Consolidated Notes for Midterm PDF
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Wilfrid Laurier University
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This document is a set of consolidated notes for a midterm exam. It explores the study of film narrative, covering topics such as the different methods of studying film (description, evaluation, interpretation), what narrative is, the importance of studying narrative, the history of cinema, its evolution, and societal impact.
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09/10 Lecture: Introduction THE STUDY OF FILM NARRATIVE 1. Ways of Studying Film Description: a basic account of what we see and hear (summarization) Evaluation: judgment (review) ○ Unclear/inconsistent among viewers...
09/10 Lecture: Introduction THE STUDY OF FILM NARRATIVE 1. Ways of Studying Film Description: a basic account of what we see and hear (summarization) Evaluation: judgment (review) ○ Unclear/inconsistent among viewers ○ ‘Good vs bad’ based on anything from storyline to cinematic technique Interpretation: a discoveredmeaningto what is seenand heard ○ How the different aspects of a film blend to advance a story ○ Conveying themes and ideas ○ Cues (visual, sonnet, etc) ○ How everything systematically relates to one another ○ Depends on analysis Prereq. for interpretation “The study of how elements … function to create aneffect.” ○ Emotions, thoughts… ○ Explicit Interpretations are concrete and specific ○ Implicit interpretations are abstract and implied 2. What is Narrative? “... a chain of events in a cause-effect (causal) relationship occurring in time and space.” ○ Time = temporal ○ Space = spatial “A whole is that which has a beginning, a middle, and an end … Well-constructed plots must neither beginning nor end in a haphazard way” (Aristotle) 3. Why Study Narrative? Narrative is a universal humane experience ○ We are surrounded by narratives every day, as are humans all around the world ○ No matter culture, social structure… The very first books we learn to read are forms of narrative (e.g.The Very Hungry Caterpillar) Even disciplines we do not consider as narrative often present ideas in narrative form (i.e. religion, science, etc) ○ Ex.: lifecycles Conversations are in narrative form ○ Recounting stories ○ Telling jokes ○ “The priest walked into a bar…” is a set up for a narrative “In narratives, you have to create the situations so that the truth will come out” (Duvernay) We put things in narrative mode even when static/immobile things are placed in front of us (e.g. paintings) ○ Interpretationof visual features to convey a senseof time, movement, causal relationship …. Making narrative a human tendency Makes us smarter moviegoers ○ How a film is put together = puzzle ○ Summons curiosity and suspense so much so that even after we know a plot twist, we want to view a film another time. 1920s: Silent movies - transition to sound FCI Reading 1 (pg 14-45) Movies as a whole Transport the audience “The Kingdom of Shadows” (Gorky) Current-day film = light and colour produced from digital code Evoke every possible feeling and thought “... some people criticize the cinema as escapist entertainment, while others praise it as an imaginative art form that allows people to realize their dreams and fantasies. The reality is that films do both of these things, and more.” Learning about film allows viewers to become more engaged ○ Boosts understanding and appreciation Film analysis ○ Art form ○ Examining sound, writing, and other elements ○ Clarifying the significance of different styles Cinema: A Confluence of Artistry, Industry, and Technology Movie theatre = most noticeable example of cinema/film as a form of art ○ Combo of machine, material, etc is a minuscule example of the lengthy history of film ○ Not the perfect depiction of the beauty of motion picture(s) Film = combination of creativity, economic opportunities and structures, and technical advancements ○ History of production combines society, economy, tech, and aesthetics (factors, networks, advances, etc) Photography advancements paved the way for capturing moving pictures in the nineteenth-century ○ ‘Serial photography’ (i.e.horses in motion) Introduced by Eadweard Muybridge and Etienne-Jules Marey Kinetograph and Kinetoscope ○ KGraph: Utilized film rolls to capture moving images ○ KScope: Device to view the film rolls ○ Invented by Thomas Edison and William Dickson in 1888 Actualites = earliest documentaries ○ Originally in Europe and NY Original movie theatres were called ‘Nickelodeons’ ○ Shorter films ○ Cheap admission ○ American cities 1910s/20s ○ Feature films took over ○ US corps. began competing with Germany and France ○ ‘Star System’ and ‘Movie Mogul’ introduced Caused the industry to move from NY to California (less restricting patents, warmer climate and inexpensive housing) Hollywood = “assembly-line model of industrial production” ○ Now the highest grossing/largest filmmaking capital globally Economy and tech. factors ○ Impact production and distribution ○ Media companies and reg. Frameworks control consumer content Contemporary History of Cinema ○ “... a history of attempts to stave off the competition from newer entertainment technologies, the first of which was television.” ○ TV = mid-twentieth century W hen Americans were moving from cities to suburban areas (more cash to burn) ○ The 1970s introduced home cinema Completely altered the realities/practices of the industry The social aspect was somewhat removed Digitization ○ Altered the econ. and aesthetic nature of film (how movies are made AND watched) ○ Expensive camera → smartphone ○ Production companies → YouTube ○ Some movies are still shot on film (e.g.Loving,Dunkirk,andSuicide Squad) Still the industry standard, though 3D ○ Was outdated before reintroduced in the 2000s ○ Actually 1950s technology ○ Became too expensive (viewers preferred 2D) Counterbalanced decreasing ticket sales for 11 years (‘02-’13) However, the ‘3D Revolution’ never happened despite hopes of execs (incl. MPAA president) Avatar (‘09) initiated the 3D phenomenon Tech. developments ○ Never-ending ○ Most recent: 4K for digital The Cinemas is Dead! Long Live the Cinema! Celluloid = “a transparent flammable plastic madein sheets from camphor and nitrocellulose, formerly used for cinematographic film” (Oxford Languages). ○ Dying, as well as the popularity of movie theatres Cinephile = film lover Movie-theatre attendance remains inconsistent but motion picture is more pertinent than ever before Many believe “the cinema” only refers to what ruled the industry between 1920 and 1950 ○ WRONG: started with shorter films appreciated by one person at a time Directors continue to break down barriers and discover new methods/solutions ○ I.e.Tangerinewas filmed on an iPhone and made itsway to the silver screen Some say film is no longer relevant as the television industry continues to expand ○ Those who supported this belief used cinema to do so I.e. mentioning shows likeHouse of Cards-- deemed ‘cinematic’ time and again (regarding intricacies of the writing, etc) Word choice indicates that “... cinema remains the cultural standard for evaluating screen entertainment.” Film continues to hold cultural purpose ○ The Interview(film about two Americans assassinatingKim Jong-un) caused the North Korean gov’t to hackSonyservers Film = stake-holder in the global economy, symbol of conflicts (resolved and unresolved), product of sociocultural factors Gender Equality ○ Difference in male and female wages within every industry (predominantly entertainment) ○ Franchises (e.gStar Wars)shifting focus from maleto female protagonists Caused uproar in a few cases Letters, protests, boycotts… ○ Other films, such asWonder Woman, achieved the exactopposite response Female role in a genre typically filled with men that previously left women out Black Panther= ‘watershed’ moment due to the centralsuperhero being a person of colour ○ As well as the costars, director, and production team ○ Afrocentrism within the framework of modern/mainstream media Cultural Resonance ○ Does not need to be a blockbuster to hold significance An Approach to Film Analysis Everyone (e.g. casual viewer, film scholar, and film reviewer) has different views and opinions, no matter the film ○ No correct answer/interpretation ○ Casual: may form film-to-self connections or focus on the flashy elements ○ Critics and scholars view films with different lenses Use prior understanding to form ideas (deeper level -- story, technique…) ○ Critics use criteria and comparison Often group films by the same director, actor… (commonalities) Time period plays a large role “Any viewer’s ability to find meaning in a film is based on knowledge, cultural experiences, preferences, formal training, and expectations.” ○ More study = larger understanding Ideas crucial to film analysis ○ 1. Decisions and experiences are influenced by expectations (anything from casting to cinematography) ○ 2. Filmmakers use methodical detail to display information, evoke thought, etc Understanding Audience Expectations Expectations derive from art and culture ○ Labels play a large role too Everything = artistry (action, drama, comedy, etc) Avant Garde ○ Outlet for visual representation as opposed to storytelling There is no one proper definition for or way to make a film ○ All are able to be examined and interpreted Expectations and Modes of Organization Narrative Fiction ○ Utilizes ‘cause and effect’ ○ Bumps met on the way to a final achieved goal ○ Allows audience to connect with protagonists ○ M otivations are not always cookie-cutter (could improve or worsen a movie-going experience) ○ An ending (happy or not) is often anticipated in the hopes of closure Documentary ○ Film makers often utilize typical storytelling methods to meet viewer wants and needs Sense of normalcy Hopefully meets expectations viewers have for other films Example:Blackfish(covers heavy topics easily dueto an identifiable narrative framework -- “true-crime police procedural”) ○ Indirect method Other documentaries do not have clear messages or intentions Example:Winged Migrationfollows the migration ofbirds without stating a main idea Avant-garde ○ Nowhere close to portraying typical methods ○ Focused is on the attractiveness of film ○ Similar to ‘paint and canvas’ art ○ Regularly, no stories are told ○ Utilize symbolism and metaphors ○ Editing patterns > characters or storylines Expectations of Genres, Stars, and Directors Movies based on life are often altered to meet Hollywood/audience expectations ○ E.g.American Sniperheavily features a man (Mustafa)who is rarely mentioned in the autobiography the movie is based on. “... good guy, bad guy, conflict, and resolution.” Many viewers enjoy seeing actors continuously takingon similar roles ○ Even if different genre, same performance expected “Star System” ○ Promo. technique used to turn actors into household names ○ I.e. Judy Garland and musical Audiences also set expectation on directors and producers ○ Directors know this and sometimes shake things up to surprise viewers “In order to analyze a film, …, one must consider viewer expectations and take note of which expectations are met and which are modified or rejected.” Motifs Motif = when a particular detail becomes meaningful due to repetition Used when a director wants viewers to focus on something specific Anything can be utilized to form a motif (e.g. costumes, location, props, etc) More than one use ○ Tells us more about someone or something in a film ○ Imparts wisdom ○ Highlights importance Repetition alone does not determine the significance of a motif Scenes can be repeated as well Parallels “... arises when two characters, events, or locations are compared through the use of a narrative element or a visual or sound device.” ○ Gives the opportunity for viewers to compare and contrast Avant Garde ○ Parallels are often metaphorical Adds definition to films ○ Elaborates on motives, overarching themes, etc ○ Allows film-to-self connections ○ Mode of organization Details and Structure How the middle compares to the beginning and end Turning Points Mark the starting and ending points of the film and specific sections Created using sound, video, editing, discussion, and activity All movies are arranged using repetition and turning points. Repetition and Non-chronological Structure “T he goal of examining the relationship between detailsand structure is to arrive at a comprehensive analysis that takes into account the way seemingly minor elements combine to produce the overall design of a film.” Creating Meaning Through the World Beyond the Film Films refer to the world outside the script ○ Helps viewers connect and understand Historical Events and Cultural Attitudes Period Pieces ○ Historical references are used to form themes (not just identify time and place) Intertextual References Allusions to other movies or forms of art (e.g. music, literature, etc) Could be aploy or hold larger importance (nod orlaziness?) For comedic effect, avant-garde films take intertextuality too far. Compilation Films: made entirely of scenes from other movies. ○ “... create new meanings with existing material by exploiting the ironies that arise when images appear outside their intended or original context.” Meaningful References with Objects Mention of historical or current events ‘Product Placement’ Film Style “Film scholarship and criticism involve more than identifying the details we see and hear on screen; they also require the viewer to consider how details are presented.” Classical, Realist, and Formalist Aesthetics (Three Stylistic Categories) Classical ○ Hollywood studio system ○ Narrative is crucial ○ ‘Aesthetic devices’ (lighting, editing, and sound design) subtly enhance the flow Realist ○ Disregard traditional principles re. characters, plots, and structure. ○ Include typical/boring people Not always a more accurate portrayal of reality ○ Formalist ○ Overtly ‘interventionist’ ○ Interrupt illusion ○ Reminds the audience they are watching ○ “... often prioritize the exploration of abstract ideas: compelling storytelling is less central.” ○ Poses philosophical questions re. the nature of identity, narrative techniques, vision, reality, and truth. Analyzing Film Style Films can utilize methods from numerous perspectives The Goal of Film Analysis: Articulating Meaning “T he purpose of film analysis— breaking a film downinto component parts to see how it is put together— is to make statements about a film’s themes and meaning.” There are three different forms of those statements with numerous degrees of significance ○ Descriptive Claim: Impartial review of the main elements of the film Illustrative plot summary May utilize intertextuality ○ Interpretive Claim: More sophisticated reply Themes and ideas How the film incorporates its main subject matter (as opposed to just identifying what it is) Uses logic Among the most demanding and rewarding elements in film studies Evaluative Claim: ○ Indicates whether the reviewer thinks the movie is excellent, awful, or average Often letter grades or ‘thumbs up’ and does not back up the review/statement Stronger = includes the why and how “... most sophisticated type of claim because it relies on the speaker’s ability to honestly identify the criteria being used, to describe details from the film accurately, to interpret how these details relate to the film’s themes, and to establish the relationship between those details …. and the evaluative criteria.” 09/17 Lecture: Narrative Form Definition of Film Form “A system of relationships among elements of a film.” ○ Generates viewer expectations ○ The use or pattern of relationships among elements leads us to make expectations of what will happen next. Could be met or denied Curiosity keeps us engaged. A film is a collection of elements or parts that are assembled for us to generate an effect. Narrative elements, incl. characters, plot, and themes Stylistic elements (visual/sonic), incl. camera movement, sound effects, lighting, and patterns of colours. ○ Communicate information ○ Film narratives could not exist without them. ○ They constitute the medium. Narrative and Stylistic are linked ○ Narrative: Dorothy is joined by a new character ○ Stylistic: “We’re off to see the wizard…” The parts that make up a film are not presented randomly. ○ Organized precisely to maintain interest ○ What gives the film form. Narrative is the organizing principle of a film. Temporal ellipses = elapsed time Narrative Elements ELEMENTS HAVE NARRATIVE FUNCTIONS! Story vs. plot ○ Narrative and story are not synonymous. ○ Story/fabula: All eventspresentedexplicitly by thefilm andinferredby the viewers, arranged in chronological order. ○ Plot/syuzhet: All eventspresentedexplicitly to theviewer, in theorder of presentation;howa story is told Characters (agents) ○ Caused things to happen ○ Drives narrative action ○ Motivation: the central cause behind a character’s actions ○ Characterization: the process of conveying information about characters Structure ○ Turning Point: a narrative moment that signals an important shift of some kind in character or situation ackstory:events that took place before the plot B Ellipsis:the period between explicitly presenteddiegetic events Classical Hollywood Cinema A mode of cinema characterized by films that: ○ Were produced by companies/studios whose movie sets were located in or near Hollywood. ○ Were produced between approx. 1917-1960 ○ Follow a set of conventions that are stable and influential (hence, 'classical') Conventions of Classical Hollywood Cinema 1. Clarity ○ Space, time, causality, character motivations, etc. 2. Unity ○ Tight causal chain (no superfluous elements) ○ Space and time are presented as a unified whole ○ Motifs: recurrent elements ○ Hooks or “dangling clauses”: questions left hanging, to be resolved 3. Goal-oriented characters (causal agents) who encounter obstacles Goals are the building blocks of the CHC ○ ○ Can be personal and/or professional 4. Closure 5. Unobtrusive, self-effacing style ○ Self-effacing: make invisible FCI Reading 2 (pg 76-86, 350-355) Narrative Form (Intro) Often taught “... you cannot write a film narrated by two people.” Exposition = needed background information ○ If not provided early, the audience's view is altered ○ E.g. inFinding Nemo, Marlin may be considered a ‘killjoy’ without context Ways to encourage audiences to relate to characters with limitations and quirks ○ Use exposition to depict reasoning behind idiosyncrasies ○ Subtly insinuate a character’s past difficulties (backstory) Decisions re. what info to provide and when to reveal it ○ Adds to a movie's narrative structure. ○ This structure = “narrative form” Familiarizing with NF allows audience members to: ○ Gain perspective ○ Recognize motifs/parallels ○ Form opinions “... most feature films are organized according to principles of narrative form…” ○ There are also other types Defining Narrative Narrative = account of a series of events within time and space ○ Not just a mix of random elements ○ Ordered ○ Utilizes logic (i.e. cause and effect) ○ Linear, clear… Cause and Effect → connects character traits, goals, actions, and barriers Narrative films often gear toward human characters and their struggles ○ Emotional, handle conflicts, change… ○ Goal is never the same in two movies (or even scenes) Lofty or banal Concrete or abstract Tzvetan Todorov ○ Russian narrative theorist ○ Believes all narratives include stable situations being disrupted ○ Restoration of balance becomes a crucial goal and aspect of the film Obstacles can be: ○ From within ○ From others ○ From non-human characters ○ From Nature ○ Concrete/physical ○ Psychological/internal ○ Not always overcome in the end Many narrative films include characters overcoming obstacles on multiple levels ○ Physical and emotional goals work together There is a systematic method of creating films ○ Adds meaning ○ It makes movies more enjoyable for viewers ○ Uses a range of cinematic techniques (e.g. lights, cameras, costumes) Framing the Fictional World: Diegetic and Non-diegetic Elements Narrative films utilize elements from outside the made-up story (e.g. credits, background music…) Diegesis = “The implied world of the story, including settings, characters, sounds, and events…” ○ Diegetic = belonging to the world of the story Non-Diegetic/Extradiegetic = “Elements that exist outside the diegesis…” ○ The audience is aware of these but the characters are not ○ Used to draw focus to specific parts of the story from an outside POV ○ Communicates directly with viewers ○ Provokes emotion ○ Huge example → text at the beginning ofStar Wars Texts, tweets, emails, etc are considered diegetic (characters are aware) ○ Text and physical experiences are now interconnected Voice-over narration ○ Character speaks to the audience directly ○ Typically private thoughts ○ Some may consider this non-diegetic ○ If the voice exists within the fictional world = diegetic ○ When narrators are not a part of the story itself = non-diegetic Appear to be objective Not necessarily independent or reliable Music ○ Can be either diegetic or non-diegetic ○ Often the latter Used to accompany romantic or action scenes ○ Music sparks/enhances emotion Narration AND Music ○ Frame the diegesis Provide info. from a POV outside the film ○ Interrupts the diegesis Distances audience Creates humour ○ Enhances mood Reinforces suspense Within the Diegesis: Selecting and Organizing Events Typical film usually runs between 90-180 minutes ○ Two names for this → ‘running time’ or ‘screen time’ “... films do not depict every moment of their characters’ lives; in fact, they omit a great deal. Days, months, or even years may pass in the blink of an eye, or perhaps during a fade-out.” ○ This is how filmmakers cover lengthy stories in the typical running time Syuzhet ○ Selection and ordering of onscreen actions ○ More than eliminating events for the fabula Also reorders events ○ Can begin at any point within the fabula ○ Can manipulate the frequency of events ○ “... may distill, condense, or expand on fabula events…” Fabula ○ Entire chronologial narrative ○ What lies behind the depicted events ○ Includes implied events that occured during the syuzhet ○ Incorporates backstory ○ Chrono. of the fabula can be rearranged using flashbacks/forwards ‘Plot’ and ‘story’ are more typically used ○ S&F work better when dealing with the prescise terminology of film analysis Analyzing narrative structure ○ Viewers need to consider how treating events non-chronologically can impact understanding ‘Omission of fabula from the syuzhet’ ○ Relevant to audience interpretation Distinction between fabula and syuzhet ○ Shows why each event has been selected and ordered a certain way Narrative Structure Standard → Three-act structure ○ Act One: exposition leads to a turning point ○ Act Two: complications lead to climax ○ Act Three: action leading to resolution Denouement = falling action Kristin Thompson → claims films actually utilze a four-part structure ○ Parts are equal length ○ Link turning points to goals Main difference between 3 and 4 ○ Four part has the critical turning point in the dead centre of the movie Four-part structure ○ 1. Exposition leads to turning point ○ 2. Complicating action leads to major turning point of halfway mark ○ 3. Development struggle toward goals lead to climax ○ 4. Epilogue Exposition ○ Very opening of the film ○ Filled with narrative details ○ Brings audience ‘up-to-speed’ ○ Not synchronous with the first act Sets up primary conflict ○ Allows viewers to see changes quicker Transitions are marked by dialogue, setting, or major event(s) Alternatives to Conventional Narrative Structure “Remaining attentive to narrative, visual and sound details that signal turning points makes it possible to discern alternative narrative structures.” Turning points will always signal structural shifts Two-part structure → a change in setting and a parallel Frame narration ○ Another common narrative ○ Consists of a character who tells an embedded story to viewers who are either indicated or seen on screen ○ Allow for a connection between two diegeses (potentially complicated) ○ Narrator may not be bias Not necessarily a character in the film either Episodic Narrative ○ Events not tightly connected in a cause-and-effect sequence ○ Characters do not focus on a singular goal Actions may appear unmotivated Movie may seem to digress ○ Titles are typically “day in the life of…” (or something similar) “... suggests the way they equalize the importance of many events, rather than singling out dramatic turning points and climaxes” ○ Emphasizes redundancy of everyday life ○ Some end resolved while others are open-ended Variations on Narrative Conventions: Beyond Structures Many ways films resists and rewrite narrative rules Principles emerged from practices and preferences of filmmakers (Hollywood, early twentieth century) ○ Commercial studios created ‘formulas’ Have since tweaked them Rules for classical Hollywood narrative film: clarity, unity, goal-oriented characters, closure, and ‘unobstructive craftsmanship Ways of challenging the narrative ○ Clarity → multiple/conflicting lines of action, inconsistent characters, and a large degree of subjectivity (e.g. Citizen Kane) ○ Lack of Unity → broken chain of cause and effect (e.g. Reservoir Dogs) ○ Open endedness → Question left unanswered, unresolved conflicts The Screenplay Making a movie begins with an original or adapted screenplay ○ The author is called a ‘screenwriter’ ○ Based on fictional events or non-fictional research Non-commissioned screenplay = ‘spec-script’ Undergo lots of edits by script doctors and specialists Info added by the director during pre-production (e.g scene numbers, camera placement, cues…) ○ Then the screenplay becomes the ‘shooting script’ Social Context and Film Style: National, International, and Transnational Cinema Turn of the twentieth century → NYC at the centre of commercial filmmaking By 1910, film moved to Hollywood due to: ○ Climate ○ Cheap real estate ○ Opportunity to avoid paying equipment-licensing fees to thomas Edison’s Patent Company Hollywood is not the world’s only major film industry ○ Their ‘larger-than-life, escapist fantasy’ preference is only one take on filmaking So many social contexts for filmmaking are organized by the idea of national identity ○ Also economic and social practices of nation states Cinema has always operated as an international art form and commercial endeavour Hollywood’s Industrial Context: The Studio System as Dream Factory American film production peak → “Hollywood Studio Era” (1915-1948) ○ 1948: Supreme Court ruled for major Hollywood studios to forego their monopoly Before SC decision ○ MGM, Paramount, Warner Bros, 20th Century Fox, RKO, Universal, Columbia and United created a standardized film style Studio System: Hollywood’s efficient mode of production, distribution, and exhibition Classical Style Other than the four main traits, all components of CHC are second to narrative Mise en scenedepicts an outside world that adheresto norms of ‘realism’ determined by the conditions of the story ○ As opposed to the subjectivity of experessionism or the self-conciousness of formalism Obvious visual distortions employed → almost always a narrative justification Classical editing follows the same rules of continuity editing ○ Mainly excises events that aren’t immediately relevant ○ Creates a unified sense of space and time ○ Punctuates emotion content (draws attentions to characters and actions) CHC prioritizes dialogue over other sounds ○ Expresses character traits and motivations ○ Helps explain cause and effect Economic Practice and Hollywood Convention Profit-driven studio system ○ Designed to deliver products to consumers ASAP ○ Relied on the assembly line Compartmentalization contributed to the standardization of Hollywood’s style CHC conventions for continuity and camera placement do not constitute a superior method of conveying narrative info ○ Became Hollywood standard because they contributed to production efficiency Hollywood’s visual style was largely shaped by the logic of industrial capitalism Studio’s reliance on celebrities reflected market logic of capitalism ○ Stars served as a marketing device ○ Star System facilitated production and distribution ○ Character development often relied on standarizded/typed performances (e.g. ‘a Lon Chaney picture’) 1920s/30s ○ Studios put in a lot of money to re-tool production methods and venues to make films with synchronized soundtracks Major investments in tech. innovation remains an important feature of Hollywood cinema ○ Expectations have changed due to the digital age Hierarchial Structure of the Industry ○ Played a vital part in determining narrative structure American Values and Hollywood Style Hollywood Production Code ○ Illustrates the way that commerce can be shaped by non-economic factors that limit screenwriters, directors, and producers choices ○ Established in 1930, enforced by 1934 ○ Sole purpose was to regulate content ○ Served as a blueprint for American morality ○ Motivated by financial interest Suppressed sexuality Demanded those who break the law be punished PCA was an American institution whose operations were aimed at the domestic market and potential viewers outside the USA ○ Tool to present the industry as a responsible guardian of American moral virtues ○ Also helped promote Hollywood products for consumption in International market Hollywood Conquers the World? Concerns re. Hollywood cinema as an industry aiming its products at a global audience: ○ Drive for profits inherent to the capitalist mode of production ○ Costly nature of cinema’s technology dependence Both concerns are relevant to the type of films made in the US and in every national context US boasts a large democratic market for film consumption ○ Despite the Hollywood industry soughting to donate international cinema since the 1920s “One implication of Hollywood’s long-term dominance of international cinema is that its aesthetic conventions became something like default scenarios: the paradigms that filmmakers around the world have chosen to imitate or to resist, or both.” 09/24 Lecture: Mise en Scene Four-Act Structure in Casablanca 1. Setup/Exposition: Two German couriers are killed inCasablanca. Major Strasser arrives a. Turning Point: Ugarte gives Rick the letters b. Goal/enigma: Who will use the letters? 2. Complicating Action: Ilsa and Laszlo arrive at Rick’sCafe, inciting turmoil (re: Ilsa) and Strasser’s interest (re: Laszlo). Rick has a flashback a. Turning point: Rick rejects Ilsa when she tries to explain the past 3. Development: Laszlo and Ilsa learn of Ugarte’s deathand seek a means of escape. Strasser closes in on Laszlo a. Turning point: Ilsa, realizing Laszlo could be killed, holds Rick at gunpoint, ultimately explains why she left. Rick changes his mind 4. Climax/Epilogue: At the airport, Laszlo and Ilsa departas Rick shoots Strasser and confirms friendship with Renault. a. Enigma resolved Frame:a single image captured by the camera ○ Standard frame frame: 24fps Means a 6.3 second shot is 151 frames ○ iPhone default: 30fps ○ Avatar: The Way of the Water: 48fps Note: ‘Frame’ sometimes refers to the rectangular boundary of the image Shot:ininterrupted or continuous series of frames Scene:a shot or series of shots that comprise a single,unified narrative event Categories of Mise-en-scene 1. Setting: the physical environment in which the story takes place 2. Human Figure a. Staging: the arrangement in the frame b. Acting 3. Lighting a. Hard (crisp shadows and high contrast) b. Soft (diffuses shadows and low contrast) 4. Composition Cinematography 1. Camerawork a. Space-based i. Offscreen/oncscreen ii. Height iii. Angle iv. Distance (shot scale) v. Movement b. Time-based (shot duration) i. Long take: an uninterrupted shot of unusal duration (normally > 1 min) 2. Lenses a. Depth of field: the range of distance in front of the lens within which objects can be photographed in sharp focus FCI Reading 3: (pg. 102-34, 139, 144-69, 174-77) Mise en Scene An integrated design program Has four major components: setting, the human figure, lighting, and composition Two specific styles of mise en scene which suggest different ways that MES creates fictional worlds compelling to viewers ○ One associated with German expressionist cinema of the 1920s ○ The French style of the 1930s called Poetic Realism Term originated in the theatre ○ Means staging a scene through the artful arrangement of actors, scenery, lighting and props (i.e. everything the audience sees) In a film, mise en scene is the province of the production designer who works in collaboration with the director ○ Narrative film → creates the look of the story world ○ Documentary → directors do not usually control environment by can choose which elements to focus on ○ Avant-garde → may dispense with a story altogether but still arrange elements in the frame according to aesthetic principles Each element influences the viewer’s experience Filmmakers use details in a systematic manner ○ To create a world on screen ○ T o indicate character development, present motifs, amplify themes, and establish mood Setting Refers to the places where the film’s action unfolds ○ May be general/specific, real/imaginary… Constructing a set ○ Provides filmmakers with the max. degree of control ○ Indoor set → directors and cinematographers do not have to contend with weather, noise, unreliable lighting… ○ Can be built to the filmmaker's precise specifications Soundstages provide optimum control over lighting and sound Forced perspective: “filmmakers construct and arrange buildings and objects on the set so that they diminish in size dramatically from foreground to background.” ○ The human eye uses the relative size of objects as a gauge of depth ○ The large disparity creates the illusion of greater depth Most commercial films today contain scenes shot on location ○ May include recognizable landmarks (e.g. The Grand Canyon inThelma and Louise) ○ Does not necessarily mean filming where the story is set Filmakers always carefully craft a recognizable story world ○ Whether on soundstage or location ○ Can make reference to familiar, human-made objects to convey the significance of a place Computer generated imagery ○ Used by some filmmakers to create setting ○ Fantasy films typically turn to computer graphics to help create setting “Decidingwheretoconstructsets,uselocations,and/ortakeadvantageofnewer computer technologies is part of the creative challenge of filmmaking. These decisions also relate to the business of filmmaking, aslocationshootingisoften complex,time-consuming,unpredictable,andmoreexpensivethanshootingona set.” Describing Setting: Visual and Spatial Attributes Visual characteristics of a setting evoke responses The contextual use of setting is important to interpreting mise en scene The context for interpreting any setting includes: ○ Its physical attributes ○ The actions taking place there ○ The way the space relates to other settings used throughout the film The director orlocationscoutchoosesspecificspacesfortheirvisualandspatial attributes ○ Inevitably transmit cultural meanings and emotional implications The Functions of Setting Primary functions of setting are to: ○ Establish time and place ○ Introduce ideas and themes ○ Create mood Settings in Period Films ○ Recreate a place and time ○ Visual details are important since thetimeperiodisessentialtostoryand themes Certain genres are linked to settings and time periods ○ Ex. Westerns are set in the American West in the late nineteenth century ○ Other genres (i.e. romcoms) are less dependent on geography or time period Directors sometimes choose to use settings that work against expectations ○ Ex.La La Landchoreographed scene on the freeway ○ These films test the boundaries of their genre Settings do not always refer to existing locations of actual historical periods ○ They may evoke a generic sense of place or stand for implicit ideas Settings help to determine the mood of a scene or an entire film ○ May also contribute to motifs The Human Figure Actors’ performances contribute a great deal to a film’s meaning Most narrative films tell stories about human beings and their conflicts Casting, acting style, and the placement/movement impact viewer response ○ To characters, strengths/weaknesses, hopes/fears… Casting Choosing actors is one of the most important decisions a director can make Casting directors usually organize auditions A listers are generally cast without an audition ○ Agents negotiate terms and wishes Attaching a popular name to a project helps secure financing ‘Cash break zero’ ○ Used by studios in recent years ○ Replacement for large salaries ○ Stars earn smaller salaries up front but share in the profits studio make after they break even on a film Some actors occasionally work ‘for scale’ ○ Minimum wage for professional actors ○ Usually happens if they like a particular script or enjoy the experience of making low-budget films Filmmakers may be limited in their choices for commercial reasons Typecasting ○ Repeatedly casting an actor in the same kind of role ○ Offers benefits to stars and studios Stars sometimes prefer roles that will play to their strengths and reinforce their image Studios prefer to minimize risk and stick with a ‘sure thing’ in terms of casting ○ Result of actors’ fees representing a large % of production costs ○ Also because audiences tend to go to the movies to see their favorite stars Sometimes actors deliberately choose roles that work against their type ○ Can be creatively rewarding ○ Can also be a risky proposition ○ Fans may refuse to accept a shift Acting Style Actors may bring a public image and traces of their previous roles to eachnew character they play ○ Also train in a particular acting style Early Cinema ○ Stage acting techniques influenced film acting ○ A highly emotive/pantomime style prevailed Silent Film → exaggerated facial and bodilyexpressionsweretheprimarymeans of conveying the story Contemporary → actors more likely to subdue their expressiveness ○ Can depend upon sounds and visual techn. to capture nuances Several categories of actors ○ Based on the way their performances are perceived ○ Impersonation: the work of actors who seem to disappear in their roles (e.g. Meryl Streep) ○ Personification: the workofactorswhoremainthemselvesoralwaysplay themselves and may have scripts written specifically to exploit their attributes (e.g. Reese Witherspoon) ○ TechnicalActing:themasteryoftheexternaldetailsofacharacter,suchas an accent or personal trait (e.g. Jim Carrey) Hollywood Studio era ○ Personification was favoured (actors might become stars if they had recognizable personas) ○ Repeating the same kind of characters brought paying fans back ○ Ex. Fred Astaire, Bette Davis Asthestudiosystembegantobreakdown,methodactinggainedprominencein Hollywood and independent films ○ European styles of acting began to gain adherents in the US at this time too ○ MethodActing:dependsuponanactor’simmersioninacharacterandcan be linked to impersonation ○ Currently the most influential school of film acting Actors’ performances depend on the narrative ○ Protagonists are presented in lead roles ○ Sidekicks/friends are played out in supporting roles Character Actors:play the same supporting roles inmany films ○ Generally do not achieve the widespread recognition enjoyed by lead actors (e.g. Steve Buscemi) Extras:hired to appear anonymously (often in crowdscenes) C ameos:brief appearances by well-known actors playing themselves Ensemble acting ○ Based on an equitable distribution of the work and the glory ○ Directors incl. Woody Allen and Mike Leigh often collaborate with large ensemble casts Acting Brechtian: Distancing the Audience An actor’s skill in bringingacharactertolifeisessentialtoinvolvingviewersina realist film ○ The ability to make audience members believe in the character ○ Some filmmakers reject the conventions of realism Exploration of realism as a process of representation ○ Certain directors draw on German dramatist Bertolt Brecht’s ideas of acting ○ Emphasizes the artifice, not the authenticity, of performance An attempt to stimulate the audience’s critical thought processes and emotions ○ Result of calling attention to the aesthetic and political frameworks and characters Brechtian Distanciation: the destruction of thetheatricalillusionforthepurpose of eliciting an intellectual response in the audience Actors’ Bodies: Figure Placement Rehearsals ○ Directors work with the actors to block the action ○ Establishment of movements that change physical relationships and the camera Figure Placement and Movement ○ What audiences see onscreen ○ Can produce artful compositions, provide info., develop motifs, and reinforce themes Directors treat actors’ bodies as elements of the visual field ○ Figures who tower over others → dominate ○ Characterswhomeeteachotheronthesamephysicallevel/planeofdepth → more equitable relationship ○ Characters in the foreground → gain visual prominence through apparent proximity to the viewer Also assume a greater narrative importance Actors’ Bodies: Costumes and Props Costumes cannot be simply taken at face value ○ Must be interpreted in the context of the film Clothes that a character wears often reveal important info. re. Lifestyle And personal choices Clothing isn’t always a personal choice ○ Inevitably, a character’s fashion choices carry cultural implications Like costumes, props establish character ○ Also hint at change and development ○ Moveable objects owned or used by characters The degree of narrative or symbolic importance of props varies ○ Some are purely functional ○ Others hold tremendous importance Viewers shouldn’t assume that costumes and propsaremerelydecorativedetail or functional narrative devices ○ Careful consideration of narrative context/patterns of repetition and variation can reveal how a simple image can resonate in complex ways Actors’ Bodies: Makeup Makeup and hairstyles: ○ Establish time period ○ Reveal character traits ○ Signal changes in character Makeup was used in early cinema to make actors’ faces visible Improvements in film stock and lighting ○ Makeup is now used to enhance or minimize an actors prominent features ○ Can also simulate youth or advanced age when needed The application of makeup and prostheses is an important component of the actor’s transformation into character ○ “Film scholars should recognize that this aspect of performance has an expressive function well beyond just making actors look believable.” Movies from Hollywood’s “Golden Age of Horror” ○ 1920s and 1930s ○ Resonated with audiencebecausethemonsters’physicallyresembledthe scarred faces and mauled bodies of WWI veterans Makeup and prostheses are not strictly horror and fantasy ○ Subtle enhancements also warrant careful analysis In contemporary cinema, digital effects in post-production expand the actors’ capacity for shape-shifting ○ Morphing Developmentsinperformancecaptureallowfilmmakerstorecordmovementand then use software to reanimate Lighting Without light, no image would be recorded An element of mise en scene ○ Illuminates the set and the actors ○ Can be used to create certain moods and effects Relates to issues of cinematography ○ Film stock(lensesandfilters)andprocessingtechniquesaffectthelookof a film Lighting: ○ Furthers the audience’s understanding of characters ○ Underscores particular actions ○ Develops themes ○ Establishes mood Light exhibits three attributes ○ Quality (hard or soft) ○ Placement (directions the light strikes the subject) ○ Contrast (high or low) Hard light ○ Produced by a relatively small light source positioned close to the subject ○ Tends to be unflattering ○ Creates deep shadows ○ Emphasizes imperfections Soft light ○ From a larger source that is diffused over a biggerareaorreflectedoffa surface before it strikes the subject ○ Minimizes facial detail (e.g. wrinkles) ○ Used unless a character ismeantto appear unattractiveor plain Available/Natural light (from the sun) ○ Can be hard or soft, depending on time of day/year, cloud cover, and geographical location ○ May vary in color E arly US filmmakers settled in southern California for the golden-huedqualityof light The most beautiful light falls during ‘the magic hour’ ○ Just before sunrise and just after sunset ○ When the diffusion of the sun’s light produces glowing images Direction of light ○ Produces a variety of different effects ○ Frontal lighting creates a flat affect, washing outfacialdetailandcreating shadow behind the subject ○ Lightingfrombesideorunderneathproducesasculpturaleffect,rendering three dimensions ○ Lighting from behind separates the subject from the background Most filmmakers supplement natural lighting with artificial light ○ Provides greater control over the illumination Documentary and low-budget prefer natural light ○ Choices are dictated by consideration of cost and limitations of shooting environment Hollywood’s Lighting Schemes “In the Hollywood Studio Era, a system of lighting was developed that allowed cinematographers to do just that.” Three-point lighting ○ Has remained a standard approach to lighting ○ Designed to ensure the appropriate level of illumination and to eliminate the shadows ○ Primarysourceoflightiskeylight(thefrontallightingsourceaimedfroma range of positions) Can be set up next to thecameraormovedawayfromitoneither side Thecloserthekeylightto45degrees,themorethesubjectwillbe illuminated from the side (produces sculptural effects) ○ Fill light A light or light-reflected surface positioned ontheoppositesideof the subject from the key light Purpose is to eliminate shadows cast by thekeylightandregulate the degree of contrast ○ Thebacklightvisually separates subject from background W hen used with minimal key/fill lighting, the backlight produces a silhouette effect Eye lights ○ Used in addition the the other three sources (key, fill, three-point) ○ Aimed directly into the eyes of an actor ○ Produces a gleam in the were ○ Also called obie lights, after Merle Oberan, who the technique was developed for Sidelightsorkickerlightsmodelthesubjectinthreedimensionsbyilluminatingit from either side Image contrast ○ One of the most important factors in establishing mood ○ Depends on the relative intensity of the key light to the fill light ○ Also known as the lighting radio High key lighting ○ High ratio, low contrast ○ Refers to a lighting design in which the key-to-fill ratio is 2:1 or lower ○ In this configuration, the fill light is nearly as intense as the key light ○ Eliminates almost all of the shadows cast by the key light ○ Provides an even illumination of the subject, with most facial details washed out ○ Tends to create a hopeful mood, appropriate for light comedies.cherry musical scenes Natural-key lighting ○ Also called normal lighting ○ Is produced with a ratio of key-to-gill light between 4:1 and 8:1 ○ Key light is somewhat more intense than the fill light ○ Fill is no longer able to eliminate every shadow Low-key lighting ○ Low ratio, high contrast ○ Produced by increasing the intensity of the key light relative to the fill ○ The lighting ratio is between 16:1 and 32:1 ○ Much greater intensity of the key light makes it impossible for the fill to eliminate shadows ○ Produces an image with a number of shadows and high contrast ○ Creates a somber or forbidding mood ○ Is often used in crime dramas andfilm noir ○ The favoured lighting style for gothic horror films Adds a sense of gloom to any setting Terminology of high- and low-key lighting is counterintuitive ○ A higher ratio of key to fill is a low-key lighting set-up Composition “... the visual arrangement of the objects, actors, and space within the frame” A filmmaker’s use of composition may reinforce underlying themes and ideas ○ Could also produce a striking visual effect Balance and Symmetry The space of the frame can be thought of as a two-dimensional space ○ Principles of visual art can be brought to bear One important principle is to ensure there is balance/symmetry within the frame ○ Frame can be partitioned horizontally, on a left-right axis, and vertically, from top to bottom Balanced composition has an equitable distribution of bright and dark areas ○ Meant to strike colours, objects, and/or figures ○ Don’t necessarily suggest pleasantly harmonious order In CHC, symmetry was often achieved by centering actors in the shot Techniques need to be used in context with the film Unbalanced ○ Leads the viewer’s eye in a particular direction ○ Givesgreateremphasistoabrightordarkareaoftheframe,toanobjector actor, or to an area of colour Asymmetry can suggest a lack of equilibrium ○ Depends upon the context Lines and Diagonals Graphic elements play a role in composition The human eye tends to respond to diagonal lines, vertical lines,andhorizontal lines in decreasing degrees of emphasis ○ All can be sued as compositional elements ○ A diagonal line carries the most visual weight When directors place actors in a frame, they make choices re. the way those actors’ bodies will be situated in space ○ Loose framing: shots in which figures have a great deal of open space around them May suggest freedom or isolation ○ T ight framing: an image in which the lack of space around the subject contributes to a sense of constriction Often helps portray physical and/or psychological confinement Does not always imply entrapment Foreground and Background Directors distinguish between the foreground and background Directorsmayplaceobjectsoractorsintheforegroundtohighlighttheirnarrative significance ○ Objects or people in the background don’t typically command the same degree of attention Filmmakers often used background space to suggest weakness or a lack of importance Sometimesothercompositionalelementsareusedtodirecttheviewer'sattention into the depths of the frame Light and Dark Arranging light and dark areas in the frame is an important aspect of composition Chiaroscuro:usingintenselycontrastingareasoflightnessanddarknessofcreate compositional effects ○ Named after a classical painting technique Colour Productiondesignersdevelopacolourpalette/rangeofcoloursappropriatetothe subject matter/mood of the film ○ Take into accounthowaudiencesrespondtothe properties of color When white is refracted, it produces colours along a spectrum from red to violent ○ Each have a different wavelength Viewers perceive: ○ Reds, yellows, and oranges as warm/vibrant ○ Blues and greens as cool/relaxing Fillamers choose to incorporate colours into sets, costumes, and props according to the perception they want from viewers Colour in the mise en scene may function as a motif ○ E x. Nicholas Ray repeatedly used red to suggest the fusion of existential anguish and sexual urges of the younger gen inRebel Without A Cause ○ Spike Lee has used red to associate with anger, danger, and violence Audiences shouldn’t rely on the use of colour ○ Red is frequently associated. with violence but not always Saturation refers to the strength of a hue ○ Desaturated colours are less pure/contain more white than saturated colours and thus look grayish, pale, or washed out ____________________________________________________________________ _ Cinematography Cinematography techniques work in concert with a film’s: ○ Mode of organization ○ Mise en Scene ○ Editing ○ Sound design to produce meaning “Themostpowerfulusesofcinematographydomorethansimplydisplaytechnical expertise: they provide emotional, intellectual, and aesthetic resources.” Cinemagraphs speak to audiences in visual terms ○ Use images the way writers use words ○ To grasp beyond selective vision SelectiveVision:thetendencytonoticeonlythosethingstheywanttosee,expect to see, and are used to seeing Byconstantlyimprovingontheartandtech.ofcinematography,thepossibilitiesof cinema itself are expanded Cinematography is used by filmmakers to: ○ Tell a story ○ Produce a distinctive look ○ Suggest ideas ○ Evoke emotions When building an interpretive claim about a film, the first orderofbusinessisto identify a technique using the proper terminology ○ The second is to move beyond description → develop ideas about the technique as it works with the other elements to produce meaning During the first 100 years of cinema, cinematography was synonymous with photography ○ A s electric tech. have destroyed traditional methods, it has grown to include many non-photographic processes (e.g. CGI) Photography defined the visual language of film’s first century ○ Despite digital tech. now augmenting photography-based processes (almost entirely) Four elements of cinematography: ○ Camerawork (operation, placement, and camera movement) ○ Lenses and filters ○ Film stock ○ Special visual effects The Camera in Time and Space Cinematography involves: ○ Spatial characteristics of the frame ○ Temporal (or time-dependent) character of film “Narrativefilmstellstories,documentariesrecount,re-enact,andobserveevents, and avant-garde films create new combinations of images and sounds;allthese types of films unfold in time and space.” The shot ○ A single uninterrupted series of frames ○ Film’s basic unit of expression ○ An image whose meaning unfolds through time ○ Vary in length (single frame → full roll of film) To use time on set efficiently, directors and cinematographers plan each shot ahead of time ○ Storyboard:a series of drawings that lays out thefilm sequentially Some directors use photographs as storyboards ○ Other director choose to improvise Director designsset-ups ○ Positions actors, the camera, and lighting arrangement for each shot Films are not generally shot in chronological order Every shot is typically filmed more than once, as well ○ Each shot is called a take ○ In post-production, the editor/director choose which takes will appear (rejets are called out-takes) Difference between ‘shot’ and ‘scene’ ○ A scene creates the illusions of a moment in narrative space and time ○ A shot documents an uninterrupted moment in space and time “ Individualshotsplayadramaticroleinshapinghowaudiencesperceivetheway narrative events unfold.” Uninterrupted shots of more than one minute are called long takes Altering Time: Slow and Fast Motion The speed of filming can be manipulated to compress or expand time The standard recording speed is 24 frames per second (fps) ○ Unless special effects are desired ○ By reducing or increasing the camera’s recording speed, and then projecting the film at 24 fps, the viewers perception of time can be adjusted Slow motion ○ Toproduce‘slo-mo’,thecamerarecordsimagesatafasterspeedthanitis projected ○ When the film is projected at the standard rate, the action appears tobe slowed down ○ Lengthens the duration of an action ○ Seems to break down human movement into component parts ○ Terminologyreferstofilmbuttheprinciplesapplytoanyimagerecordings and projection devices with sequenced images at a consistent frame rate ○ Oneminuteoffilmrecordedat36fpshasmoreframesthanoneminuteof film recorded at 24 fps When projected, the 36 fps footage will take longer to screen, drawing out the action Fast motion ○ To produce fast-motion, images are recorded at a slower speed that the speed of projection ○ Technique → undercranking Fewerframesareexposedinoneminutewhenshootingataspeed of 16 fps than at 24 dps ○ When projected, that action takes less than a minute on screen and appears unnaturally rapid Go-motion ○ Developed by Industrial Light and Magic ○ Builds movement into single frames ○ Thepuppetormodelismotorizedandmoveswhenthecamera;sshutteris open, creating a sense of blur Time-lapse photography ○ Aprocessofrecordingaverysmallnumberofimagesoveralongperiodof time (e.g. one frame per minute per day) ○ Can present a slow nature process (e.g. flower blooming) in seconds Sophisticated methods for manipulating time ○ FrozenTimeMoment(orbullet-timemoment):ashotwhereasingleaction is viewed simultaneously from multiple vantage points Moving Pictures and Visual Perception: Theviewer’sabilitytoperceiveanyrapidsuccessionofimagesascontinuouswas believed to derive from two properties of human vision: ○ Persistence of Vision: argues that the brain holds an image for a few seconds after it’s gone ○ Phi Phenomenon: they eye perceives two lights flashing on and off as a single light moving ?
