Criminology Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

Criminology Exam 2 Study Guide Chapter 5: Early and Classical Criminological Theories Review role of theory in criminology. ○ Efforts to explain or understand crime causation ○ Attempt to justify or excuse crime or deem it entirely insuff...

Criminology Exam 2 Study Guide Chapter 5: Early and Classical Criminological Theories Review role of theory in criminology. ○ Efforts to explain or understand crime causation ○ Attempt to justify or excuse crime or deem it entirely insufficient for shaping effective social policy. ○ Explaining why is not justifying Demonological theory: applied to control crime ○ AKA supernatural explanations ○ From early history through 18th century: means of determining guilt ○ Criminal viewed as evil, sinner possessed by demons or damned other forces ○ Main challenges to theological explanations of reality: philosophical arguments that pursued rational, secular, and worldly interpretations of human fate ○ ☆ACCOUNT FOR: mala in se crime ○ ☆NOT ACCOUNT FOR: mala prohibita crimes Role of free will and rationality in explaining crime in classical theory. ○ Crime = rational decision by individuals who weigh benefits and consequences ○ Offenders = morally responsible because voluntarily choose to commit crimes ○ Humans = rational beings who act in their self-interest, seeking to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. ○ ☆ACCOUNT FOR: premeditated crime, ○ ☆NOT ACCOUNT FOR: crimes of passion, mental health related-crime ○ Beccaria: punishment must ___ to be effective Severe, swift. certain ○ Bentham: hedonism, utilitarianism Law = happiness for greatest amount of people Hedonism: pain/pleasure principle ○ Cornerstone of modern Western criminal law 8th amendment: prohibits cruel + unusual punishment Beccarian legacy Neoclassical theories: emerged from classical theories. ○ Emerged as response to limitations of classical theories by acknowledging that individual circumstances can affect criminal behavior. ○ Classical theory (free will and rationality), neoclassical theories (nuanced understanding of behavior = recognizing factors beyond complete rational choice) ○ ☆ACCOUNT FOR: cybercrime, property crimes, fraud, robbery ○ ☆NOT ACCOUNT FOR: crimes of passion, crimes due to mental illness ○ Rational choice theory People choose to commit crime after weighing benefits and consequences  If crime provides immediate benefits w/o long term risks = commit crime Reward = great, risk = small, excitement = high = committing more crime ○ Deterrence theory Specific deterrence: individual avoid criminal behavior if potential punishment is viewed as undesirable Person sentenced to 6 months in jail for drunk driving. Prevent specific individual from committing same crime in future General deterrence: people fear the punishment that others receive, they will decide not to engage in similar acts in order to avoid that punishment Judge gives harsh sentences on a high-profile fraud case to send a message to society that financial crimes will not be tolerated, discouraging others from engaging in similar behavior. Ecological Theory: how it explains crime ○ Ecology: interrelationships between organisms and environment ○ Human ecology:interrelationship between humans and physical environment ○ Crime = result of environmental factors (neighborhood characteristics, social disorganization, economic conditions) ○ Crime = influenced by where people live and social structures they are part of, not just individual choice ○ How social environments (e.g., poverty, urban density) contribute to crime patterns over time and space ○ ☆ACCOUNT FOR: gang-related crimes, public disorder, robbery ○ ☆NOT ACCOUNT FOR: white collar, cyber, murder ○ Annual "budget" of crime*** certain amount of crime is expected or "allocated" within specific areas neighborhood tends to maintain a relatively stable level of crime over time more poverty + weak social institutions = greater "budget" for crime ○ Thermic law of crime Violent crimes = more common in warmer weather Property crimes = more common in colder weather Influence of Economic Theory on early criminological theories. ○ ☆ACCOUNT FOR: white collar crimes, theft, fraud ○ ☆NOT ACCOUNT FOR: violent crimes ○ Karl Marx: capitalism & socialism Capitalism produces proletariat + bourgeoisie Socialism will resolve crime ○ Bonger: criminal law and class Law protects upper class Capitalist societies emphasize egoism Capitalism precipitates crimes Chapter 6: Biological and Psychological Theories Positivists ○ Seek to uncover the basic causes of crime. ○ Basic premises: measurement (quantification), objectivity (neutrality), and causality (determinism) ○ 3 elements to the positivistic approach Apply scientific method Discover diagnosis of pathology (sickness) underlying criminal actions Treatment (therapy or corrections) Early biological theories and issues related to these theories. ○ Biological positivism: Lombroso Atavism: biological throwbacks (defects) Physical stigmata: physical features gave way to criminality Offenders = biologically inferior Factors associated with people of color + malnourished/impoverished ○ Ferri's Typology: Insane, born, habitual, occasional, criminal by passion Multiple factor approach to crime causation Anthropological, physical, social People who offend lack in pity + probity ○ Feeblemindedness: Charles Goring People who offend = mentally defective Goring refuted Lombroso’s theory ○ Heredity (Goddard) and eugenics Profiled Kallikak family + manipulated findings Use of eugenics, compulsory sterilization, restrictive, immigration Science of intelligence used to justify social hierarchy ○ Physical inferiority, body types Physical inferiority cause of criminality Compatible with totalitarianism Body types Endomorphs ○ Soft, round → relaxed, easygoing, extroverted ○ Inclined to delinquency + fraud ○ Wealthy Mesomorphs ○ Hard, muscular → aggressive, assertive, action seemers ○ Most likely to engage in crime (violence, murder)  Ectomorphs ○ Thin, fragile → introverted, sensitive, worry ○ Inclined to be occasional thieves ○ Poor ○ Nature vs nurture Brain disorders Lobotomy: destruction of frontal lobe, last resort ○ Drug therapy replaced lobotomies Psychosurgery: surgically altering brain tissue Cingulotomy: tiny lesion into cingulum (links emotional centers) Twin studies Attempt to address nature vs. nurture Studies are ex post facto Monozygotic vs dizygotic Monozygotic concordance Adoption studies Determination behavior matches biological or adoptive parents Historical + recent findings Influence of the individual human mind, personality, and behavior on crime as presented by psychological theories. ○ Psychology vs. psychiatry vs. psychoanalysis Psychology = mind + behavior Psychiatry = diagnosis + treatment Psychoanalysis = uses approaches to treat issues ○ Freudian theory Instinctual basis of human behavior 3 parts of human personality: ID: animalistic/instinctual/desires Ego: moral guardian, mediator Superego: reality principle (right or wrong) Criminality = unconscious motivated ○ Psychometry Field seeks to measure differences b/w people ○ Personality (Eysenck, Yochelson & Samenow) Conscience + guilt = conditioned reflexes Extroverted personality = more delinquency Behavioral modification Socio-environmental constraints = irrelevant Proposed treatments = confront antisocial thoughts ○ Conditioning (BF Skinner)  Behavior as response to conditioning Unacceptable behavior engineered toward acceptable behavior Theory less concerned with underlying causes ○ Social Learning (Bandura) Looking at thought processes Individuals “learn” how to engage in aggression Reinforcement or punishment = important Person learns by doing and observing ○ Influence of IQ Intelligence = acquired + inherited trait IQ remains critical variable IQ - delinquency relationship + school failure ○ Mental illness, psychopathy Psychopath never develops all range of emotions Actual definition +diagnosis of psychopathology = elusive Connection between biological and psychological theories and policy ○ Psychological: rehab-based policies (ex: CBT) to modify behavior patterns ○ Biological: advocate for medical interventions (ex: meds) to manage ○ Therapy over incarceration, emphasizing rehab for offenders with mental illnesses (include diversion programs or specialized mental health courts) Chapter 7: Sociological Mainstream Theories Anomie and discuss how used in various sociological theories ○ Durkheim's Anomie Theory Mechanical: simplistic + homogenous Organic: complex + diverse Collective conscience = less crime Organic = more crime Anime = social condition, instability Hopelessness + normlessness = deviant behavior ○ Merton's Strain Theory→ modes of adaptation “Strain” between aspirations + achievement Modes of Personality Adaptation: ○ Conformist: accepts ○ Innovator: accepts ○ Ritualist: reject goals, go through motions ○ Retreatist: rejects ○ Rebel: rejects ○ Robert Agnew: General Strain Theory Means for coping with socio-emotional probs that cause stain  Teach coping skills → decrease crime Provide examples of social process theories and criminality ○ Structure theories Chicago School: Social disorganization Crime linked to breakdown of social institutions (family, education, community orgs) in certain neighborhoods. EX:: Inner-city neighborhoods with low social cohesion struggle to enforce informal rules, leading to higher crime rates. Routine activities Crime occurs when 3 conditions converge: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of capable guardians. EX: burglar breaks into house left unattended while its residents are on vacation, taking advantage of the lack of guardianship. ○ Differential Association & its propositions Behavior learned through interactions with others (intimate groups) EX: Youth who grow up in neighborhoods with high crime rates may adopt criminal behavior through exposure to peers or family members involved in crime. ○ Matza: drift theory, techniques of neutralization Individuals move between conformity and deviance rather than being fully committed to one or the other. Teenager usually follow rules but might shoplift once, convincing themselves it was a harmless one-time act. How society maintains social control and criminality as deviance ○ Society maintains social control by enforcing norms, laws, and values through institutions like family, schools, and law enforcement, while labeling behaviors that violate these norms as deviant. ○ Reckless' Containment theory Inner containment: self-control, conscience, sense of responsibility Outer containment: external factors (family support, societal norms, institutional supervision) EX: teenager may face peer pressure to commit theft (pull) but resist due to a strong family bond (outer containment) and personal sense of morality (inner containment). ○ Hirschi's Social Bond Theory Attachment: ties to family, friends, and others (strong = discourages deviance out of fear of disappointment) Commitment: investment in conventional activities (high = future goals makes crime risky)  Involvement: participation in conventional activities (busy with pro-social activities reduces opportunities for deviance) Belief: acceptance of societal values and laws (strong belief in law discourages deviance) EX: student deeply involved in extracurricular activities and committed to academic success = less likely to engage in crime ○ Gottfredson & Hirchi's General theory of Crime crime stems from low self-control EX: person w/ low self-control might impulsively commit theft when presented with an easy opportunity, such as an unlocked car Summarize how criminality changes over life course. ○ DCL theories: Development of offending and antisocial behavior Offending begins in childhood and evolves through various stages Long-term patterns influenced by changes in personal development and environmental factors across the life span. Risk factors of delinquency or committing crime at different ages Poor parenting Exposure to violence Lack of supervision Effects of life events on life course development Key life events (marriage, employment) redirect away from crime Negative life events destabilize and make more vulnerable ○ Sampson & Laub's Life course criminality Strong social bonds (family, school, or work) can lead to "desistance" from crime, meaning individuals reduce or stop offending over time. Even those with criminal past can change, as turning points (like marriage) strengthen bonds and encourage prosocial behavior. ○ Farrington’s notion that bad life events increase one’s antisocial disposition Negative life events (parental divorce, poverty, or bullying) accumulate, increasing developing antisocial traits and engaging in crime Exposed to multiple adverse events are more prone to adopt patterns of criminal behavior, especially without protective social support Identify the connection between sociological mainstream theories and crime policy. ○ Social Structure and Strain Theories: reduce inequality and improve access to education, employment, and social services to address the structural causes of crime (e.g. poverty or lack of opportunities) EX: programs like job training, housing assistance, and welfare reforms are examples of policy responses.  ○ Social Control Theories: strengthen community institutions, to build social bonds and prevent delinquency. EX: include youth mentoring programs, community policing, and initiatives aimed at increasing parental involvement. Chapter 8: Sociological Critical Theories and Integrated Theories Critical vs mainstream theory. ○ Critical: variety of perspectives that challenge basic assumptions of mainstream criminology Label Powerful groups in control Crime = rational response ○ Consensus worldview in which the existing society and its operations are perceived as relatively viable or unquestioned. ○ Positivistic orientation that stresses objectivity and empirical analysis. ○ Contemporary: don’t address full range of criminal behavior Individual actor instead of behavior as whole Labeling theory and secondary deviance. ○ Labeling theorist: base POV on symbolic interactionism, school of thought that emphasizes subjective and interactional nature of human experiences No act is intrinsically evil, it's about reaction to actor Effect of negative interactions + label Stigmatize (“I am what you say I am” Self Fulfilling prophecy*** ○ Lemert: primary and secondary deviance Primary = don’t know going against norm Secondary = already labeled Leads to stigma, how people treat you Hard to lose labels ○ Braitwaite's shaming theory Summarize basic elements of conflict criminology. ○ Political Nature of Criminal Law: Austin Turk People with similar beliefs join forces and develop similar understandings and commitments ○ Conflict Theory: William Chambliss and Richard Quinney Criminal law represents interest of powerful forces + deviance as political over moral question ○ Conflict Criminology & Race: W.E.B. Dubois Courts 2 forms of justice: different sentences for white and Black people. ○ Conflict Criminology and Social Class: Jeffrey Reiman  Acts treated not crimes = greater danger to public as criminalized Acts that are criminalized = those of the poor Compare feminist criminology with mainstream criminology. ○ Focus on Gendered Experiences: how social structures, patriarchy, and gender roles shape women's experiences with crime, while mainstream criminology often overlooks or generalizes these gendered dynamics. ○ 3 areas of crime have received the most attention: Victimization of women Gender differences in crime Gendered justice (differential treatment of females in the justice system) ○ Radical vs Liberal Feminism Radical patriarchy is the primary source of women's oppression rejecting traditional gender roles and challenging male dominance Focus on sexual violence, reproductive rights Liberal achieving gender equality through reforms and change gradual change through advocacy, legislation, and policy reforms Focus on workplace discrimination, equal pay, access to education Radical criminology’s view on capitalism and crime. ○ Crime control in capitalist society is accomplished through variety of institutions established by the elite for the purpose of establishing domestic order. ○ As the gap between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat widens, penal law will expand in an effort to coerce the proletariat into submission. ○ Crime diverts the lower classes’ attention from the exploitation they experience and directs it toward other members of their own class. ○ Conflict vs. Marxist Criminology 1. Conflict criminology: Places less emphasis on capitalism. Accepts alternative to revolution. 2. Marxist or radical criminology: Names capitalism and inequality as the sources of crime. Advocates revolutionary overthrow of the system. Importance of crime typologies and the influence they have on criminology. ○ Until an acceptable general theory is developed, it is desirable to delimit the specific areas to which a theory is applicable. ○ Framework for Understanding Criminal Behavior: provide structure to categorize different types of crimes to analyze patterns, causes, and consequences specific to each type  ○ Guidance for Policy Development and Resource Allocation: distinguishing between various crime types, policymakers can target interventions, allocate resources more effectively, tailor prevention strategies ○ Facilitation of Research and Theory Development: assist researchers in formulating and testing theories relevant to specific categories of crime Evaluate the limitations of theoretical range and criminological explanations. ○ Global fallacy: error of attempting to have a specific theory explain all crime. The range of theories may be at the general (macroscopic) level or at the specific (microscopic) level. ○ Oversimplification of Complex Behaviors: reduce complexity of behavior to few variables, don’t account for the multifaceted nature of crime ○ Lack of Generalizability: may not apply uniformly across different populations, contexts, or types of crime. ○ Neglect of Emerging Crime Trends: may struggle to address new forms of crime from technological advancements and societal changes Distinguish between sociological critical and integrated theories on crime policies. ○ Focus on Structural Inequalities: Both emphasize role of social structures and inequalities (such as class, race, and gender) in shaping crime and deviance Advocatie for policies that address systemic issues and promote social justice rather than merely focusing on individual behavior