Introduction to Psychology (PDF)

preview Wondering About Human Behavior Near the end of every summer, a remote stretch of Nevada des- lives in monasteries, or go to school. You might even wonder, at ert hosts Burning Man, an eclectic weeklong festival attended least someti...

preview Wondering About Human Behavior Near the end of every summer, a remote stretch of Nevada des- lives in monasteries, or go to school. You might even wonder, at ert hosts Burning Man, an eclectic weeklong festival attended least sometimes, why you do what you do. In other words, just by tens of thousands of, well, unusual folks. It’s hard to explain like your authors, the odds are you are curious about human just what this unique event is about except to say that attend- behavior. That may even be a part of the reason you are taking ees are encouraged to openly express themselves in any way a course in psychology and reading this book. they see fit. (Feel free to unleash your imagination on this one.) Look around you: The Internet, television, newspapers, Revelers participate in a riotous cultural experience that cli- radio, and magazines are brimming with psychological top- maxes with the burning of a giant wicker man. Old hippies mix ics. Psychology is an ever-changing panorama of people and with self-described rednecks, performance artists, musicians, ideas. You really can’t call yourself educated without knowing sun worshippers, and individualists of every stripe. something about it. And, although we might envy those who Why, you might wonder, do people go to Burning Man, some have walked on the moon or explored the ocean’s depths, the of them year after year? But then again, you might equally won- ultimate frontier lies much closer to home. Psychology can help der why people join the Army, or get married, or travel to dif- you better understand yourself and others. This book is a guided ferent countries, or become suicide bombers, or live out their tour of human behavior. We hope you enjoy the adventure. Psychology — The ABCs of Behavior Gateway Question: What is psychology, and what are its goals? People have always been curious about human behavior. The word psychology itself is thousands of years old, coming from the ancient Greek roots psyche, which means “mind,” and logos, mean- ing “knowledge or study.” However, have you ever actually seen or touched a “mind”? Because the mind can’t be studied directly, psychology is now defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. What does behavior refer to in the definition of psychology? Any- Picture Partners/Alamy thing you do — eating, hanging out, sleeping, talking, or sneez- ing — is a behavior. So are studying, snowboarding, gambling, watching television, tying your shoelaces, wrapping presents, learning Spanish, and reading this book. Naturally, we are inter- ested in overt behaviors (directly observable actions and responses). Psychologists are highly trained professionals. In addition to the psychological knowledge they possess, psychologists learn specialized skills in counseling and But psychologists also study covert behaviors. These are private, therapy, measurement and testing, research and experimentation, statistics, internal activities, such as thinking, dreaming, remembering, and diagnosis, treatment, and many other areas. other mental events ( Jackson, 2008). All in all, then, psychology studies behaviors from A to Z: aging, burnout, conformity, death, emotion, flexibility, group- room, a lab, or a clinic, all psychologists rely on critical thinking think, hypnosis, intelligence, joy, kinesthesis, love, memory, noise and information gained from scientific research. pollution, originality, personality, quantitative reasoning, repres- sion, sexuality, therapy, unconscious, wisdom, vision, xenophobia, Seeking Empirical Evidence youth, zeitgeist, and much more. Many people regard themselves as expert “people watchers” and Today, psychology is both a science and a profession. As scien- form their own “common-sense” theories of behavior. However, tists, some psychologists do research to discover new knowledge. you may be surprised to learn how often self-appointed authori- Others are teachers who share their knowledge with students. Still ties and common-sense beliefs are wrong. Check your own exper- others apply psychology to solve problems in mental health, edu- tise about human behavior by reading “Testing Common-Sense cation, business, sports, law, and medicine (Coolican et al., 2007). Beliefs.” Later we will return to the profession of psychology. For now, let’s Because of the limitations of common sense, psychologists focus on how knowledge is created. Whether they work in a class- have a special respect for scientific observation, which is based 12  Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods 13 CRIT ICA L T H I N KI N G Testing Common-Sense Beliefs It may appear that psychological research The more motivated you are, the better Actually research has shown that all these “discovers” what we already know from every- you will do at solving a complex problem. beliefs are false. Yet in a survey, all the beliefs day experience. Why waste time and money True or False? were accepted as common sense by many confirming the obvious? Actually, common- The major cause of forgetting is that college students (Landau & Bavaria, 2003). sense beliefs are often wrong. See if you can memory traces decay or fade as time How did you do? tell which of the following common-sense passes. True or False? We can all benefit from being more reflec- beliefs are wrong (Landau & Bavaria, 2003): Psychotherapy has its greatest success in tive as we evaluate our beliefs. It’s valuable the treatment of psychotic patients who to think critically and ask whether a belief Babies love their mothers because moth- have lost touch with reality. True or False? makes logical sense. Do any of the concepts ers fulfill their babies’ physiological need Personality tests reveal your basic in this book apply to the belief? Can you for food. True or False? motives, including those you may not be imagine how you could collect evidence that Most humans use only 10 percent of aware of having. True or False? might get you closer to the truth? Critical their potential brainpower. True or False? To change people’s behavior toward mem- Thinking boxes like this one will help you be Blind people have unusually sensitive bers of ethnic minority groups, we must more reflective as you think critically about organs of touch. True or False? first change their attitudes. True or False? human behavior. on gathering empirical evidence (information gained from direct Los Angeles over a 4-year period. When they graphed air tempera- observation). Unlike personal observation, scientific observation ture and the frequency of aggravated assaults, a clear relationship is systematic and intersubjective. In other words, observations are emerged ( Figure 1.1). Assaults and temperatures rise and fall planned and they can be confirmed by more than one observer. more or less in parallel (so there may be something to the phrase Basically, the empirical approach says, “Let’s take a more objective “hot under the collar”). look” (Stanovich, 2007). We study behavior directly and collect Isn’t the outcome of this study fairly predictable? Not if you started data (observed facts) so that we can draw valid conclusions. Would out believing otherwise. Sometimes the results of studies match our you say it’s true, for instance, that “Absence makes the heart grow personal observations and common-sense beliefs and sometimes fonder”? Why argue about it? As psychologists, we would simply they come as a surprise. In this instance, you may have guessed the get some people who are separated (“absent hearts”) and some outcome. Your suspicions were confirmed by scientific observa- who see each other every day (“present hearts”) and find out who tion. However, hostile actions that require more extreme physical is fonder of their loved ones! exertion, such as fistfights, might become less likely at very high Here’s an example of gathering empirical evidence: Have you temperatures. Without systematically gathering data, we wouldn’t ever wondered if people become more hostile when it’s boiling hot know for sure if overheated Angelenos become more lethargic or outside? John Simister and Cary Cooper (2005) decided to find more aggressive when it gets hot. Thus, the study tells us something out. They obtained data on temperatures and criminal activity in interesting about frustration, discomfort, and aggression. 10% 43 40 thatFigure 1.1 Results of an empirical study. The graph shows aggravated assaults in Los Angeles become more likely as 37 Aggravated assault, % of year 34 air temperature increases. This suggests that physical discomfort Temperature in Los Angeles 31 is associated with interpersonal hostility. (Data from Simister & 9% 28 25 Cooper, 2005.) 22 19 16 8% 13 10 7 4 1 7% 2 5 Aggravated assault, % of year (left-hand scale) 8 Psychology The scientific study of behavior and 11 mental processes. Temperature in LA (right-hand scale) 14 6% 17 Scientific observation An empirical investigation Jan. 1993 Jul. 1993 Jan. 1994 Jul. 1994 Jan. 1995 Jul. 1995 Jan. 1996 Jul. 1996 structured to answers questions about the world in a systematic and intersubjective fashion (observations can be reliably confirmed by multiple observers). 14 CHAPTER 1 “Like other learning theorists, I study how and why learning occurs in humans and animals. Right now I’m investigating how patterns of punish- ment affect learning.” “As a sensation and perception psychologist, I investigate how we discern the world through our senses. I am using a perceptual theory to study how we are able to recognize faces in a crowd.” “Comparative psychologists study and compare the behavior of different species, especially animals. Personally, I’m fascinated by the communication abilities of porpoises.” “Cognitive psychologists are primarily interested in thinking. I want to know how reasoning, problem solving, memory, and other mental pro- cesses relate to computer game playing.” “Biopsychologists are interested in how behavior relates to biological processes, especially activities in the nervous system. I’ve been doing some exciting research on how the brain controls hunger.” “Gender psychologists study differences between females and males. I want to understand how gender differences are influenced by biology, child rearing, education, and stereotypes.” “Social psychologists explore human social behavior, such as attitudes, persuasion, riots, conformity, leadership, racism, and friendship. My own interest is interpersonal attraction. I place two strangers in a room and ana- The scientific study of dreaming was made possible by use of the EEG, a device that lyze how strongly they are attracted to each other.” records the tiny electrical signals generated by the brain as a person sleeps. The EEG “Evolutionary psychologists are interested in how our behavior is converts these electrical signals into a written record of brain activity. Certain shifts guided by patterns that evolved during the long history of human- in brain activity, coupled with the presence of rapid eye movements, are strongly kind. I am studying some interesting trends in male and female mating related to dreaming. (See Chapter 6, pages 186–188, for more information.) choices.” “Cultural psychologists study the ways in which culture affects human Psychological Research behavior. The language you speak, the foods you eat, how your parents disciplined you, what laws you obey, who you regard as ‘family,’ whether Many fields, such as history, law, art, and business, are also inter- you eat with a spoon or your fingers — these and countless other details of ested in human behavior. How is psychology different? Psycholo- behavior are strongly influenced by culture.” gy’s great strength is that it uses scientific observation to system- “Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles to legal issues. I atically answer questions about behavior (Stanovich, 2007). Of am interested in improving the reliability of eyewitness testimony during course, it may be impractical or unethical to study some topics. trials.” More often, questions go unanswered for lack of a suitable research method (a systematic process for answering scientific This small sample should give you an idea of the diversity of questions). In the past, for example, we had to take the word psychological research. It also hints at some of the information we of people who say they never dream. Then the EEG (electro- will explore in this book. encephalograph, or brain-wave machine) was invented. Certain EEG patterns, and the presence of eye movements, can reveal Animals and Psychology that a person is dreaming. People who “never dream,” it turns Research involving animals was mentioned in some of the preceding out, dream frequently. If they are awakened during a dream, they examples. Why is that? You may be surprised to learn that psychol- vividly remember it. Thus, the EEG helped make the study of ogists are interested in the behavior of any living creature — from dreaming more scientific. flatworms to humans. Indeed, some comparative psychologists spend their entire careers studying rats, cats, dogs, parrots, or Research Specialties chimpanzees. What kinds of topics do psychologists study? Here’s a sample of what Although only a small percentage of psychological studies various psychologists might say about their work: involve animals, they include many different types of research “I’m a personality theorist. I study personality traits, motivation, and indi- (Ord et al., 2005). Some psychologists use animal models to vidual differences. I am especially interested in the personality profiles of discover principles that apply to humans. For instance, animal highly creative college students.” studies have helped us understand stress, learning, obesity, aging, “In general, developmental psychologists study the course of human sleep, and many other topics. Psychology also benefits animals. growth and development, from conception until death. I’m especially inter- For example, caring for domestic animals, as well as endangered ested in the transition from the teenage years to early adulthood.” species in zoos, relies on behavioral studies.  Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods 15 bridges Bystander apathy and conditions that influence whether people will help in an emergency are of great interest to social psychologists. See Chapter 17, pages 564–566 for details. Prediction Psychology’s third goal, prediction, is the ability to forecast behavior accurately. Notice that our explanation of bystander apa- thy makes a prediction about the chances of getting help. If you’ve Ron Cohn/The Gorilla Foundation ever been stranded on a busy freeway with car trouble, you’ll recognize the accuracy of this prediction: Having many potential helpers nearby is no guarantee that anyone will stop to help. Control Description, explanation, and prediction seem reasonable, but is con- Some of the most interesting research with animals has focused on attempts trol a valid goal? “Control” may seem like a threat to personal free- to teach primates to communicate with sign language. Psychologist Penny dom. However, to a psychologist, control simply refers to altering Patterson has spent 35 years teaching Koko more than 1,000 signs. One of Koko’s conditions that affect behavior. If a clinical psychologist helps a favorite signs (“stink”) is shown here. (To learn more, visit www.koko.org.) Such research has helped illuminate the origins of human language and has even sug- person overcome a terrible fear of spiders, control is involved. If gested better methods for teaching language to children with serious language impairment. (See Chapter 9, pages 291–292, for more information.) Psychology’s Goals What do psychologists hope to achieve? Psychology’s ultimate goal is to benefit humanity (O’Neill, 2005). Specifically, the goals of the science of psychology are to describe, understand, predict, and control behavior. What do psychology’s goals mean in practice? Let’s see. Charles Gupton/Stock Boston Description Answering psychological questions often begins with a careful description of behavior. Description, or naming and classifying, is typically based on making a detailed record of scientific observations. But a description doesn’t explain anything, does it? Right. Useful knowledge begins with accurate description, but descriptions fail Some psychologists specialize in administering, scoring, and interpreting psy- to answer the important “why” questions. Why do more women chological tests, such as tests of intelligence, creativity, personality, or aptitude. attempt suicide, and why do more men complete it? Why are This specialty, which is called psychometrics, is an example of using psychology to predict future behavior. people more aggressive when they are uncomfortable? Why are bystanders often unwilling to help in an emergency? Understanding Research method A systematic approach to answering scientific questions. We have met psychology’s second goal when we can explain an event. That is, understanding usually means we can state the Animal model In research, an animal whose behavior is used to derive principles that may apply to human behavior. causes of a behavior. For example, research on “bystander apathy” reveals that people often fail to help when other possible helpers Description In scientific research, the process of naming and classifying. are nearby. Why? Because a “diffusion of responsibility” occurs. Basically, no one feels personally obligated to pitch in. As a result, Understanding In psychology, understanding is achieved when the causes of a behavior can be stated. the more potential helpers there are, the less likely it is that anyone will help (Darley, 2000; Darley & Latané, 1968). Now we can Prediction An ability to accurately forecast behavior. explain a perplexing problem. Control Altering conditions that influence behavior. 16 CHAPTER 1 you suggest changes in a classroom that help students learn better, Critical Thinking — Take It with you have exerted control. Control is also involved in designing automobiles to keep drivers from making fatal errors. Clearly, psy- a Grain of Salt chological control must be used wisely and humanely. Gateway Question: What is critical thinking? In summary, psychology’s goals are a natural outgrowth of our How does critical thinking play a role in psychology? Most of us desire to understand behavior. Basically, they boil down to asking would be skeptical when offered a “genuine” Rolex watch or the following questions: expensive designer sunglasses for just a few dollars on eBay. Like- What is the nature of this behavior? (description) wise, most of us easily accept our ignorance of subatomic physics. Why does it occur? (understanding and explanation) But because we deal with human behavior every day, we tend to Can we forecast when it will occur? (prediction) think that we already know what is true in psychology. All too What conditions affect it? (control) often, we are tempted to “buy” common-sense beliefs and even outrageous claims about psychics “channeling” dead people, the powers of “healing” crystals, “miraculous” herbal remedies, astrol- K NOW LED G E B U I L D E R ogy, and so forth. The Science of Psychology For these and many more reasons, learning to think critically is one of the lasting benefits of a college education. Critical think- RECITE To check your memory, see if you can answer these questions. If you miss any, ing refers to an ability to reflect on, evaluate, compare, analyze, skim over the preceding material before continuing to make sure you under- critique, and synthesize information. Critical thinkers are willing stand what you just read. to challenge conventional wisdom by asking the hard questions. 1. Psychology is the ___________________ study of _______________ For example, everyone knows that women are more talkative than and ____________ processes. men, right? Critical thinkers might immediately ask: “How do 2. The best psychological information is typically based on we know that women talk more than men? Is there any empirical a. proven theories b. opinions of experts and authorities evidence that supports this “wisdom”? (Be on the lookout later in c. anthropomorphic measurements this chapter for some evidence concerning this belief.) What could d. empirical evidence we do to find out for ourselves? 3. In psychological research, animal _________________ may be used to discover principles that apply to human behavior. 4. Which of the following questions relates most directly to the goal of understanding behavior? Thinking About Behavior a. Do the scores of men and women differ on tests of thinking The heart of critical thinking is a willingness to actively reflect on abilities? b. Why does a blow to the head cause memory loss? ideas. Critical thinkers evaluate ideas by analyzing the evidence c. Will productivity in a business office increase if room tempera- supporting their beliefs and probe for weaknesses in their reason- ture is raised or lowered? ing. They question assumptions and look for alternate conclu- d. What percentage of college students suffer from test anxiety? sions. True knowledge, they recognize, comes from constantly Match the following research areas with the topics they cover. revising our understanding of the world. They are not afraid to _____ 5. Developmental psychology A. Attitudes, groups, leadership admit they were wrong. As Susan Blackmore (2001) said when her _____ 6. Learning B. Conditioning, memory _____ 7. Personality C. The psychology of law studies caused her to abandon some long-held beliefs, “Admitting _____ 8. Sensation and perception D. Brain and nervous system you are wrong is always hard — even though it’s a skill that every _____ 9. Biopsychology E. Child psychology psychologist has to learn.” _____ 10. Social psychology F. Individual differences, Critical thinking relies on the following basic principles (Elder, _____ 11. Comparative psychology motivation G. Animal behavior 2006; Kida, 2006): H. Processing sensory 1. Few “truths” transcend the need for empirical testing. While information religious beliefs and personal values may be held as matters REFLECT of faith, without supporting evidence, most other ideas can Critical Thinking be evaluated by applying the rules of logic, evidence, and the 12. All sciences are interested in controlling the phenomena they study. scientific method. T or F? 2. Judging the quality of evidence is crucial. Imagine that you are Relate At first, many students think that psychology is primarily about abnor- a juror in a courtroom, judging claims made by two battling mal behavior and psychotherapy. Did you? How would you describe the lawyers. To decide correctly, you can’t just weigh the amount field now? of evidence. You must also critically evaluate the quality of sciences that do not share psychology’s fourth goal. the evidence. Then you can give greater weight to the most 8. H 9. D 10. A 11. G 12. F Astronomy and archaeology are examples of Answers: 1. scientific, behavior, mental 2. d 3. models 4. b 5. E 6. B 7. F credible facts. 3. Authority or claimed expertise does not automatically make an idea true. Just because a teacher, guru, celebrity, or authority  Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods 17 is convinced or sincere doesn’t mean you should automati- cally believe them. It is unscientific and self-demeaning to just take the word of an “expert” without asking, “What evi- dence convinced her or him? How good is it? Is there a better explanation?” 4. Critical thinking requires an open mind. Be prepared to consider daring departures and go wherever the evidence leads. However, don’t become so “open-minded” that you are simply gullible. As astronomer Carl Sagan once noted, “It seems to me that what is called for is an exquisite balance between two conflicting needs: the most skeptical scrutiny of all hypotheses that are served up to us and at the same time a great openness to new ideas” (Kida, 2006, p. 51). Bettmann/Corbis To put these principles into action, here are some questions to ask over and over again as you evaluate new information (Browne & Keeley, 2007; Elder, 2006): 1. What claims are being made? What are their implications? Phrenology was an attempt to assess personality characteristics by examining various areas of the skull. Phrenologists used charts such as the one shown here 2. What tests (if any) of these claims has been made? What was as guides. Like other pseudopsychologists, phrenologists made no attempt to the nature and quality of the tests? Are they credible? Can empirically verify their concepts. they be repeated? 3. How good is the evidence? (In general, scientific observa- teenth century by Franz Gall, a German anatomy teacher. Phre- tions provide the highest-quality evidence.) nology claimed that personality traits are revealed by the shape of 4. Who did the tests? How reliable and trustworthy were the the skull. Modern research has long since shown that bumps on investigators? Do they have conflicts of interest? Do their the head have nothing to do with talents or abilities. In fact, the findings appear to be objective? Has any other independent phrenologists were so far off that they listed the part of the brain researcher duplicated the findings? that controls hearing as a center for “combativeness”! Palmistry is a 5. Finally, how much credibility can the claim be given? High, similar false system that claims lines on the hand reveal personality medium, low, provisional? traits and predict the future. Despite the overwhelming evidence against this, palmists can still be found separating the gullible A course in psychology naturally enriches thinking skills. In from their money in many cities. this book, all upcoming chapters include Critical Thinking ques- At first glance, a pseudopsychology called graphology might seem tions like the ones you have seen here. Take the time to tackle more reasonable. Some graphologists claim that personality traits these questions. The effort will sharpen your thinking abilities and are revealed by handwriting. Based on such claims, some companies make learning more lively. For an immediate thinking challenge, use graphologists to select job candidates. This is troubling because let’s take a critical look at several nonscientific systems that claim graphologists score close to zero on tests of accuracy in rating per- to explain behavior. sonality (Furnham, Chamorro-Premuzic, & Callahan, 2003). In fact, graphologists do no better than untrained college students in rating personality and job performance (Neter & Ben-Shakhar, Pseudopsychologies — Palms, 1989). Even a graphological society recently concluded that hand- writing analysis should not be used to select people for jobs (Simner Planets, and Personality & Goffin, 2003). (By the way, graphology’s failure at revealing per- Gateway Question: How does psychology differ from false sonality should be separated from its value for detecting forgeries.) explanations of behavior? Graphology might seem harmless enough. However, imagine A pseudopsychology (SUE-doe-psychology) is any unfounded being denied a job because a graphologist didn’t like your hand- system that resembles psychology. Many pseudopsychologies give writing. This false system has been used to determine who is hired, the appearance of science but are actually false. (Pseudo means given bank credit, or selected for juries. In these and similar situa- “false.”) Pseudopsychologies change little over time because follow- tions, pseudopsychologies do, in fact, harm people. ers seek evidence that appears to confirm their beliefs and avoid evi- dence that contradicts their beliefs. Scientists, in contrast, actively look for contradictions as a way to advance knowledge. They are Critical thinking An ability to reflect on, evaluate, compare, analyze, skeptical critics of their own theories (Schick & Vaughn, 2004). critique, and synthesize information. Can you give some examples of false psychologies? One early pseu- Pseudopsychology Any false and unscientific system of beliefs and dopsychology, known as phrenology, was popularized in the nine- practices that is offered as an explanation of behavior. 18 CHAPTER 1 Uncritical Acceptance Even daily horoscopes printed in newspapers can seem uncan- nily accurate. However, such perceptions are typically based on uncritical acceptance (the tendency to believe positive or flat- tering descriptions of yourself ). Horoscopes are generally made up of mostly flattering traits. Naturally, when your personality is described in desirable terms, it is hard to deny that the description has the “ring of truth.” How much acceptance would astrology receive if a birth sign read like this: Virgo: You are the logical type and hate disorder. Your nitpicking is unbear- able to your friends. You are cold, unemotional, and usually fall asleep while making love. Virgos make good doorstops. If pseudopsychologies have no scientific basis, how do they survive Positive Instances and why are they popular? There are several reasons, all of which Even when an astrological description contains a mixture of good can be illustrated by a critique of astrology. and bad traits it may seem accurate. To find out why, read the fol- lowing personality description. Problems in the Stars Your Personality Profile Astrology is arguably the most popular pseudopsychology. Astrol- You have a strong need for other people to like you and for them to admire ogy holds that the positions of the stars and planets at the time of you. You have a tendency to be critical of yourself. You have a great deal of one’s birth determine personality traits and affect behavior. Like unused energy which you have not turned to your advantage. While you other pseudopsychologies, astrology has repeatedly been shown to have some personality weaknesses, you are generally able to compensate have no scientific validity. The objections to astrology are numer- for them. Your sexual adjustment has presented some problems for you. ous and devastating (Kelly, 1999): Disciplined and controlled on the outside, you tend to be worrisome and insecure inside. At times you have serious doubts as to whether you have 1. A study of more than 3,000 predictions by famous astrolo- made the right decision or done the right thing. You prefer a certain amount gers found that only a small percentage were fulfilled. These of change and variety and become dissatisfied when hemmed in by restric- “successful” predictions tended to be vague (“There will tions and limitations. You pride yourself on being an independent thinker be a tragedy somewhere in the east in the spring”) or easily and do not accept other opinions without satisfactory proof. You have guessed from current events (Culver & Ianna, 1988). found it unwise to be too frank in revealing yourself to others. At times you 2. If astrologers are asked to match people with their horoscopes, are extroverted, affable, sociable, while at other times you are introverted, they do no better than would be expected by chance. In one wary, and reserved. Some of your aspirations tend to be pretty unrealistic.* famous test, astrologers could not even use horoscopes to distin- Does this describe your personality? A psychologist read this guish murderers from law-abiding people (Gauquelin, 1970). summary individually to college students who had taken a per- 3. There is no connection between people’s astrological signs sonality test. Only 5 students out of 79 felt that the description and their intelligence or personality traits (Hartmann, was inaccurate. Another classic study found that people rated this Reuter, & Nyborg, 2006). There is also no connection “personality profile” as more accurate than their actual horoscopes between the “compatibility” of couples’ astrological signs and (French et al., 1991). their marriage and divorce rates or between astrological signs Reread the description and you will see that it contains both sides and leadership, physical characteristics, or career choices of several personality dimensions (“At times you are extroverted... (Martens & Trachet, 1998). while at other times you are introverted”). Its apparent accuracy is 4. Astrologers have failed to explain why the moment of birth an illusion based on the fallacy of positive instances, in which we should be more important than, say, the moment of concep- remember or notice things that confirm our expectations and forget tion. (Perhaps it is because it is relatively easy to figure out the rest. The pseudopsychologies thrive on this effect. For example, the moment of birth and much trickier and touchy to deter- you can always find “Aquarius characteristics” in an Aquarius. If mine the moment of conception.) Besides, the zodiac has you looked, however, you could also find “Gemini characteristics,” shifted in the sky by one full constellation since astrology was “Scorpio characteristics,” or whatever. Perhaps this explains why, in first set up. (In other words, if astrology calls you a Scorpio an ironic twist, 94% of those sent the full 10-page horoscope of a you are really a Libra, and so forth.) However, most astrolo- famous mass murderer accepted it as their own (Gauquelin, 1970). gers simply ignore this shift (Martens & Trachet, 1998). In short, astrology doesn’t work. *Reprinted with permission of author and publisher from: R. E. Ulrich, T. J. Stachnik, and N. R. Then why does astrology often seem to work? The following dis- Stainton, “Student acceptance of generalized personality interpretations,” Psychological Reports, 13, cussion explains why. 1963, 831–834.  Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods 19 The fallacy of positive instances is also used by vari- Non Sequitur © 1993. Reprinted by permission ous “psychic mediums” who pretend to communicate with the deceased friends and relatives of audience members. An analysis shows that the number of “hits” of Universal Press Syndicate. (correct statements) made by these fakes tends to be very low. Nevertheless, many viewers are impressed because of the natural tendency to remember apparent hits and ignore misses. Of course, embarrassing misses are often edited out before the shows appear on televi- sion (Nickell, 2001). The Barnum Effect a silver lining.” With this in mind, you use your lover’s worrisome Pseudopsychologies also take advantage of the Barnum effect, absences as a chance to spend more time with your family. You which is a tendency to consider personal descriptions accurate if take comfort in this “silver lining” until a family member com- they are stated in general terms (Kida, 2006). P. T. Barnum, the ments, “Where there’s smoke, there’s fire!” Much of what passes famed circus showman, had a formula for success: “Always have a for common sense is equally vague and inconsistent. Notice also little something for everybody.” Like the all-purpose personality that most of these B.S. statements work best after the fact. (B.S., profile, palm readings, fortunes, horoscopes, and other products of course, stands for Before Science.) of pseudopsychology are stated in such general terms that they Systematically recording facts and events is the heart of all sci- can hardly miss. There is always “a little something for everybody.” ences. To be scientific, our observations must be systematic, so that To observe the Barnum effect, read all 12 of the daily horoscopes they reveal something about behavior (Stanovich, 2007). To use found in newspapers for several days. You will find that predictions an earlier example, if you are interested in heat and aggression, you for other signs fit events as well as those for your own sign do. Try will learn little by driving around and making haphazard observa- giving a friend the wrong horoscope sometime. Your friend may tions of aggressive behavior. To be of value, your observations must still be quite impressed with the “accuracy” of the horoscope. be planned and systematic. Astrology’s popularity shows that many people have difficulty separating valid psychology from systems that seem valid but are The Scientific Method not. The goal of this discussion, then, has been to make you a more The scientific method is a form of critical thinking based on care- critical observer of human behavior and to clarify what is, and what ful collection of evidence, accurate description and measurement, is not, psychology. Here is what the “stars” say about your future: precise definition, controlled observation, and repeatable results Emphasis now on education and personal improvement. A learning expe- ( Jackson, 2008). In its ideal form the scientific method has six rience of lasting value awaits you. Take care of scholastic responsibilities elements: before engaging in recreation. The word psychology figures prominently in 1. Making observations your future. 2. Defining a problem Pseudopsychologies may seem like no more than a nuisance, 3. Proposing a hypothesis but they can do harm. For instance, people seeking treatment for 4. Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis psychological disorders may become the victims of self-appointed 5. Publishing results “experts” who offer ineffective, pseudoscientific “therapies” (Kida, 6. Theory building 2006; Lilienfeld et al., 2005). Valid psychological principles are Let’s take a closer look at some elements of the scientific based on scientific observation and evidence, not fads, opinions, method. All the basic elements of the scientific method are found or wishful thinking. in the example that follows. Scientific Research — How to Think Like a Psychologist Uncritical acceptance The tendency to believe generally positive or Gateway Question: How is the scientific method applied in flattering descriptions of oneself. psychological research? Fallacy of positive instances The tendency to remember or notice Suppose that your friend marries someone just like her. What information that fits one’s expectations while forgetting discrepancies. do people say? “Ah... birds of a feather flock together.” And Barnum effect The tendency to consider a personal description what do they say if she gets divorced soon after? “Well, she accurate if it is stated in very general terms. should have known that opposites attract.” Let’s examine another Scientific method A form of critical thinking based on careful common-sense statement. It is frequently said that “every cloud has measurement and controlled observation. 20 CHAPTER 1 Conceptual Level Hypothesized relationship Concepts Frustration Aggression Concrete Level Interrupted Number of times Operational finishing a person insults definitions puzzle interrupter Observed relationship © Dan McCoy/Rainbow observations. Figure 1.2 Operational definitions are used to link concepts with concrete Do you think the examples given are reasonable operational defini- tions of frustration and aggression? Operational definitions vary in how well they represent concepts. For this reason, many different experiments may be necessary to draw clear conclusions about hypothesized relationships in psychology. Applying the scientific method to the study of behavior requires careful observa- tion. Here, a psychologist videotapes a session in which a child’s thinking abili- ties are being tested. Observation trated individual insults the person who prevented work on the Many people believe that women are more chatty than men. Is puzzle.” In other words, covert behaviors are operationally defined there any truth to this belief ? University of Arizona psychologist in terms of overt behavior so they can be observed and studied Mathias Mehl and his colleagues observed that the results of a few scientifically. published reports do seem to support this stereotype. Gathering Evidence/Testing the Hypothesis Defining a Problem Now let’s return to the question of whether women talk more than However, the researchers noticed that none of the studies had men do. To gather data, the researchers used an electronically acti- actually recorded men’s and women’s normal conversations over vated recorder (EAR) to track people’s conversations. This device long periods. Thus, they defined their problem as, “How can we recorded sounds for 30 seconds every 12.5 minutes. Participants record natural conversations without bothering people and per- could not tell when they were being recorded, so they acted and haps biasing our observations?” spoke normally. Researchers counted the number of words spoken when the recorder was on and used that to estimate the total num- Proposing a Hypothesis ber of words spoken each day. On average, women spoke 16,215 What exactly is a “hypothesis”? A hypothesis (hi-POTH-eh-sis) is a words a day, with men close behind at 15,699. This difference is tentative statement about, or explanation of, an event or relation- too small to be meaningful, so we can conclude, as Mehl did, that ship. In common terms, a hypothesis is a testable hunch or edu- there is no evidence that women talk more than men (Mehl et al., cated guess about behavior. For example, you might hypothesize 2007). that “Frustration encourages aggression.” How could you test this hypothesis? First you would have to decide how you are going to Publishing Results frustrate people. (This part might be fun.) Then you will need to Scientific information must always be publicly available. That way, find a way to measure whether or not they become more aggres- other researchers can read about the results and make their own sive. (Not so much fun if you plan to be nearby.) Your observa- observations if they doubt the study’s findings. If others are able tions would then provide evidence to confirm or disconfirm the to replicate (repeat) the results of a study, those results become hypothesis. more credible. Because we cannot see or touch frustration, we must define it The results of psychological studies are usually published in operationally. An operational definition states the exact proce- professional journals ( Table 1.1). That way, anyone willing to dures used to represent a concept. Operational definitions allow make appropriate observations can see whether or not a claim unobservable ideas, such as covert behaviors, to be tested in real- is true ( Jackson, 2008). In a scholarly article, Mehl and his world terms ( Figure 1.2). For example, since you can’t measure colleagues carefully describe the question they investigated, the frustration directly, you might define frustration as “interrupting methods they used, and the results of their study on male and an adult before he or she can finish a puzzle and win an iPhone.” female talkativeness. The article was published in the journal Sci- And aggression might be defined as “the number of times a frus- ence (Mehl et al., 2007).  Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods 21 Table 1.1 Outline of a Research Report bridges Abstract Research reports begin with a very brief summary of the study and its findings. The abstract allows you to get an overview without One of the major limitations of Freudian personality theory is reading the entire article. that many of its concepts are not testable or falsifiable. See Introduction The introduction describes the question to be investi- Chapter 12, page 402. gated. It also provides background information by reviewing prior studies on the same or related topics. Method This section tells how and why observations were made. It also describes the specific procedures used to gather data. That way, other researchers can repeat the study to see if they get the same results. While Mehl and his colleagues did not present a theory of why Results The outcome of the investigation is presented. Data may be graphed, summarized in tables, or statistically analyzed. humans talk more or less, they did discuss how their findings might Discussion The results of the study are discussed in relation to the affect such a theory. For instance, they pointed out that they only original question. Implications of the study are explored and further studied university students, and that older men and women might studies may be proposed. differ in how much they talk each day. Such findings invite others to study talkativeness in other age groups and to propose theories to explain any differences that might be observed. Theory Building What about theory building? In research, a theory acts as a map of knowledge. Good theories summarize observations, explain KNOWL E DG E B U I L DE R them, and guide further research ( Figure 1.3). Without theories Critical Thinking and the Scientific of forgetting, personality, stress, mental illness, and the like, psy- chologists would drown in a sea of disconnected facts (Stanovich, Method in Psychology 2007). RECITE 1. The fallacy of positive instances refers to graphology’s accepted value for the detection of forgeries. T or F? 2. Personality descriptions provided by pseudopsychologies are stated Observation in general terms, which provide “a little something for everybody.” This fact is the basis of the a. palmist’s fallacy b. uncritical acceptance pattern Define problem c. fallacy of positive instances d. Barnum effect 3. Most of psychology can rightfully be called common sense because psychologists prefer informal observation to systematic observation. T or F? Propose hypothesis 4. A psychologist does a study to see if exercising increases sense of well-being. In the study he will be testing an a. experimental hypothesis Gather evidence b. operational definition Test hypothesis c. empirical definition d. anthropomorphic theory 5. ____________ behaviors are operationally defined in terms of ____________ behavior a. overt, covert Reject hypothesis Retain hypothesis b. observable, overt c. covert, overt d. covert, abstract Continued Publish results Theory building Hypothesis The predicted outcome of an experiment or an educated guess about the relationship between variables. behavior. Figure 1.3 Psychologists use the logic of science to answer questions about Specific hypotheses can be tested in a variety of ways, including con- Operational definition Defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it. For example, “hunger” trolled experiments, naturalistic observation, correlational studies, clinical studies, might be defined as “the number of hours of food deprivation.” and the survey method. Psychologists revise their theories to reflect the evidence they gather. New or revised theories then lead to new observations, problems, and Theory A system of ideas designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a hypotheses. way that summarizes existing data and predicts future observations. 22 CHAPTER 1 Wilhelm Wundt, 1832–1920. Wundt is credited with REFLECT making psychology an independent science, sep- arate from philosophy. Wundt’s original train- Critical Thinking ing was in medicine, but he became deeply 6. Can you think of some “common-sense” statements that contradict interested in psychology. In his laboratory, each other? Wundt investigated how sensations, images, 7. Try constructing a few “Barnum statements,” personality statements and feelings combine to make up personal so general that virtually everyone will think they apply to them- experience. selves. Can you string them together to make a “Barnum personality Hulton Archive/Getty Images profile”? Can you adapt the same statements to construct a “Barnum horoscope”? 8. Each New Year’s Day, phony “psychics” make predictions about events that will occur during the coming year. The vast majority of these predictions are wrong, but the practice continues each year. Can you explain why? Relate It is nearly impossible to get through a day without encountering Over the years, Wundt studied vision, hearing, taste, touch, people who believe in pseudopsychologies or who make unscientific or memory, time perception, and many other topics. By insisting on unfounded statements. How stringently do you evaluate your own beliefs systematic observation and measurement, he asked some interest- and the claims made by others? How might you scientifically test the old saw that you can’t teach an ing questions and got psychology off to a good start (Schultz & old dog new tricks? Follow the steps of the scientific method to propose Schultz, 2008). a testable hypothesis and decide how you would gather evidence. (Well, OK, you don’t have to publish your results.) take advantage of the Barnum effect. Structuralism easily deduced from current events or are stated in very general terms to Wundt’s ideas were carried to the United States by Edward Titch- errors. Incidentally, “predictions” that appear to be accurate are usually only remember predictions that seemed to come true and forget all the ener (TICH-in-er). Titchener called Wundt’s ideas structuralism be understood. 8. Because of the fallacy of positive instances, people and tried to analyze the structure of mental life into basic “ele- and closeness. You don’t like being overly dependent. You just want to ments” or “building blocks.” afraid of being hurt. You are trying to find a balance between autonomy How could he do that? You can’t analyze experience like a chemi- cal compound, can you? Perhaps not, but the structuralists tried, comes from Levy (2003), who offers the following examples: You are can’t teach an old dog new tricks.” 7. The term “Barnum statement” is lost” versus “Haste makes waste.” “Never too old to learn” versus “You mostly by using introspection. For instance, an observer might few more to add to the ones you thought of: “He (or she) who hesitates heft an apple and decide that she had experienced the elements Answers: 1. F 2. d 3. F 4. a 5. c 6. There are many examples. Here are a “hue” (color), “roundness,” and “weight.” Another example of a question that might have interested a structuralist is, What basic tastes mix together to create complex flavors as different as broc- coli, lime, bacon, and strawberry cheesecake? Introspection proved to be a poor way to answer most ques- tions (Benjafield, 2004). Why? Because no matter how systematic A Brief History of Psychology — the observations, the structuralists frequently disagreed. And when they did, there was no way to settle differences. Think about it. If Psychology’s Family Album you and a friend both introspect on your perceptions of an apple Gateway Question: How did the field of psychology emerge? and end up listing different basic elements, who would be right? As we noted previously, people have been informally observing Despite such limitations, “looking inward” is still used as one human behavior and philosophizing about it for thousands of source of insight in studies of hypnosis, meditation, problem solv- years. In contrast, psychology’s history as a science dates back only ing, moods, and many other topics. about 130 years to Leipzig, Germany. There, Wilhelm Wundt (VILL-helm Voont), the “father of psychology,” set up a labora- Functionalism tory in 1879 to study conscious experience. American scholar William James broadened psychology to include What happens, he wondered, when we experience sensations, animal behavior, religious experience, abnormal behavior, and images, and feelings? To find out, Wundt systematically observed other interesting topics. James’s brilliant first book, Principles of and measured stimuli of various kinds (lights, sounds, weights). Psychology (1890), helped establish the field as a separate disci- A stimulus is any physical energy that affects a person and evokes pline (Hergenhahn, 2005). a response (stimulus: singular; stimuli [STIM-you-lie]: plural). The term functionalism comes from James’s interest in how Wundt then used introspection, or “looking inward,” to probe his the mind functions to help us adapt to the environment. James reactions to various stimuli. (Stop reading, close your eyes, care- regarded consciousness as an ever-changing stream or flow of fully examine your thoughts, feelings, and sensations, and you will images and sensations — not a set of lifeless building blocks, as the be introspecting.) structuralists claimed.  Introduction to Psychology and Research Methods 23 Archives of the History of American Psychology, University of Akron Archives of the History of American Psychology, University of Akron William James, 1842–1910. William James was John B. Watson, 1878–1958. Watson’s intense inter- the son of philosopher Henry James, Sr., and the est in observable behavior began with his doc- brother of novelist Henry James. During his toral studies in biology and neurology. Watson long academic career, James taught anatomy, became a psychology professor at Johns physiology, psychology, and philosophy at Hopkins University in 1908 and advanced Harvard University. James believed strongly his theory of behaviorism. He remained at that ideas should be judged in terms of their Johns Hopkins until 1920 when he left for a practical consequences for human conduct. career in the advertising industry! The functionalists admired Charles Darwin, who deduced that guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any creatures evolve in ways that favor survival. According to Darwin’s type of specialist I might select — doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant- principle of natural selection, physical features that help animals chief, and yes, beggarman and thief ” (Watson, 1913/1994). adapt to their environments are retained in evolution. Similarly, Would most psychologists agree with Watson’s claim? No, today the functionalists wanted to find out how the mind, perception, it is regarded as an overstatement. Just the same, behaviorism habits, and emotions help us adapt and survive. helped make psychology a natural science, rather than a branch of What effect did functionalism have on modern psychology? Func- philosophy (Benjafield, 2004). tionalism brought the study of animals into psychology. It also promoted educational psychology (the study of learning, teach- Radical Behaviorism ing, classroom dynamics, and related topics). Learning makes us The best-known behaviorist, B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), believed more adaptable, so the functionalists tried to find ways to improve that our actions are controlled by rewards and punishments. To education. For similar reasons, functionalism gave rise to indus- study learning, Skinner created his famous conditioning chamber, trial psychology, the study of people at work. or “Skinner box.” With it, he could present stimuli to animals and record their responses. bridges Today, educational psychology and industrial psychology remain bridges See Chapter 7, pages 226–241, for more information about two major applied specialties. See Chapter 18 for more operant conditioning. information about applied psychology. Many of Skinner’s ideas about learning grew out of work with Behaviorism rats and pigeons. Nevertheless, he believed that the same laws of Functionalism and structuralism were soon challenged by behav- behavior apply to humans. As a “radical behaviorist,” Skinner also iorism, the study of observable behavior. Behaviorist John B. believed that mental events, such as thinking, are not needed to Watson objected strongly to the study of the “mind” or “conscious explain behavior (Schultz & Schultz, 2008). experience.” He believed that introspection is unscientific because there is no way to settle disagreements between observers. Watson realized that he could study the behavior of animals even though Stimulus Any physical energy sensed by an organism. he couldn’t ask them questions or know what they were think- Introspection To look within; to examine one’s own thoughts, feelings, ing (Watson, 1913/1994). He simply observed the relationship or sensations. between stimuli (events in the environment) and an animal’s Structuralism The school of thought concerned with analyzing responses (any muscular action, glandular activity, or other iden- sensations and personal experience into basic elements. tifiable behavior). These observations were objective because they Functionalism The school of psychology concerned with how behavior did not involve introspecting on subjective experience. Why not, and mental abilities help people adapt to their environments. he asked, apply the same objectivity to human behavior? Natural selection Darwin’s theory that evolution favors those plants Watson soon adopted Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov’s (ee- and animals best suited to their living conditions. VAHN PAV-lahv) concept of conditioning to explain most behav- Behaviorism The school of psychology that emphasizes the study of ior. (A conditioned response is a learned reaction to a particular overt, observable behavior. stimulus.) Watson claimed, “Give me a dozen healthy infants, Response Any muscular action, glandular activity, or other identifiable well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in and I’ll aspect of behavior. 24 CHAPTER 1 B. F. Skinner, 1904–1990. Skinner studied simple behaviors under carefully controlled conditions. The “Skinner box” has been widely used to study learning in simplified animal experi- ments. In addition to advancing psychology, Skinner hoped that his radical brand of behaviorism would improve human life. Yvonne Hemsey/Getty Images Skinner was convinced that a “designed culture” based on positive reinforcement could encourage desir- able behavior. (Skinner opposed the use of punishment because it doesn’t teach correct responses.) Too often, he believed, misguided rewards lead to destructive actions that However, Figure 1.4 The design you see here is entirely made up of broken circles. as the Gestalt psychologists discovered, our perceptions have a powerful create problems such as overpopulation, pollution, and war. tendency to form meaningful patterns. Because of this tendency, you will probably see a triangle in this design, even though it is only an illusion. Your whole percep- tual experience exceeds the sum of its parts. Cognitive Behaviorism Radical behaviorists have been criticized for ignoring the role Archives of the History of American Psychology, University of Akron that thinking plays in our lives. One critic even charged that Max Wertheimer, 1880–1941. Wertheimer first Skinnerian psychology had “lost consciousness!” However, many proposed the Gestalt viewpoint to help explain perceptual illusions. He later promoted Gestalt criticisms have been answered by cognitive behaviorism, a view psychology as a way to understand not only that combines cognition (thinking) and conditioning to explain perception, problem solving, thinking, and behavior (Zentall, 2002). As an example, let’s say you frequently social behavior, but also art, logic, philoso- visit a particular website becau