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For Finals WEEK 6 What is theory? ○ derives from the ancient Greek theoria meaning ‘looking at, viewing, beholding’ ○ sets of statements that explain why and how several concepts are related People use it for dealing with practical problems It of...

For Finals WEEK 6 What is theory? ○ derives from the ancient Greek theoria meaning ‘looking at, viewing, beholding’ ○ sets of statements that explain why and how several concepts are related People use it for dealing with practical problems It offers a form of generalization that helps us discern patterns (about what happened, what is happening and what is likely to happen) ○ A theory is deemed to be qualified if we are able to deduce conclusions from it that are subject to empirical validation Ex: dogs can fly faster than birds because they have larger wingspan: This is an unqualified theory because it is not subject to empirical validation EX: Plant and animal life today is part of a chain of evolution by natural selection over millions of years: This theory is qualified if we are able to confirm it through empirical validation ○ Theories predict or prohibit certain observable events or conditions Ex: Crime as an observable event; or lawlessness as an observable condition Why theory? Is it useful? ○ Theories are are thus: qualified through empirical validation But also provide a reference point for explaining the empirical (what we experience) ○ A theory about crime says that a person’s economic status can influence their likelihood of committing crimes. This theory helps us understand why we see certain behaviors in society. Theories of Crime ○ Theories of crime seek to lend clarity to the WHAT and WHY questions underlying criminology: Why do people engage in criminal behaviour? Ex: why theory: people engage in criminal behaviour because they are naturally prone to seek their own self-interest and will overstep boundaries unless deterred from doing so What goes into defining the constitution of a criminal act or a crime? Ex: what theory: What we determine to be a crime is what those in power have legislated in their favour  Criminological Theories ○ THREE broad levels of analysis within which varying criminological theories tend to fall: ○ Individual ○ Situational ○ Structural Level of Analysis: Individual ○ The main focus is on the personal traits of the offender or victim. ○ Criminal behavior is explained by looking at individual factors, like personal choices or biological and psychological characteristics. Level of Analysis: Situational ○ The focus is the situation surrounding the crime. This includes: Local environmental factors the influence of group behaviour on social activity how the individuals involved are labelled by others; the opportunities available for the commission of certain offences Level of Analysis: Structural ○ This approach examines crime through broad social relationships. It looks at social institutions and the relationships between different classes, genders, races, and ethnic groups, as well as other social divisions. Classical Theory ○ Level of Analysis: Individual ○ Shaping contemporary criminal justice in Canada ○ Basic Principles: All human have a equal capacity to reason Individuals are self-seeking and self-interested All human action is voluntary (choice and freewill) A Classical Theory of Crime (choice theory) ○ Key ideas of classical crime theory: All human actions, including crime, are based on choice. These choices are considered "rational." Without limits, people may harm others to pursue their own self-interest. ○ What is "rational choice"?  Even though we can make decisions, we naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain. Our choices are "rational" because we think about the benefits and consequences before deciding (a cost/benefit analysis). ○ Human behavior can be controlled by the threat of greater pain (punishment). ○ Society can be regulated through a social contract Social contract: when people agree to sacrifice some of their individual rights in exchange for protection of their own body and possessions. This social contract ensures more pleasure and less pain for everyone. The ‘rule of law’ ○ Another key idea of classical theory: The law is the highest authority. ○ In this theory, the legal system helps control and regulate society. ○ The law is a power that everyone must follow. ○ No one is above the law, and everyone is treated equally by it. Context: This idea came from the Age of Enlightenment, when people wanted to limit the power of kings, aristocrats, and religious institutions. Choice theory and individual responsibility ○ Choice theory dismisses the idea that crime is caused by social conditions such as poverty, or that crime rates can be altered by creating more opportunities or government programs. ○ Instead, crime is a matter of ‘rational’ or calculated choice. As a result, crime prevention must focus on deterrence Ex. If crime pays more than a legitimate job, some people will continue to gravitate towards crime (whether actual or simply perceived ○ Criminals are rational and their behaviour can be controlled or deterred by fear and institution of greater punishment ○ The "rational criminal" commits a crime after: Weighing the potential benefits Evaluating the risks and possible penalties Making a decision based on that assessment. Is crime rational? ○ Street crimes:  Crime such as theft or prostitution are carried out based on selective and calculated decisions made by offender Ex. Car thieves will select certain car models that are easier break into or easier for stripping parts. Ex. Sex workers resist practices that would risk their safety (thu evidencing a rational cost/benefit decision made on their behalf) ○ Drug Use: Decision to use drugs is based on rational calc decision that will bring greater pleasure Ex. drug dealers choose to sell drugs for money ○ Violent Crimes Serial killers make a calc decision to go after easy targets (sex workers, homeless). Choice and routine activities theory ○ Rational Choice theory is a key idea behind the Routine Activities theory of victimology. Crime happens when there's an opportunity: The absence of guardians, the availability of easy targets, and the presence of motivated offenders Eliminating Crime ○ Crime can be prevented if its rational by convincing offenders that the choice to commit a crime is a poor one ○ Crime control strategies based on rational choice theory: Situational Crime Prevention General Deterrence Strategies Specific Deterrence Strategies Incapacitation Strategies Situational Crime prevention ○ This approach reduces crime by limiting opportunities for potential criminals. ○ Crime can be prevented if: Potential targets are carefully guarded. Means to commit crime are controlled. Potential offenders are carefully monitored ○ Example: Defensible space (like home security systems, better lighting, and alarms) makes it harder for criminals to act.  These things signal that the risk is too high for a criminal to attempt a crime. ○ Issues with this approach: Generic approaches cannot address the diversity of crimes Situational crime prevention can result in crime displacement rather than crime prevention Ex: increase of police presence in an attempt to curb prostitution did not impact the volume of prostitution but simply displaced it (change of location) and in doing so made the practice much more dangerous for sex workers. General Deterrence Strategies ○ Concept that crime rates are influenced and controlled by the threat of criminal punishment ○ If people fear punishment they will not break the law ○ Tactics include: Mandatory sentencing Aggressive policing Threat of severe punishment Ex. Capital punishment Specific Deterrence Strategies ○ Suggests that severe punishment in order to prevent known criminals from reoffending Example: California’s "three strikes" rule, which gives harsher punishments to repeat offenders. ○ Other methods include using shame to prevent crime, like "reintegrative shaming" in Japan, where offenders are humiliated. Some believe this helps keep crime rates low. Some suggest Canada should use reintegrative shaming to reduce domestic violence. Incapaction Strategies ○ The goal is to reduce crime by putting criminals in prison. Long prison sentences is a tactic ○ However, research shows that increasing the number of people behind bars or extending their length of stay does not effectively reduce crime ○ Why has the incarceration strategy not worked? Some studies suggest that imprisoning criminals doesn’t stop them from committing crimes; instead, it traps them in a cycle of criminal behaviour.  Also, whatever motivations drove them to commit crime before being put in prison may not necessarily have changed when they come out. WEEK 8 Choice Theory vs Trait Theories ○ Similarities: Both focus on individual level of analysis Both proceed with assumption that there is a clear line between ‘normal’ and ‘deviant/criminal’ behaviour They do not ask the WHAT quesiton, but are concerned with the WHY ○ Differences: Choice theory believes that people are rational begins who make free choices Trait theory believes that all human activity is determined by external factors—like biology and psychology—meaning we don’t really have free will. Positivist Criminology and Trait theories of crime ○ Positivism applies natural science methods to understand social behaviour, aiming for accurate insights and solutions to social issues (scientific method) ○ Positivism as an approach in the study of society holds three main premises: Social scientists are neutral observers of the world Human activity can be measured through the use of objective tests As with the natural world, the ‘social world’ is seen to obey general laws of operation Subjective vs objective ○ Subjective: Based on personal feelings or opinions (dependent on the individual). ○ Objective: Can be verified independently of personal feelings (fact-based). The social organism ○ Positivist social scientists see society like a living organism, made up of different parts that need to work together for everything to function well. ○ Problems arise when any part of this system doesn’t work properly. ○ To fix these problems, strategies are created to address the dysfunctions. ○ Crime Prevention approach views preventing crime as similar to a doctor treating an illness—it's about finding and fixing what's wrong in society Trait theories of crime (biological and psychological)  ○ Trait theories are hrounded in the methodological approach of positivism ○ They look at a combo of biological and psychological factors that might explain criminality ○ Questions that trait theory asks: Why does one person act aggressively when cut off in traffic while the other person doesn’t? Why does it seem like some people can control their urges while others cannot? Why is there a relatively small group of chronic offenders who are responsible for most of the crime in society? Biological trait theory ○ Classical approaches: the atavistic criminal Criminals are born or made Criminals are determined from birth due to various biological factors ○ Popularized by Cesare Lombroso He believed that the "atavistic criminal" is someone who is genetically predisposed to commit crimes, rooted in evolutionary factors. Lombroso believed that these criminals were more like early humans or apes in their development. He thought you could recognize atavistic criminals by specific physical traits, such as the size and shape of their heads, hands, protruding teeth, or large ears. ○ Contemporary approaches: The work of early bio-criminologists was often criticized for being poorly structured, and it became clear that sociological factors also play a significant role in behavior. Researchers started focusing on "sociobiological" aspects, recognizing that human behavior is influenced by both biological factors (like natural urges and limitations) and social conditions. Instead of viewing biological and sociological factors as opposing forces, they are now seen as interconnected. Example: Aggressive behavior can stem from a combination of biological predispositions and social influences that shape how those urges are expressed. Four Contemporary Biosocial Theories of Crime:  ○ Biochemical Conditions ○ Neurophysiological Conditions ○ Genetic Conditions ○ Evolutionary Conditions Biochemical conditions and crime ○ Suggests that biochemical factors—both inherited and influenced by diet and environment—affect deviant and antisocial behavior. Here are some key examples: ○ Nutritional Deficiencies: Lacking essential vitamins can lead to lower intelligence and behavioral issues. ○ Hypoglycemia: Low blood sugar levels can disrupt normal brain function, resulting in unusual behavior. ○ Hormonal Influences: Hormones like testosterone can increase aggression in males, helping to explain differences in crime rates between genders. ○ Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS): Fluctuations in female hormones during the menstrual cycle may lead to aggressive and antisocial behavior. ○ Allergies: Allergies can interfere with brain function, potentially affecting behavior. For instance, some studies have linked corn allergies to higher homicide rates in certain countries. ○ Environmental Contaminants: Exposure to chemicals like lead is associated with emotional and behavioral disorders. Research has shown a correlation between higher lead levels and increased aggression or crime rates. Neurophysiological conditions ○ Neurophysiology is the study of brain activity. This field examines how certain neurological and physical abnormalities—especially those developed during pregnancy or shortly after birth—can influence behavior. ○ Abnormalities in the brain can lead to increased aggression and poor impulse control ○ Some traits can be inherited and may be influenced by environmental stressors affecting the developing brain. ○ Examples of Conditions: Fetal alcohol syndrome Minimal brain dysfunction ADHD Brain lesions and tumors For instance, Charles Whitman, who killed multiple people, was found to have a malignant brain tumor that may have influenced his violent behavior.  Head injuries Injuries to the frontal and prefrontal cortex can impair executive functions, while damage to the temporal lobe can lead to auditory hallucinations (like hearing voices). Genetic conditions and crime ○ Believes that criminality was passed down ○ Question: Is there a hereditary influence on antisocial tendencies? Ex. Some animals such as pit bulls or fighting bulls/cocks are selectively bred to emphasize aggressive traits. Traits associated with criminality in this approach: aggression, anti-social behaviour, impulsivity, psychopathy, schizophrenia A bio-trait theory approach to crime prevention ○ Definition: Eugenics is the practice of trying to improve the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally. ○ Eradicating "Negative Defects": This approach aimed to eliminate traits seen as undesirable, such as criminal behavior, sexual perversion, or mental illness. ○ procedures included restriction on marriage laws, segregation of the mentally ill, and sterilization to prevent procreation ○ Ex. Leilani Marietta Muir: In 1959, Leilani was sterilized without her consent after being labeled an “intelligent-moron” with an IQ of 64. ○ Alberta's Eugenics Policy: In Alberta, the Alberta Sexual Sterilization Act led to the establishment of the Eugenics Board, which had the authority to approve sterilizations from 1929 to 1972. Evolutionary conditions and crime ○ Certain human traits, like jealousy, are thought to contribute to criminal behavior. ○ From an evolutionary perspective, jealousy may have developed to help keep families together and ensure the survival of offspring. ○ Aggression is also seen as evolutionary. For example, aggressive behavior in chimpanzees suggests that males might benefit from taking risks, while females tend to be more cautious. ○ It's believed that the descendants of early aggressive males account for a significant amount of male violence in society, which is linked to higher rates of criminality among men. Critiques of the biological branch of trait theory ○ Tends to focus on only specific types of crimes (violent or ‘street crimes’)  ○ There has been a lack of adequate empirical testing to validate the claims made by biological or biosocial trait theories. The use of non-representative samples (i.e. studying inmates or individuals already within the criminal justice system) ○ Biological trait theory is inconclusively able to determine whether one’s biological makeup predetermines their behaviour or whether environmental factors trigger certain biological developments or responses Branch #2: Psychological trait theories ○ This branch focuses on the mental aspects of crime, examining how factors like intelligence, personality, learning, and mental illness influence criminal behavior. ○ Early Studies: Some studies found a correlation between low intelligence and crime among convicts, while others suggested that people learn criminal behavior through imitation. ○ Three Branches of Psychological Trait Theories: Psychodynamic Perspective Behavioral Theories Cognitive Theory Psychodynamic Perspective ○ This the2ory divides human consciousness into three parts: ID: Represents unconscious biological drives (e.g., hunger, sex). EGO: Balances the demands of the ID with social norms, shaped by early childhood experiences. SUPEREGO: Incorporates moral standards and values from society. ○ Crime Explanation: Crime may result from disruptions in early childhood development, with criminals often dominated by their ID. ○ For example: Drug abuse could stem from a lack of oral gratification in infancy. Conditions like schizophrenia may arise from a failure to regulate the ID, EGO, and SUPEREGO. Behavioral Theories ○ Behavioral theories argue that actions are learned through experiences, not innate biological traits. ○ For instance, children may learn aggression by mimicking violent behavior they observe in adults. ○ A study by David Phillips found that homicide rates increased after major sporting events, suggesting that people model aggressive behavior from these events.  Cognitive Theory ○ This theory explores how individuals perceive the world and develop morally. ○ Criminals may not progress through the stages of moral development, limiting their understanding of universal values. ○ Antisocial behavior may stem from inadequate decision-making processes developed from negative early experiences. Limitations of Psychological Trait Theories ○ Ex. Key Case Study: Many women in Canada were labeled as "insane" and subjected to invasive treatments despite not committing violent crimes. Many diagnoses were linked to mood disorders stemming from actions like infanticide or vagrancy, often affecting lower-income and ethnic minority women. ○ Underlying Issues: There's an assumption about what constitutes deviation from social norms, which can influence diagnoses and treatment. Social and Policy Implications of Trait Theories ○ Shift in Crime Prevention: Moving from deterrence strategies to rehabilitation and treatment for mental health issues. ○ Addressing Mental Illness: Recognizing that individuals with mental health issues may engage in acts beyond their control. ○ Reducing Recidivism: Focusing on interventions for chronic offenders who may have significant mental health problems. ○ Early Intervention: Encouraging parenting programs and other preventive measures to reduce delinquency. WEEK 9 LAB The Individual vs. the Social The ‘social’ + Derived from the Latin: ‘Socii’ meaning ‘allies’ + Modern definition: of, or relating to, society or its organization (and institutions) Concern with the relating of the individual to the group Rather than an isolated individual, the perspective of the social locates individual choices and behaviours relative to numerous ‘social factors’ that determine/shape it: + impacts of rapid technological development + state of familial ties in modern society + The experience of migration/immigration + Gendered expectations and norms in society + Social status and inequality Social structure theories of crime ○ Motivation for crime results from the socio-cultural environment we live in ○ With trait theories, social structure theories take human behaviour to be determined ○ Social structures argue that: If violence were purely a result of individual traits or biology, we would expect similar rates of violent crime everywhere. However, this is not the case—crime rates can vary significantly between different cities, regions, and neighborhoods. Recognizing these patterns is crucial for criminologists. By studying variations in crime rates, they can identify underlying social, economic, and environmental factors that contribute to crime. Factors such as community resources, social cohesion, policing practices, and economic opportunities often play a significant role in influencing crime rates, suggesting that a more comprehensive approach is needed to understand and address crime effectively. The economic structure and crime ○ For social structure theorist’s economic inequality and class stratification in society play a major role in causing crime ○ Underlying hypothesis: Individuals of economically disadvantaged groups are more likely to commit crime ○ Questions asked: Does income inequality or the lack of material possessions lead to criminal behaviour? Does poverty produce a culture marked by low self-worth, cynicism, mistrust (of each other and institutions) as well as aggression or anger? Are the unemployed more likely to commit crimes of subsistence? Do individuals (youth) living in environments characterized by social disintegration, poverty, and a lack of adequate institutions gravitate more toward deviant behaviour and drug use?  Social disorganization theory ○ Crime rates are closely linked to the characteristics of neighborhoods. Higher crime rates are often found in neighborhoods that have a lot of movement (people frequently coming and going) and mixed-use spaces (residential and commercial). These areas typically have weak community ties. Such neighborhoods often lack essential services, proper housing, low-income households, and high unemployment. This disorganization makes it difficult for the community to establish social control and support, like schools and community centers. ○ Effects of Poverty: The concentration of poverty in these areas leads to instability, as residents are eager to leave for better opportunities. This results in: Lack of established business community Weak relationships between neighbors who are always moving Breakdown in communication within neighbourhoods Lack of common goals among residents ○ This instability and absence of social institutions contribute to criminal behavior and deviance. ○ SUB theories: concentric zone, social ecology school ○ Concentric Zone Theory: Focuses on transitional neighborhoods, often found in inner-city areas. These neighborhoods have: identified with the inner-city zones of cities High rates of population turnover Not enough resident investment in the neighbourhood  Low-rent in low-income areas attracts new immigrant populations ○ Frequent changes in the local population can lead to a breakdown of shared norms and values, resulting in value conflict. This diminishes the neighborhood's ability to socialize residents and allows deviant values to thrive in the absence of common values. ○ The Social Ecology School: This perspective looks at shared values–how community decline and economic downturns relate to crime–rather than just focusing on value conflicts. Neighborhoods with failing infrastructure, high poverty, and lack of services experience high crime rates. Studies show a connection between high homicide rates and poverty levels in a neighborhood. Fear stemming from changes in the neighborhood (like graffiti, trash, and visible drug use) can further decline the area, as businesses suffer and residents seek to escape. ○ Fear and mistrust within a community discourage residents from investing in their neighborhood and allow deviant groups, like gangs, to gain a foothold. Limitations to social disorganization theory ○ Evidence of high crime rates in low-income neighbourhoods is drawn solely from police reports ○ It does not explain why most individuals living in low-income areas do not engage in criminal activity Strain (Anomie) Theory ○ Crime is a consquence of lower-class frustration and anger ○ Strain occurs when there’s a gap between socially accepted goals and the actual ability to achieve them. ○ Ex. The “north american dream”: People who cannot realize this dream will find other means of achieving them The societal mantra of wealth and success ‘by any means necessary’: Those in affluent areas by comparison feel less strain because of of available opportunities ○ Sub theories: institutional anomie theory, relative deprivation theory, general strain theory  Institutional Anomie Theory ○ The disparity in means relative to the American Dream explains the high crime rates in the U.S. ○ The emphasis on accumulating wealth at any cost can weaken community bonds and social institutions like family, religion, and education. ○ When the demands of work take precedence over family and community, it undermines the ability of these institutions to regulate behavior. Relative deprivation theory ○ Created when those who are affluent live near those who are poor ○ Poor people will feel more deprived when the wealth that they do not have is flaunted in their face ○ This visible inequality creates strain and envy, which can lead to criminal behavior. Feelings of humiliation can drive individuals to retaliate against perceived injustices. ○ Interestingly, feelings of deprivation can affect not just the poor but also the wealthy, who may feel frustration when comparing themselves to those even wealthier. General strain theory ○ This theory looks at how personal stress and strain can lead to criminal behavior, rather than just societal factors. ○ Robert Agnew, the developed of GST, calls these ‘negative ○ affective states’ ○ These ‘negative affective states’ can be produced due to: strain caused by failure to achieve positively valued goals strain caused by disjunction of expectations and achievements (caused for example by comparing oneself with their peers) Strain as the removal of positively valued stimuli (loss of a loved one) strain as the presentation of negative stimuli (includes experiences of child abuse, victimization, family/peer conflict) ○ This position tries to explain criminal behaviour relative to all members of society regardless of class, background or context. ○ Individuals with greater self-control are said to better cope with strain ○ Ex. Research project on the impacts of precarious employment on the mental health of racialized men Cultural Deviance theory ○ Combines social disorganization theory and strain theory in order to explain how people living in poor areas react to social isolation and economic deprivation  ○ This theory suggests that youth in low-income neighborhoods often reject middle-class values—like hard work, formal education, and caution—because they see these ideals as unattainable. Instead, they adopt the values of a "lower-class subculture." ○ These lower-class subcultures then come into conflict with conventional norms and values. Culture conflict: when the rules and norms of an individual’s subcultural affiliation conflict with the role demands of conventional society. ○ Ex. ‘gang delinquency’ among youth in low-income neighbourhoods ○ Sub theories: theory of delinquent subcultures, theory of differential opportunity Theory of Delinquent Subcultures ○ focuses specifically on how delinquent behaviour among lower-class youth is a protest against the norms and values of middle class culture. ○ Lower class youth are argued to experience ‘status frustration’ due to the inability to realize legitimate success in society. ○ Many are argued to join gangs and engage in malicious and negative behaviour as a form of rebellion. ○ Participating in these gangs also allows these youth to find a means of gaining recognition as well as status; two elements previously denied to them Theory of Differential Opportunity ○ theory suggests that everyone wants the same goals—like success and wealth—but not everyone has the same ways to achieve them. ○ When people can’t reach their goals through legal ways, they may turn to illegal activities. ○ They often find support from peers, especially in gang settings. ○ 3 gangs youth are likely to join Criminal Gangs: Found in stable but low-income areas. Engage in organized crime for success. Conflict Gangs: Operate in places with few opportunities for both legal and illegal success. Their activities are chaotic and often involve violence. Retreatist Gangs: Members have given up on achieving success through any means. They often resort to drug use and live on the fringes of society. Critiques of social structure theories ○ argue that higher crime rates may result from over-policing these areas. ○ Many people in low-income neighborhoods face the same challenges but do not engage in illegal behavior. Chronic offenders are often responsible for most crimes.  Social and Policy Implications of social structure theories ○ Direct public assistance and welfare Lower crime rates when families receive supplemental income ○ Community development Recreation programs, educational programs, sanitation, work with police to strengthen community Head Start, Neighborhood Legal Services, Community Action Programs ○ Alternatives to incarceration or punishment models of crime prevention ○ Community Policing WEEK 10 Social Process Theories ○ Social Process Theories help explain why two people living in the same environment may make different choices, such as one turning to crime and the other following the law. These theories focus on social and psychological factors that influence behavior. ○ Level of analysis: situational ○ Key principles informing social process theories: No matter a person's race, class, or gender, everyone has the potential to either follow the law or engage in criminal activity. Having supportive friends, a strong family, good education, and community backing can help protect against the negative effects of things like poverty or living in a rundown neighborhood. Criminality as a function of socialization ○ For social process theorists, socialization is as important as social structure ○ Socialization is seen as primarily taking place within the family, and secondarily taking place in social institutions (Ex. Schools) Three branches of social process theories: ○ Social learning theory Crime is seen as something people learn, rather than something they are born with. This learning happens through the norms, values, and behaviors we pick up from others around us. Direct learning: This comes from people we interact with closely, like family or friends. They influence our views and actions, including how we may learn to engage in criminal behavior.  Indirect learning: This happens through things like the media (TV, movies, social media) where we might see crime portrayed and learn behaviors or attitudes from these sources. Learned criminal behaviours can include: Actual techniques of crime: theft Psychological aspects of crime: how to deal with emotions, or ways of responding to guilt or shame Underlying theoretical premise: Human beings are born good but they learn the bad ○ Social Control Theories Social control theory suggests that people are naturally inclined toward bad behavior and need external control to behave well. People are born bad but must be controlled to be good Early versions of the theory linked crime to a lack of self-control and self-esteem. Later versions focus on the importance of social bonds—like family and community ties—in guiding behavior and preventing crime. Strong social connections help keep people on track, while weak bonds can lead to delinquency. ○ Labelling Theory Believes that the human being is a thinking, interpreting being (we play an active role in defining and interpreting what we encounter) Labelling theory focuses on the role of interpretive processes (our reading of symbols, signs, language, and labels) in the shaping of the self The ‘self’ is informed primarily by how others see or relate to oneself; by the labels that are imposed on us How others label yourself is how you form your reality Social Conflict Theory of crime ○ social Conflict theory focuses on how power and inequality in society influence 2crime. It looks at the economic and social context to explain why crime happens and what causes it. ○ Focus on power and hierarchy: Social Conflict theory examines how power is distributed in society. Those with more power (rich, influential people) can often avoid punishment, while those with less power (poor, marginalized groups) are more likely to be targeted for crime.  ○ What and why questions: The theory tries to explain both what crime is and why it happens, but from the perspective of social inequality and economic systems. Crime and Class struggle ○ Conflict theory argues that the law and criminal justice system are tools used by the powerful to maintain control and protect their interests, rather than ensuring fairness or safety for all. ○ Crime is seen as a result of inequality and class struggle. The theory focuses on how the ruling class influences laws, creates conditions that lead to crime, and biases the justice system to favor the powerful. ○ It also links crime rates to the inequalities of a capitalist economy. What is Marxism? The roots of Social conflict Theory Karl Marx (1818-1883) Historical Context: ○ Industrial revolution ○ Capitalist expansion ○ Rising power of the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) ○ Increasing number and poverty of the newly created class of ‘wage- labourers’ Marxism and materialism ○ Marx believed that ideas, values, and social norms are shaped by the way a society organizes its economy—its mode of production. ○ In a capitalist society, for example, the way goods are produced influences people's beliefs and values. ○ Marx argued that it's not people's ideas that shape their lives, but rather the economic system they live under that shapes how they think and act. Marxist criminology ○ Under capitalism, the criminal justice system and laws reflect the existing economic system, which is based on class inequality. ○ The system is shaped by Class hierarchy (bourgeoisie vs. proletariat/working class) Increasing social and economic inequality And ongoing capital accumulation What does this mean about our definition of crime? ○ Marxist criminologists argue that the owners of the means of production (the wealthy and powerful) control society’s norms, values, and laws.  ○ They believe that criminal laws are not based on a shared moral agreement or universal principles, but are created by the powerful to protect and advance their own interests. ○ In other words, the laws are designed to keep the rich in power and maintain the existing social order. The functions crime and law under conditions capatlism ○ According to Marxist criminology, the actions of the state and its institutions are designed to serve the interests of capitalism and the capitalist class (the wealthy and powerful). These interests include: Fostering the accumulation of capital Maintaining the legitimacy of unequal social relations Controlling the actions of those who threaten private property and public order (see ‘instrumental Marxism’) ○ Crimes committed by the wealthy or in their interest (like environmental damage or wage theft) are often ignored, while actions by the poor or working class are criminalized. Essentially, the legal system protects the interests of the ruling class. Marxist criminology and the why question? ○ Marxist Criminology explains crime by focusing on the roles of power and inequality in society. ○ Why do people engage in criminal behavior? The Powerful (Capitalists): The wealthy and powerful (capitalists) often engage in actions that are socially harmful but are not defined as criminal. These actions are done to protect and increase their economic interests, even if they harm society (e.g., environmental damage, exploitation). The Working Class (or less powerful): The working class may commit crimes, but these acts are often a response to poverty and the alienation caused by capitalism. They might turn to crime because of the harsh conditions they face—struggling to survive under inequality. Structural Causes: Both classes’ involvement in crime is influenced by the economic system and not by free choice. The capitalist is driven to maximize profits and capital accumulation by any means necessary, while the worker is driven by the need to survive in an unjust system. Marxist approaches to crime prevention ○ Radical democracy ○ Collective ownership and control over the means of production  i.e. communism ○ Redistribution of societal resources Limits of marxist crim ○ Marxist criminology focuses on how poverty, alienation, and the interests of the wealthy influence crime, but it doesn't explain all criminal behavior. ○ Crimes like rape or violent crime may involve psychological factors or personal motives that Marxist theory doesn't fully address. ○ Psychological theories argue that individual traits and mental health also play a role in crime. ○ While many criminal laws protect the interests of the ruling class, some crimes, like rape, are not just about class but involve issues of gender and power. ○ Thus, not all crimes can be explained by class alone. Other branches of Social Conflict Theory ○ Left Realism ○ Feminist Theory ○ Deconstructionism ○ Restorative Justice ○ Peacemaking ○ Criminology Building from a foundation ○ Left realism Argues that the focus on the abuse of power by only the ruling elite can be too narrow This position holds that all crime cannot be reduced to class contingencies/interests, and that instead, ‘crime’ is a very present reality and concern for the working class Ex: many ‘street criminals’ prey on the poor and disenfranchised, who are abused by both capitalism and members of their own class ○ Feminist theory Like Marxist Criminology, Feminist Perspectives are concerned with: Issues of power The distribution of economic and social resources The differential position of selected groups in society A basic position underlying feminism is that there is a fundamental distinction between sex and gender  Sex (male/female): Is a biological classification indicated primarily by genital characteristics Gender (masculine/feminine) WEEK 11: The roots of violence ○ Causes of violent people Personal traits Ineffective families Evolutionary Factors/Human Instinct Cultural Values Regional Values Substance Abuse Personal Traits ○ Studies of ‘male batterers’ in spousal abuse and family violence cases indicate the presence of abnormal personality structure such as depression or borderline personality disorders ○ A recent article published in a peer-reviewed medical journal argues that Ivan the Terrible likely suffered from ‘temporal lobe syndrome’. This evidenced through his rapid mood swings, fits of rage, and lack of self-control Ineffective families ○ Ex: Ivan the Terrible’s father died when he was 3 and his mother was poisoned when he was 8. His caretakers were often abusive with him and denied him affection and even food. ○ Brutalization Process: when parents victimize their children, causing them to develop a belligerent and angry demeanor. ○ Violence becomes directed toward siblings and other children ○ Some research has shown that mental illness such as schizophrenia cannot be explained as a contributor to violent behaviour, and instead multiple factors including childhood experiences independently contribute to violence Evolutionary Factors/Human Instinct ○ Psychoanalytic approaches Freud’s Two Basic Instincts: Eros (Life instinct): Drives love, creativity, and survival. Thanatos (Death instinct): Drives destruction (self-destructive or violent behavior toward others).  Ivan’s violent actions (e.g., purges, executions) could be seen as expressions of Thanatos—a destructive urge toward others and possibly himself. ○ Biological Factors: Humans may have inborn aggression (e.g., influenced by testosterone in males). Ivan's violent behavior may have been partly due to biological aggression, combined with his psychological trauma and harsh upbringing. ○ Ivan’s early life trauma (e.g., losing parents, instability) likely contributed to his violent tendencies. ○ His personal loss (death of his wife) led to a turning point in his behavior, making him more paranoid and brutal. Cultural & Regional Values ○ Arguments that focus only on the individual fail to account for larger patterns of societal violence ○ Ex: Ivan the Terrible struck his daughter-in-law because he believed she was wearing inappropriate clothing. Substance Abuse ○ Violence is influenced by drug use in three ways: the actual effect of the drugs the need to obtain drugs in relation to drug trafficking The effects of drugs One study linked the effects of sugar to aggression. Alcohol consumption to domestic violence ○ Ex. Ivan the Terrible had a mercury addiction, which he utilized as a pain killer. ○ Common symptoms of mercury overdose include mood swings, irritability and rapid emotional changes Definitions of crime - Homicide ○ Homicide: when a person kills another person ○ Murder: he unlawful killing of a human being with malice aforethought Homicide ○ Rate: There were 611 homicides in Canada in the years 2016 Shooting deaths: 34% Stabbing: 30% Beating: 22%  Strangulation: 7% Shaken baby syndrome: 2% ○ Gendered: 73% of homicide victims were male 90% of the accused are male ○ Strangers: only 16% of solved homicides committed by a stranger Different degrees of homicide ○ Murder in the first degree When a person kills after deliberation Premeditation: The thinking out and planning of a crime This element of intent must be proven (beyond a reasonable doubt) by the prosecution in order to qualify the charge as first-degree murder ○ Murder in the second degree Requires that the actor had malice but not premeditation It occurs when the accused showed disregard for the victim or the desire to inflict serious bodily harm which resulted in murder Ex: Last year in Toronto two men were charged with second degree murder after they got into an altercation with another individual where the individual was stabbed and died as a result of their wounds. ○ Manslaughter (unlawful homicide) Voluntary Manslaughter: Killing in the heat of passion or after provocation. Intent to harm or kill is present, but malice (deliberate planning) is not. Example: Killing someone in a fit of rage after being provoked. Involuntary Manslaughter: Killing due to negligence or recklessness without intent to harm. The person’s actions were careless and created a risk of death. Example: A fatal car accident caused by reckless driving. ○ Serial Homicide Serial killer: three or more victims over a period of time Types of Serial Killers: Visionary Killers: who commit psychotic murders in response to an inner voice Mission-oriented killers: who kill persons considered undesirable (ex. Prostitutes)  Hedonistic killers: thrill seekers who get sexual pleasure from their acts Power/control-oriented killers: who enjoy having control over their victims Active serial killers today? The FBI estimates 20-50 active serial killers in the US Canadian context: Missing and Murdered Aboriginal Women and Girls ○ Mass murders Mass murderer: four or more victims in a single location, over a short period of time ○ Ex: school shooters Serial Killers and mass murderers often have long histories of violence, starting in childhood However, one study in England identified serial killers who had no apparent personality problems until late in their lives, who were married and considered ‘respectable people’; some even had careers in the police service. WEEK 12 Crime Typologies: ○ Violent Crimes Crimes that physically harm others Property Crimes ○ The misappropriation of other people’s property White-Collar Crimes ○ Crimes requiring the abuse of power ○ Technically classified as ‘non-violent’ Public Order Crimes ○ Public Moral Offences Cybercrimes ○ Theft or destruction of information using computers, networks, the internet  Cybercrime ○ A new and growing group of offences that involve theft and misuse or destruction of information using computers, networks and the internet ○ Categories of cyber crimes Cybertheft Cybervandalism Cyberwar Cyberterrorism The digital society ○ We are in a world in which technology is vastly increasing. Key features of the digital society: ○ Constant communication ○ Growing digital footprint More data collected from internet users ○ The ability of users to seek out and filter their reality ○ Altermed methods of communication Use of email and direct message (social media) ○ Blurred lines between public and private ○ Inequality in the digital society Better internet, better phones, better technical skills ○ Impacts of democratic participation and providing a platform for marginalized groups Online organizations The growth of cybercrime ○ Cybercrime is the fastest growing example of criminal activity ○ Lots of economic costs of cybercrime What is cybercrime? ○ David Wall’s four categories of crime Cybertrespass: unauthorized use of a computer (hacking) Cyberdeception and cybertheft: Financial and data theft; intellectual property theft; piracy; identity fraud Cyberporn and cyberobsenity: online trading of sexually illicit materials, including sex trafficking, sex work, sex tourism and child sexual grooming Cyberviolence: cause interpersonal harms to others (cyberstalking; cyberbullying; cyberharassment) Cyberterrorism/political violence  Cyberbullying ○ The willful and repeated harm inflicted through online communication Cybercrime–new challenges ○ The increasing spread of activities online have caused complications Keeping pace with the development of technology, new crimes are rapidly evolving Cybercrimes are difficult to detect using traditional law enforcement practices The Dark Web Law enforcement has to learn to develop technical skills that match those of the perpetrators The dark web ○ Describes parts of the internet that hide your identity and location ○ The dark web is the ability in this alternate reality to essentially be invisible (to communicate, engage, exchange, and travel without any trace or visibility State initiated cybercrimes ○ Alongside the development of the internet has been the parallel ability of the state to engage in greater surveillance of citizens Political crimes in the 21st century ○ Illegal acts designed to undermine an existing government ○ Can include both violent and non-violent acts and can range in seriousness from dissent, treason, espionage, to terrorism and assassination ○ Political criminals goals are: Intimidation: threatening those who do not share their views Revolution: overthrowing the existing government Profit: Selling state secrets or trafficking stolen arms Conviction: They believe the crimes they commit will benefit society Pseudo-conviction: they may conceal their motivations behind a mask of altruism  Types of political crimes ○ Election fraud Illegal interference with election process ○ Treason ○ Espionage ○ State political crimes Includes illegal actions by state against population or other government ○ Terrorism Terrorism ○ Types: State terrorism/ State-sponsored terrorism Eco-terrorism Nationalistic terrorism Political terrorism