Computer Organization and Architecture Unit 1.pdf

Computer Architecture is a functional description of requirements and design implementation for the various parts of a computer. It deals with the functional behavior of computer systems. It comes before the computer...

Computer Architecture is a functional description of requirements and design implementation for the various parts of a computer. It deals with the functional behavior of computer systems. It comes before the computer organization while designing a computer. Difference between Computer Architecture and Computer Organization: S. No. Computer Architecture Computer Organization Architecture describes what the The Organization describes how it does 1. computer does. it. S. No. Computer Architecture Computer Organization Computer Architecture deals with Computer Organization deals with a the functional behavior of computer structural relationship. 2. systems. In the above figure, it’s clear that it In the above figure, it’s also clear that it 3. deals with high-level design issues. deals with low-level design issues. Whereas Organization indicates its Architecture indicates its hardware. 4. performance. As a programmer, you can view architecture as a series of The implementation of the architecture instructions, addressing modes, and is called organization. 5. registers. For designing a computer, an For designing a computer, its organization is decided after its architecture is fixed first. 6. architecture. Computer Architecture is also called Computer Organization is frequently 7. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA). called microarchitecture. Computer Architecture comprises Computer Organization consists of logical functions such as instruction physical units like circuit designs, sets, registers, data types, and peripherals, and adders. 8. addressing modes. The different architectural categories CPU organization is classified into three found in our computer systems are categories based on the number of as follows: address fields: 1. Von-Neumann Architecture 1. Organization of a single 2. Harvard Architecture Accumulator. 3. Instruction Set Architecture 2. Organization of general registers 4. Micro-architecture 3. Stack organization 9. 5. System Design It makes the computer’s hardware It offers details on how well the 10. visible. computer performs. S. No. Computer Architecture Computer Organization Architecture coordinates the Computer Organization handles the hardware and software of the segments of the network in a system. 11. system. The software developer is aware of It escapes the software programmer’s 12. it. detection. Examples- Intel and AMD created Organizational qualities include the x86 processor. Sun hardware elements that are invisible to Microsystems and others created the the programmer, such as interfacing of SPARC processor. Apple, IBM, and computer and peripherals, memory 13. Motorola created the PowerPC. technologies, and control signals. Computer Design is the structure in which components relate to each other. The designer deals with a particular level of system at a time and there are different types of issues at different levels. At each level, the designer is concerned with the structure and function. The structure is the skeleton of the various components related to each other for communication. The function is the activities involved in the system. Following are the issues in computer design: 1. Assumption of infinite speed: It can’t be assumed the infinite speed of the computer as it is not practical to assume the infinite speed. It creates problems in designers’ thinking as well. 2. Assumption of infinite Memory: Like the speed of the computer, memory also can’t be assumed infinite. Storage is always finite and this is an issue in computer design. 3. Speed mismatch between memory and processor: Sometimes it is possible that the speed of memory and processor does not match. It may be memory speed is faster or processor speed is faster. A mismatch between memory and processor leads to create problems in designing. 4. Handling of bugs and errors: Handling bugs and errors are huge responsibility of any computer designer. Bugs and errors lead to the failure of the computer system. Sometimes these errors may be more dangerous. 5. Multiple processors: Designing a computer system with multiple processors leads to the huge task of management and programming. It is a big issue in computer design. 6. Multiple threads: A computer system with multiple threads is always a threat to the designer. A computer with several threads should be able to multi- tasking and multi-processing. 7. Shared memory: If there are several processes to be executed at a time then all the processes share the same memory space. It should be managed in a specific way so that collision does not happen. 8. Disk access: Disk management is the key to computer design. There are several issues with disk access. It may be possible that the system does not support multiple disk access. 9. Better performance: It is always an issue. A designer always tries to simplify the system for better performance in reducing power and less cost. 10. Performance: One of the biggest challenges in computer design is optimizing performance. Designers need to balance factors such as processing power, memory capacity, and input/output speed to create a system that is fast and efficient. 11. Power consumption: As computing devices become more ubiquitous, power consumption has become a critical design consideration. Designers need to create systems that are energy- efficient to reduce the impact on the environment and improve battery life. 12. Security: With the growing amount of sensitive data being stored and processed on computing devices, security is a major issue. Designers need to build in strong encryption and authentication measures to prevent unauthorized access and data breaches. 13. Compatibility: As computing devices become more diverse, ensuring compatibility across platforms and devices is a key challenge. Designers need to create systems that can run seamlessly on a variety of operating systems and hardware configurations. 14. User experience: The user experience is a critical consideration in computer design. Designers need to create intuitive interfaces and experiences that are easy to use and navigate. 15. Reliability: Computing devices are expected to work reliably and consistently. Designers need to create systems that are resilient and can operate without failure for extended periods of time.  Register Transfer Language and Micro Operations Study different classes of CPU registers, microoperations, and their examples in detail.  A digital computer system connects digital components such as registers, decoders, arithmetic components, and control logic. To make a comprehensive digital system, these digital modules are equipped with some common data and control channels. Furthermore, the registers and the actions performed on the data stored in them best describe digital modules. Micro-operations are operations that are done on data contained in registers. Understanding Register Transfer Language Register transfer language is a symbolic notation for describing micro-operation transfers between registers. The availability of hardware logic circuits that can perform a specified micro-operation and transfer the outcome of the operation to the same or another register is referred to as register transfer. The term “language” was coined by programmers to describe programming languages. This programming language is a method of expressing a computer process through symbols.  Following are some commonly used register transfer example with an example: 1. Accumulator: This is the most commonly used register for storing data read from memory. 2. General-Purpose Registers: These are used to store data on intermediate outcomes during the execution of a programme. Assembly programming is required to access it. 3. Special Purpose Registers: Users do not have access to the Special Purpose Registers. These are computer system registers.  MAR: Memory Address Registers are the registers that store the memory unit’s address  MBR: This register stores instructions and data received from and sent from the memory  PC: Program Counter indicates the next command to be executed  IR: Instruction Register stores the to-be-executed instruction Register Transfer The replacement operator designates the information moved from one register to another in symbolic form. R2 ← R1 It denotes the data transfer from register R1 to register R2. In most cases, we want the transfer to happen only under specific control conditions. The following if-then sentence demonstrates this: If (P=1), (R2 R1) The control signal P is generated in the control portion. Micro-Operations Micro-operations are operations performed on data stored in registers. A micro-operation is a simple operation that is carried out on data contained in one or more registers. Example: Load, Shift, count, and clear. Types of Micro-Operations The following are the different types of micro-operations: 1. Micro-operations that move binary data from one register to another are known as register transfers. 2. In registers, arithmetic micro-operations operate on numeric data stored. 3. Bit manipulation operations on non-numeric data are performed by logic micro-operations. 4. Shift micro-operations are data-based shift micro-operations. 1. Arithmetic Micro-Operations · Add Micro-Operation The following statement defines it: R1 + R2 = R3 The foregoing line tells the computer to add the data or contents of register R1 to the data or contents of register R2, then transfer the sum to register R3. · Subtract Micro-Operation Consider the following scenario: R1 + R2′ + 1 R3 Instead of using the minus operator, we use the complement of 1 and add one to the register being subtracted. · Increment/Decrement Micro-Operation In general, increment and decrement micro-operations are accomplished by adding and removing 1 from the register. R1 → R1 + 1 R1 → R1 – 1 2. Logic Micro-Operations These are binary micro-operations carried out on the register bits. These procedures treat each bit as a binary variable and consider it separately. Consider the X-OR micro-operation with the contents of R1 and R2 registers. P: R1 ← R1 X-OR R2 A Control Function is also provided in the above statement. 3. Shift micro-operations These are the important different types of micro-operations. That means we can move the register’s contents to the left or right. The serial input shifts a bit to the rightmost position in the shift left operation, and a bit to the leftmost position in the shift right action. There are three different sorts of shifts: a) Logical Shift The serial input is used to send 0 to the device. The symbols “shl” and “shr” are used to represent logical shifts left and right, respectively. R1 ← shl R1 R1 ← shr R1 b) Circular Shift This moves the bits of the register around the two ends without losing any data or contents. The shift register’s serial output is connected to its serial input in this configuration. The terms “cir” and “cil” stand for left and right circular shifts, respectively. d) Shift in Arithmetic A signed binary number is shifted to the left or right using this method. Arithmetic shift left multiplies and divides a signed binary number by two. Because the signed number remains the same when multiplied or divided by two, the sign bit is left unaltered by the arithmetic shift micro- operation. Conclusion RTL is a symbolic notation for describing the micro-operations transfer between registers. It’s a type of intermediate representation (IR) that’s extremely similar to assembly language, such as  the kind used in compilers. The term “Register Transfer” refers to the ability to perform micro- operations and then transfer the results to the same or another register. Register Transfer Language (RTL) Last Updated : 11 Feb, 2022  In symbolic notation, it is used to describe the micro-operations transfer among registers. It is a kind of intermediate representation (IR) that is very close to assembly language, such as that which is used in a compiler.The term “Register Transfer” can perform micro-operations and transfer the result of operation to the same or other register. Micro-operations : The operation executed on the data store in registers are called micro-operations. They are detailed low-level instructions used in some designs to implement complex machine instructions. Register Transfer : The information transformed from one register to another register is represented in symbolic form by replacement operator is called Register Transfer. Replacement Operator : In the statement, R2