General Psychology Comprehensive Reviewer PDF

comprehensive reviewer (general psych) GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY School of Thoughts Structuralism First School of thought proposed by WILHEM WUNDT. Wilhem Wundt established the First Psychological Laboratory at Leipzig, Germany Major thinkers associated with Structuralism are Edward T...

comprehensive reviewer (general psych) GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY School of Thoughts Structuralism First School of thought proposed by WILHEM WUNDT. Wilhem Wundt established the First Psychological Laboratory at Leipzig, Germany Major thinkers associated with Structuralism are Edward Titchener & Wilhem Wundt. Structuralists are more concerned with what went inside your mind. Functionalism It was heavily influenced by the Work of William James. It emphasizes the function of the Mind and Behavior in adapting to the environment. Behaviorism Was first Proposed by John B. Watson It suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental forces rather than internal forces. (Overt Behavior rather than Covert) Gestalt This approach was proposed by Max Weightermer Originated in Germany and Austria during the 19th Century. The belief that behavior or an experience can be unified whole. Psychoanalysis Founded by Dzaddy Sigi It emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. Other Psychoanalytic proponents are: ○ Anne Freud ○ Erik Erikson ○ Karen Horney ○ Otto Rank ○ Alfred Adler Humanistic Was founded by Carl Rogers It was developed to counter psychoanalysis and behaviorism. It focuses on free will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization. Cognitive School of Psychology that studies mental processes. The Scientific Method - method of acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and systematically finding the answers. Steps for Scientific Method Conceptualizing a Problem Collecting Data Analyzing Data Drawing Conclusions Research Design and Strategy Descriptive Research Naturalistic Observation Case Study Correlation Research Experimental Research Quasi-Experimental Descriptive Statistics - are techniques that help describe a set of data. Inferential Statistics - are methods that use the limited information from samples to answer general questions about populations. Research Ethics Professional and Scientific Responsibility to Society - - include conducting its affairs within society in accordance with the highest ethical standards, and encouraging the development of social structures and policies that benefit all persons and peoples. Respect for the dignity of Persons and People - respect for the diversity among persons and peoples. Competent Caring for Well-being of Persons and People - maximizing benefits and minimizing potential harm to individuals, families, groups, and communities. Confidentiality Assessment Human Relations Resolving Ethical Issues Research Education and Training Therapy Record and Fees Advertisement and Public Statements Biopsychology The Nervous System - the body’s electrochemical communication circuitry that is made up of billions of neurons. Neuroscience - any or all of the sciences, such as neurochemistry and experimental psychology, which deal with the structure or function of the nervous system and brain. Neuron Structure Neuron - The neuron is a small information processor, and dendrites serve as input sites where signals are received from other neurons. These signals are transmitted electrically across the soma and down a major extension from the soma known as the axon which ends at multiple terminal buttons. Soma - Cell Body Dendrites - branch like extensions contribute to neurological networks by providing more surface area for other axons to link to The Nucleus is located at the Soma Terminal Buttons - contain synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers of the nervous system Synapse - Tiny Junctions Myelin Sheath - a fatty insulation layer that forms around nerves. This allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells. Resting Potential - negatively charged inactive neuron. Sodium and Potassium - types of ion are most significant to the neural impulse (Na+ and K Channel) Efferent Neurons - Motor Nerves Afferent Neurons - Carry information to the brain [sensory nerves] Excitatory Neurotransmitters - make a receiving cell more likely to fire a signal Inhibitory Neurotransmitters - makes the receiving cell less likely to fire a signal Parts of the Nervous System Central Nervous System (CNS) - made up of the Brain and Spinal Cord Peripheral Nervous System - connects the system to the rest of the body. It is made up of nerves, carrying information back and forth to the CNS 2 Subdivision of PNS Somatic Nervous System - is associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary. It is involved in relay of information therefore it consist sensory and motor nerves Autonomic Nervous System - controls our internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control (Involuntary). ○ Sympathetic Nervous System - involved in preparing the body for stress related activities. ○ Parasympathetic Nervous System - associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations. Homeostasis - is a state of equilibrium, in which biological conditions (such as body temperature) are maintained at optimal levels. Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters Involved in Potential Effect on Behavior Acetylcholine Muscle Action, Memory Increased arousal, enhance cognition Beta-Endorphin Pain, Pleasure Decreased anxiety, decreased tension Dopamine Mood, Sleep, Learning Increased pleasure, suppressed appetite Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Brain Function, Sleep Decreased tension, (GABA) decreased anxiety Glutamate Memory, Learning Increased Learning, Enhance learning Norepinephrine Heart, intestine, Alertness Increased arousal, suppressed appetite Serotonin Mood, Sleep Modulated, Suppressed appetite. Psychotropic Medications - drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance. Psychoactive Drugs - can act as agonist and antagonist for a given neurotransmitter system. Agonist - Chemicals that mimic neurotransmitters at the receptor site and thus strengthen its effect. Antagonist - blocks or impedes the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor. Agonist and antagonist drugs are prescribed to correct the specific neurotransmitter imbalances underlying a person’s condition 3 Developmental Domains Lifespan Development Psychologists define development as the pattern of change in human capabilities that begins at conception and continues throughout the lifespan Nature - an organism’s biological inheritance Prenatal Development  Germinal Stage (Weeks 1-2) ○ Conceptual Occurs - conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a Zygotes. ○ Mitosis - Process of cell division ○ Mitosis is a fragile process, and fewer than one-half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks (Hall, 2004). Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3 - 8) ○ After the zygote divides for about 7–10 days and has 150 cells, it travels down the fallopian tubes and implants itself in the lining of the uterus ○ Embryo - multicellular organism implanted in the uterus. ○ Placenta - is a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord Fetal Stage (Weeks 9 - 40) ○ Fetus - organism is about 9 weeks old. ○ fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on the recognizable form of a human being as the “tail” begins to disappear Prenatal Influences Teratogen - any environmental agent - Biological or Chemical, or Physical that can cause damage to the developing embryo or fetus (Alcohol or Drugs). Sensitive or Critical Stage - each organ that the fetus developed during a specified period. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Facial Features Facial Feature Potential Effect of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Head Size Below average head circumference Eyes Smaller than average eye opening, skin folds at corner of the eyes Nose Low Nasal Bridge, Short nose Midface Smaller than average mid size face Lip and Philtrum Thin upper lip, indistinct philtrum Infancy Through Childhood All healthy babies are born with newborn reflexes: inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation. Reflexes help the newborn survive until it is capable of more complex behaviors—these reflexes are crucial to survival. They are present in babies whose brains are developing normally and usually disappear around 4–5 months old Adolescence Adolescence is the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood The typical age range of adolescence is from 12 to 18 years, and this stage of development also has some predictable physical, cognitive, and psychosocial milestones. Emerging Adulthood This is a relatively newly defined period of lifespan development spanning from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love. Adulthood Adulthood begins around 20 years old and has three distinct stages: early, middle, and late. Each stage brings its own set of rewards and challenges Stages of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget) Sensorimotor (0-2) - A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses  Preoperational (2-7) - emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development. Egocentric Concrete Operational (7-11) - While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become much more adept at using logic. Formal Operational (12 - UP) - increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. adolescents and young adults become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them. Sensation Sensory Receptors - are specialized neurons that respond to specific types of stimuli. When sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor, sensation has occurred. Transduction - conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential Sensation - conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential Cones - Receptors which are used for color vision and are focused in the fovea. Hair Cells - sensory receptors of the ear Closure - states that when people see a disconnected figure, they fill in the spaces and see it. (SENSATION - the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment) Perception Perception refers to the way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced. Perception involves both bottom-up and top-down processing Bottom-up processing - refers to the fact that perceptions are built from sensory input. Top-down processing - is when we interpret those sensations are influenced by our available knowledge, our experiences, and our thoughts. Absolute Threshold - the minimum amount of energy a person can detect. Sensory Adaptation - refers to the way our senses adjust to different stimuli. Habituation - is a behavioral phenomenon involving a decreased response to something that occurs over time. Stages of Sleep Non Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) ○ most physiological functions are markedly lower than in wakefulness ○ The deepest stage of sleep is at Stage 3 and 4. ○ The disorganization during stage 3 or 4 may result in enuresis, somnambulism, and stage 4 nightmares or night terrors. ○ Most Stage 4 occurs at First third of the night. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) ○ 90 to 100 minutes during the Night ◆ 1st REM are 10 minutes or Less ◆ Later REMs can be 15 mins to 40 mins each. ◆ Usually occurs during the Last third of the night. ○ Characterized by a high level of brain activity, physiological activity levels are similar to those in wakefulness. ○ Paradoxical Sleep - – sleep shows irregular patterns, sometimes close to aroused waking patterns. Stage 1 (N1) Loss of Alpha Activity Low voltage, mix frequency (EEG Pattern w/ Prominent theta activity, 4-7 Hz) Occasional Vertex Sharp Waves (V Waves) Eye movement becomes slow and rolling Skeletal muscle tone relaxes Stage 2 (N2) Heralded by the appearance of sleep spindles and K complex (high amplitude negative  sharp wave followed by positive slow waves) in the EEG Stage 3 and 4 (N3 & N4) slow wave sleep (SWS), delta sleep, or deep sleep, because the arousal threshold increases incrementally from Stage N1 to N3. REM SLEEP (Stage R) Characterized by SawTooth Wave, rapid eye movement and atonia with phasic twitches. Stage that Dream usually occurs Memory An information processing system Memory is a set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time. Sensory Memory storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage— up to a couple of seconds. (Atkinson-Shiffrin model) Short Term Memory A temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory; sometimes it is called working memory REHEARSAL - conscious repetition of Last about 20 seconds information Short Term Memory takes information from sensory memory and sometimes connects that memory to something already in long-term memory. George Miller (1956) - people can retain about 7 items in STM ○ Some people remember 5 and some remember 9. ○ The capacity of STM is +/- 7 Memory Consolidation - continuous repetition of information to be remembered. To move STM to LTM. Long Term Memory Continuous storage of information. Storage capacity has no limits 2 Types of Long Term Memory Explicit Memory - we consciously try to remember and recall. Implicit Memory (Non-Declarative Memory) - are memories that are not part of our consciousness. They are memories formed from behaviors. 2 types of Implicit Memory ○ Procedural Memory - it stores memory on how to do things. ○ Declarative Memory - Storage of Facts ◆ Semantic Memory - is knowledge about words, concepts, and language based knowledge and facts ◆ Episodic Memory - is information about events we have personally experienced. Retrieval The act of Getting information out of memory storage and back to conscious mind. 3 ways of retrieving emotion from LTM Recall - it means you can access information without cues Recognition - happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again. It involves a process of comparison. Relearning - It involves learning information that you previously learned Memory Enhancing Strategies Rehearsal - or the conscious repetition of information to be remembered (Craik & Watkins, 1973). Chunking - you organize information into manageable bits or chunks (Bodie, Powers, & Fitch- Hauser, 2006). Chunking is useful when trying to remember information like dates and phone numbers.  Elaborative Rehearsal - a technique in which you think about the meaning of the new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory (Tigner, 1999) Mnemonic Devices - are memory aids that help us organize information for encoding Proactive Interference - refers to the interference effect of previously learned materials on the acquisition and retrieval of newer materials. Decay Theory - suggests that forgetting is caused by a fading memory trace Motivation - is the desire to act in service of a goal. Instinct - an inborn impulse or motivation to action typically performed in response to specific external stimuli. Drive Reduction Theory - Goal is to restore Homeostatic Balance ○ Needs - Activates a drive ○ Drive - Hull used the term drive to refer to the state of tension or arousal caused by biological or physiological needs. Thirst, hunger, and the need for warmth are all examples of drives. A drive creates an unpleasant state, a tension that needs to be reduced. Psychological Disorders Anxiety Disorders ○ are characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances in behavior (APA, 2013). ○ Although anxiety is universally experienced, anxiety disorders cause considerable distress Phobia ○ is a Greek word that means fear ○ A person diagnosed with a specific phobia (formerly known as simple phobia) experiences excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation Panic Disorder ○ Experience recurrent (more than one) and unexpected panic attacks. ○ Along with at least one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks, worry over the consequences of the attacks, or self-defeating changes in behavior related to the attacks (e.g., avoidance of exercise or unfamiliar situations) (APA, 2013) ○ As is the case with other anxiety disorders, the panic attacks cannot result from the physiological effects of drugs and other substances, a medical condition, or another mental disorder. ○ A panic attack is defined as a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes. ◆ Accelerated Heart Rate ◆ Sweating ◆ Trembling ◆ Choking Sensation ◆ Hot Flashes or Chills ◆ Dizziness/ lightheadedness ◆ Fear of losing control/ going crazy ◆ Fear of dying Mood Disorder Bipolar Disorder (commonly known as manic depression) - often experiences mood states that vacillate between depression and mania; that is, the person’s mood is said to alternate from one emotional extreme to the other (in contrast to unipolar, which indicates a persistently sad mood). ○ Manic Episode - “distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased activity or energy lasting at least one week,” that lasts most of the time each day (APA, 2013, p. 124) Dissociative Disorder  Dissociative Amnesia - Unable to recall important personal information, usually following an extremely stressful or traumatic experience. Dissociative fugue (from the word “to flee” in French) - whereby they suddenly wander away from their home, experience confusion about their identity, and sometimes even adopt new identity Dementia - organic in nature