Computer Organization and Architecture (PDF)

Computer Organization and Architecture Designing for Performance 11th Edition, Global Edition Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution...

Computer Organization and Architecture Designing for Performance 11th Edition, Global Edition Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Computer Architecture Computer Organization Attributes of a system Instruction set, number of visible to the bits used to represent programmer various data types, I/O Have a direct impact on mechanisms, techniques the logical execution of a for addressing memory program Architectural Computer attributes Architecture include: Organizational Computer attributes Organization include: Hardware details The operational units and transparent to the their interconnections programmer, control that realize the signals, interfaces architectural between the computer specifications and peripherals, memory technology used Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved IBM System 370 Architecture IBM System/370 architecture – Was introduced in 1970 – Included a number of models – Could upgrade to a more expensive, faster model without having to abandon original software – New models are introduced with improved technology, but retain the same architecture so that the customer’s software investment is protected – Architecture has survived to this day as the architecture of IBM’s mainframe product line Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Structure and Function Hierarchical system Structure – Set of interrelated subsystems – The way in which components relate to each other Hierarchical nature of complex systems is essential to both their Function design and their description – The operation of individual components as part of the Designer need only deal with a particular structure level of the system at a time – Concerned with structure and function at each level Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Function There are four basic functions that a computer can perform: – Data processing ▪ Data may take a wide variety of forms and the range of processing requirements is broad – Data storage ▪ Short-term ▪ Long-term – Data movement ▪ Input-output (I/O) - when data are received from or delivered to a device (peripheral) that is directly connected to the computer ▪ Data communications – when data are moved over longer distances, to or from a remote device – Control ▪ A control unit manages the computer’s resources and orchestrates the performance of its functional parts in response to instructions Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved  COMPUTER I/O Main Structure memory System Bus CPU CPU Registers ALU Internal Bus Control Unit CONTROL UNIT Sequencing Logic Control Unit Registers and Decoders Control Memory Figure 1.1 The Computer: Top-Level Structure Figure Copyright 1.1 Pearson © 2022 A Top-Down View ofLtd. Education, a Computer All Rights Reserved There are four main structural components of the computer: CPU – controls the operation of the computer and performs its data processing functions Main Memory – stores data I/O – moves data between the computer and its external environment System Interconnection – some mechanism that provides for communication among CPU, main memory, and I/O Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved CPU Major structural components: Control Unit – Controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs the computer’s data processing function Registers – Provide storage internal to the CPU CPU Interconnection – Some mechanism that provides for communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Multicore Computer Structure Central processing unit (CPU) – Portion of the computer that fetches and executes instructions – Consists of an ALU, a control unit, and registers – Referred to as a processor in a system with a single processing unit Core – An individual processing unit on a processor chip – May be equivalent in functionality to a CPU on a single-CPU system – Specialized processing units are also referred to as cores Processor – A physical piece of silicon containing one or more cores – Is the computer component that interprets and executes instructions – Referred to as a multicore processor if it contains multiple cores Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Cache Memory Multiple layers of memory between the processor and main memory Is smaller and faster than main memory Used to speed up memory access by placing in the cache data from main memory that is likely to be used in the near future A greater performance improvement may be obtained by using multiple levels of cache, with level 1 (L1) closest to the core and additional levels (L2, L3, etc.) progressively farther from the core Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved  MOTHERBOARD Main memory chips Figure 1.2 Processor I/O chips chip PROCESSOR CHIP Core Core Core Core L3 cache L3 cache Core Core Core Core CORE Arithmetic Instruction and logic Load/ logic unit (ALU) store logic L1 I-cache L1 data cache L2 instruction L2 data cache cache Figure 1.2 Simplified View of Major Elements of a Multicore Computer Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.3 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.4 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved History of Computers First Generation: Vacuum Tubes Vacuum tubes were used for digital logic elements and memory IAS computer – Fundamental design approach was the stored program concept ▪ Attributed to the mathematician John von Neumann ▪ First publication of the idea was in 1945 for the EDVAC – Design began at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies – Completed in 1952 – Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.5 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.6 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Registers Memory buffer register Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit (MBR) Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit Memory address Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from register (MAR) or read into the MBR Instruction register (IR) Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed Instruction buffer Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction from a register (IBR) word in memory Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched Program counter (PC) from memory Accumulator (AC) and Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU multiplier quotient (MQ) operations Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.7 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Table 1.1 The IAS Instruction Set Instruction Symbolic Type Opcode Representation Description 00001010 LOAD MQ Transfer contents of register MQ to the accumulator AC 00001001 LOAD MQ,M(X) Transfer contents of memory location X to MQ 00100001 STOR M(X) Transfer contents of accumulator to memory location X Data transfer 00000001 LOAD M(X) Transfer M(X) to the accumulator 00000010 LOAD –M(X) Transfer –M(X) to the accumulator 00000011 LOAD |M(X)| Transfer absolute value of M(X) to the accumulator 00000100 LOAD –|M(X)| Transfer –|M(X)| to the accumulator Unconditional 00001101 JUMP M(X,0:19) Take next instruction from left half of M(X) branch 00001110 JUMP M(X,20:39) Take next instruction from right half of M(X) 00001111 JUMP + M(X,0:19) Take next instruction from right half of M(X) Conditional Branch 00010000 JUMP + M(X,20:39) If number in the accumulator is nonnegative, take next instruction from right half of M(X) 00000101 ADD M(X) Add M(X) to AC; put the result in AC 00000111 ADD |M(X)| Add |M(X)| to AC; put the result in AC 00000110 SUB M(X) Subtract M(X) from AC; put the result in AC 00001000 SUB |M(X)| Subtract |M(X)| from AC; put the remainder in AC Arithmetic 00001011 MUL M(X) Multiply M(X) by MQ; put most significant bits of result in AC, put least significant bits in MQ 00001100 DIV M(X) Divide AC by M(X); put the quotient in MQ and the remainder in AC 00010100 LSH Multiply accumulator by 2; that is, shift left one bit position 00010101 RSH Divide accumulator by 2; that is, shift right one position 00010010 STOR M(X,8:19) Replace left address field at M(X) by 12 rightmost bits Address of AC modify 00010011 STOR M(X,28:39) Replace right address field at M(X) by 12 rightmost bits of AC (Table can be found on page 16 in the textbook.) Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.8 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Integrated Circuits Data storage – provided by A computer consists of gates, memory cells, and memory cells interconnections among these elements Data processing – provided by The gates and memory cells are constructed of gates simple digital electronic components Data movement – the paths Exploits the fact that such components as among components are used to transistors, resistors, and conductors can be move data from memory to fabricated from a semiconductor such as memory and from memory silicon through gates to memory Many transistors can be produced at the Control – the paths among same time on a single wafer of silicon components can carry control signals Transistors can be connected with a processor metallization to form circuits Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Transistors The fundamental building block of digital circuits used to construct processors, memories, and other digital logic devices Active part of the transistor is made of silicon or some other semiconductor material that can change its electrical state when pulsed – In its normal state the material may be nonconductive or conductive – The transistor changes its state when voltage is applied to the gate Discrete component – A single, self-contained transistor – Were manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and soldered or wired together onto Masonite-like circuit boards Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.9 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.10 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.11 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Moore’s Law 1965; Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel Observed number of transistors that could be put on a single chip was doubling every year Consequences of Moore’s law: The pace slowed to a doubling every 18 months in the 1970’s but has sustained The cost of The electrical Computer computer logic path length is becomes smaller Reduction in that rate ever since and memory shortened, power and Fewer and is more interchip circuitry has increasing convenient to cooling use in a variety connections fallen at a operating requirements dramatic rate speed of environments Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.12 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Evolution of Intel Microprocessors (1 of 4) 4004 8008 8080 8086 8088 Introduced 1971 1972 1974 1978 1979 Clock speeds 108 kHz 108 kHz 2 MHz 2 MHz, 8 MHz, 10 MHz 5 MHz, 8 MHz Bus width 4 bits 8 bits 8 bits 16 bits 8 bits Number of transistors 2,300 3,500 6,000 29,000 29,000 Feature size (m) 10 8 6 3 6 Addressable memory 640 bytes 16 KB 64 KB 1 MB 1 MB (a) 1970s Processors Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Evolution of Intel Microprocessors (2 of 4) 80286 386TM DX 386TM SX 486TM DX CPU Introduced 1982 1985 1988 1989 Clock speeds 6–12.5 MHz 16–33 MHz 16–33 MHz 25–50 MHz Bus width 16 bits 32 bits 16 bits 32 bits Number of transistors 134,000 275,000 275,000 1.2 million Feature size (m) 1.5 1 1 0.8–1 Addressable memory 16 MB 4 GB 16 MB 4 GB Virtual memory 1 GB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB Cache – – – 8 kB (b) 1980s Processors Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Evolution of Intel Microprocessors (3 of 4) 486TM SX Pentium Pentium Pro Pentium II Introduced 1991 1993 1995 1997 Clock speeds 16–33 MHz 60–166 MHz 150–200 MHz 200–300 MHz Bus width 32 bits 32 bits 64 bits 64 bits Number of transistors 1.185 million 3.1 million 5.5 million 7.5 million Feature size (m) 1 0.8 0.6 0.35 Addressable memory 4 GB 4 GB 64 GB 64 GB Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 512 kB L1 and Cache 8 kB 8 kB 512 kB L2 1 MB L2 (c) 1990s Processors Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Evolution of Intel Microprocessors (4 of 4) Core i7 EE Core i9- Pentium III Pentium 4 Core 2 Duo 4960X 7900X Introduced 1999 2000 2006 2013 2017 1.06–1.2 Clock speeds 450–660 MHz 1.3–1.8 GHz 4 GHz 4.3 GHz GHz Bus width 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits Number of transistors 9.5 million 42 million 167 million 1.86 billion 7.2 billion Feature size (nm) 250 180 65 22 14 Addressable memory 64 GB 64 GB 64 GB 64 GB 128 GB Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 1.5 MB L2/ Cache 512 kB L2 256 kB L2 2 MB L2 14 MB L3 1.5 MB L3 Number of cores 1 1 2 6 10 (d) Recent Processors Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Highlights of the Evolution of the Intel Product Line: (1 of 2) 8080 8086 80286 80386 80486 World’s first A more Extension of the Intel’s first 32- Introduced the general- powerful 16-bit 8086 enabling bit machine use of much purpose machine addressing a First Intel more microprocessor Has an 16-MB memory processor to sophisticated 8-bit machine, instruction instead of just support and powerful 8-bit data path cache, or 1MB multitasking cache to memory queue, that technology and Was used in the prefetches a sophisticated first personal few instructions instruction computer before they are pipelining (Altair) executed Also offered a The first built-in math appearance of coprocessor the x86 architecture The 8088 was a variant of this processor and used in IBM’s first personal computer (securing the success of Intel Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved  Highlights of the Evolution of the Intel Product Line: (2 of 2) Pentium Intel introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow multiple instructions to execute in parallel Pentium Pro Continued the move into superscalar organization with aggressive use of register renaming, branch prediction, data flow analysis, and speculative execution Pentium II Incorporated Intel MMX technology, which is designed specifically to process video, audio, and graphics data efficiently Pentium III Incorporated additional floating-point instructions Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE) Pentium 4 Includes additional floating-point and other enhancements for multimedia Core First Intel x86 micro-core Core 2 Extends the Core architecture to 64 bits Core 2 Quad provides four cores on a single chip More recent Core offerings have up to 10 cores per chip An important addition to the architecture was the Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Embedded Systems The use of electronics and software within a product Billions of computer systems are produced each year that are embedded within larger devices Today many devices that use electric power have an embedded computing system Often embedded systems are tightly coupled to their environment – This can give rise to real-time constraints imposed by the need to interact with the environment ▪ Constraints such as required speeds of motion, required precision of measurement, and required time durations, dictate the timing of software operations – If multiple activities must be managed simultaneously this imposes more complex real-time constraints Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.13 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved The Internet of Things (IoT) Term that refers to the expanding interconnection of smart devices, ranging from appliances to tiny sensors Is primarily driven by deeply embedded devices Generations of deployment culminating in the IoT: – Information technology (IT) ▪ PCs, servers, routers, firewalls, and so on, bought as IT devices by enterprise IT people and primarily using wired connectivity – Operational technology (OT) ▪ Machines/appliances with embedded IT built by non-IT companies, such as medical machinery, SCADA, process control, and kiosks, bought as appliances by enterprise OT people and primarily using wired connectivity – Personal technology ▪ Smartphones, tablets, and eBook readers bought as IT devices by consumers exclusively using wireless connectivity and often multiple forms of wireless connectivity – Sensor/actuator technology ▪ Single-purpose devices bought by consumers, IT, and OT people exclusively using wireless connectivity, generally of a single form, as part of larger systems It is the fourth generation that is usually thought of as the IoT and it is marked by the use of billions of embedded devices Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved  Embedded Application Processors Operating versus Systems Dedicated Processors There are two general Application processors approaches to developing an – Defined by the processor’s ability to execute complex operating systems embedded operating system – General-purpose in nature (OS): – An example is the smartphone – the – Take an existing OS and adapt it embedded system is designed to support numerous apps and perform for the embedded application a wide variety of functions – Design and implement an OS intended solely for embedded use Dedicated processor – Is dedicated to one or a small number of specific tasks required by the host device – Because such an embedded system is dedicated to a specific task or tasks, the processor and associated components can be engineered to reduce size and cost Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.14 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Deeply Embedded Systems Subset of embedded systems Has a processor whose behavior is difficult to observe both by the programmer and the user Uses a microcontroller rather than a microprocessor Is not programmable once the program logic for the device has been burned into ROM Has no interaction with a user Dedicated, single-purpose devices that detect something in the environment, perform a basic level of processing, and then do something with the results Often have wireless capability and appear in networked configurations, such as networks of sensors deployed over a large area Typically have extreme resource constraints in terms of memory, processor size, time, and power consumption Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved ARM Refers to a processor architecture that has evolved from RISC design principles and is used in embedded systems Family of RISC-based microprocessors and microcontrollers designed by ARM Holdings, Cambridge, England Chips are high-speed processors that are known for their small die size and low power requirements Probably the most widely used embedded processor architecture and indeed the most widely used processor architecture of any kind in the world Acorn RISC Machine/Advanced RISC Machine Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved ARM Products Cortex-M Cortex-M0 Cortex-M0+ Cortex-R Cortex-M3 Cortex-M4 Cortex-A Cortex-M7 Cortex-M23 Cortex-M33 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.15 Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved Summary Basic Concepts and Chapter 1 Computer Evolution Organization and architecture Embedded systems – The Internet of things Structure and function – Embedded operating systems The IAS computer – Application processors versus Gates, memory cells, chips, and dedicated processors multichip modules – Microprocessors versus – Gates and memory cells microcontrollers – Transistors – Embedded versus deeply embedded systems – Microelectronic chips – Multichip module ARM architecture – ARM evolution The evolution of the Intel x86 architecture – Instruction set architecture – ARM products Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved