil. Affects | | more specific characteristics and is affected by soil management | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **SOIL PROFILE** - The sequence of soil horizons from the surface down to the underlying bedrock **\ SOIL HORIZON** - One of the succession of zones or layers within a soil profile, each with distinct physical, chemical, and biological characteristics +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **O HORIZON** - contains the accumulation of organic matter | | | | **A HORIZON** - typically dark in color because of the humus present | | | | **E HORIZON** - a pale layer that is sometimes present in forest | | areas | | | | **\ | | B HORIZON** - brownish or reddish because of the presence of iron | | hydroxides that has leached from the surface. Also called the \"zone | | of accumulation." | | | | **C HORIZON** - made up of parent material underneath (bedrock) in | | various stages of weathering | | | | **BEDROCK** - solid unweathered rock | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **SOIL QUALITY** - the capacily of a soil to function within ecosystem and land-use boundaries to sustain biological productivity, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and animal health. → Human activities such as farming, urbanization, and waste disposal can greatly affect the soil quality +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **EFFECTS OF POOR SOIL MANAGEMENT:** | | | | → **SOIL POLLUTION** | | | | **→ EROSION** - occurs when soil particles are detached, transported, | | and deposited. Although this may occur naturally, removal of plants | | and trees from the soil may lead to accelerated erosion | | | | → **DESERTIFICATION** - the extreme degradation of productive land in | | arid and semi-arid areas. This can create poor quality vegetation | | | | → **ACIDIFICATION** - occurs acidic cations (Hydrogen, Aluminum, iron | | and manganese) are concentrated in the soil. The pH decreases and | | soil becomes more acidic. | | | | - | | | | → **SALINIZATION** - is the build up of salt on the soil surface. | | This affects the physical soil quality and hinders the growth of | | plants | | | | → **DEFORESTATION** | | | | → **HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION** - has a toxic effect on soil | | microorganisms and plants. Even at low concentration, it hinders some | | physiological metabolism of plants. | | | | - | | | | → **EUTROPHICATION** - occurs when excessive amounts of nitrogen and | | phosphorous, because of synthetic fertilizers, accumulates in land | | and aquatic systems. This is a form of nutrient pollution. | | | | - | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **WASTES** - Any material, substance, or by product which is eliminated or discarded as no longer useful or required after completion of a process. It may be in solid, liquid, or gas forms +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | → **All human activities generate waste** | | | | →**Developed countries generate more waste than the developing | | countries. However, the latter is facing waste management | | challenges** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **POLLUTION** - It is the introduction of harmful materials in the environment +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **CLASSIFICATION OF WASTES:** | | | | \[ Based on the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for | | Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) \] | | | | **01 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW)** | | | | → This type of waste is generated from households, businesses, and | | commercial establishments | | | | → Major components: food waste, plastics, metals, glass and small | | amounts of construction and hazardous waste | | | | **02 INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE** | | | | → These are the byproducts of the manufacturing industry and | | encompasses a wide range of materials | | | | → Major components: paper, packaging materials, waste from food | | processing, rubber, leather, wood, etc. | | | | **03 AGRICULTURAL WASTE AND RESIDUE** | | | | → This includes agricultural crop residues and agro-industrial | | by-products | | | | → Major components: animal waste, husks, straws, etc. | | | | **04 HAZARDOUS WASTE** | | | | → These are wastes that contain toxic chemicals and are the | | by-product of industrial, agricultural, manufacturing, nuclear, | | hospitals, and other health care facilities. | | | | → Major components: chemical, petro-chemical, petroleum, metals, wood | | treatment, solvents, dry cleaners, pesticides, and herbicides | | | | **05 WASTEWATER** | | | | → Also called sewage water or dirty water, this is used water | | | | → It includes substances such as human waste, food scraps, oils, | | soaps and chemicals. In homes, this includes water from sinks, | | showers, bathtubs, toilets, washing machines and dishwashers. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **WASTE MANAGEMENT** → It refers to the various schemes to manage and dispose of wastes. It can be by discarding, destroying, processing, recycling, reusing, or controlling wastes → The prime objective of waste management is to reduce the amount of unusable materials and to avert potential health and environmental hazards. → ***Methods:*** reducing wastes, dumping in landfills, recycling, incineration, composting, sewage treatment, etc. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **→ In the year 2016 alone, humanity has produced 2.01 billion tonnes | | of waste** | | | | **→ This is expected to increase by 70% in the next 30 years** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **→ Philippines trapped in a "Sachet Economy"** | | | | **→** around 164 million single-use sachets are used everyday | | | | → the Philippines is ranked the ***third largest contributor to the | | plastic pollution*** by the Ocean Conservancy and McKinsey Center for | | Business and Environment Reports | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **PROBLEM CAUSED BY IMPROPER WASTE MANAGEMENT** → landslides of waste dumps → contamination of water resources → clogging drains and causing flooding → transmission of diseases → respiratory diseases due to waste incineration → loss of biodiversity → decline in tourism → contribution in global emissions - climate change → threat to food sources **MICROPLASTIC** - these plastic particles are smaller than 5mm → Annually, 100,000 marine creatures die due to microplastic pollution → 1.2m tonnes of microplastic waste is generated annually → impossible to clean (the size of microplastic makes it almost impossible to separate them from water → We eat them too (As marine creatures have already been contaminated, microplastics also end up in out own bodies +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **WHAT CAN BE DONE:\ | | ** | | | | **01 Better holistic solid waste management systems** | | | | → The country should invest in building waste management facilities, | | systems and infrastructures | | | | → These should be accessible for both urban and rural communities. | | | | **02 Recycling in manufacturing** | | | | → Encouraging or incentivizing use of recycled materials in industry | | and production | | | | **03 Partnership with the informal sector** | | | | → Providing opportunities to the informal sector as manpower for | | waste picking and recycling | | | | **04 Community campaigns** | | | | → \"Management of plastic waste often starts at the household and | | individual levels.\" | | | | **05 Policy and planning** | | | | →Both local and national governments should initiate the change in | | the commercial sector. | | | | → They must ensure that adequate waste collection and disposal are in | | place. | | | | → As a society, we must move away from the \"throwaway culture\" and | | move towards a sustainable circular economy. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **PLATE TECTONICS** - The Earth\'s crust is divided into 7 major plates which are moved in various directions. → This plate motion causes them to collide, pull apart, or scrape against each other. → Each type of interaction causes a characteristic set of Earth structures or \"tectonic\" features. → The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation of the crust because of plate interaction. → Made of ***RIGID LITHOSPHERE*** **LITHOSPHERE** - made up of the crust and the upper part of the mantle  **ASTHENOSPHERE** - Below the lithosphere → makes up the tectonic plates **PLATE MOVEMENT** - \"Plates\" of lithosphere are moved around by the underlying hot mantle convection cells **CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY** - Proponent: Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist and arctic explorer → ***Principal Thought:*** Continents are situated on slabs of rock, or plates, and they have drifted across the surface of the Earth over time; nowever, originally, they were all joined together a he tie supercontinent at one time **PANGAEA** - The supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras → Movement of the Earth\'s tectonic plates caused it to break apart **PANTHALASSA** - The huge supercontinent was surrounded by one gigantic ocean called Panthalassa +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **The Rejection of Continental Drift** | | | | 1. 2. 3. | | | | | | | | 4. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **HARRY HESS** - an American scientist proposed the seafloor spreading in 1962 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- → In November 1962, H.M.S. OWEN made a detailed magnetic survey over a central part of the Carlsberg Ridge as part of the international Indian Ocean Expedition ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **SEA-FLOOR SPREADING** → *Principal Thoughts:* Ocean floors move like conveyer belts, carrying continents along with them. → Sea floor spreading theory states that new ocean crust is being created at the mid- ocean ridges (which are large mountain chains underwater) and destroyed at trenches. - - - - → At the mid-ocean ridge, molten material rises from the mantle and erupts. The molten material then spreads out, pushing older rock to both sides of the ridge +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Evidence supporting the theory of sea-floor spreading** | | | | A. | | | | | | | | B. | | | |  | | | | C. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **TYPES OF PLATE MOVEMENT:** **01 CONVERGENT** - Plates moving towards one another +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **THREE TYPES OF CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES:** | | | | 01 **Ocean-Continent** | | | | 02 **Ocean-Ocean** | | | |  | | | | 03 **Continent-Continent** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **02 DIVERGENT** - Moves away → Production of new plates in ocean ridges **03 LATERAL PLATE** *(Strike-slip)* - Transform boundary → two tectonic plates slide past each other horizontally  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **The majority of the research shows that the plates move at the | | average rate of between approximately 0.60 cm/yr to 10 cm/yr** | | | | Annually: | | | | → North Atlantic - 1 cm (0.4in) | | | | → Pacific - 4 cm (\~2 in) | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+