Spanish Colonial Period in the Philippines PDF

Introduction to the Spanish Colonial Period Agricultural Exploitation: The colonial economy was heavily reliant on agriculture, with Filipinos coerced The Spanish Conquest and Establishment of...

Introduction to the Spanish Colonial Period Agricultural Exploitation: The colonial economy was heavily reliant on agriculture, with Filipinos coerced The Spanish Conquest and Establishment of into farming cash crops for export. Colonial Rule The Spanish colonial era in the Philippines, Monopolies: The Spanish Crown established extending from 1565 to 1898, was a pivotal period monopolies on commodities like tobacco and abaca, that saw the archipelago undergo significant which stifled local industry and discontent among transformations. This era set the stage for the farmers due to exploitation. emergence of Filipino nationalism and the eventual Infrastructure: Investments in struggle for independence. infrastructure were primarily aimed at facilitating the exploitation of resources and the movement of goods for trade, with Political Structure less emphasis on local development needs. Governor-General: The highest-ranking official in the Philippines, representing the Spanish Crown. Social and Cultural Effects They held executive, legislative, and judicial powers, presiding over the colonial government’s Religious Conversion: The widespread conversion of centralised system. Filipinos to Catholicism, facilitated by Spanish friars, led to the Roman Catholic Church becoming a Audiencia: An appellate court in Manila that also dominant social force. advised the Governor-General and acted as a governing body. Caste System: A caste system that classified individuals based on ancestry created a social Provincial and Local Governments: Headed by hierarchy, which influenced status and mobility Spanish officials, they were responsible for local within the colonial society. This mirrors the social governance, with the ‘alcaldes mayores’ overseeing stratifications observed in the Renaissance in Spain, provinces and ‘gobernadorcillos’ in charge of smaller where societal hierarchies were deeply entrenched. towns. Language and Education: The introduction of The Encomienda System: Encomenderos were Spanish as the lingua franca and the establishment granted rights to collect tribute from Filipinos in of schools by religious orders primarily for the exchange for military protection and spiritual Spanish and the mestizo minority. instruction. Over time, this system evolved into a Cultural Syncretism: An amalgamation of feudal system, with encomenderos gaining indigenous Filipino and Spanish traditions substantial land and labour control. The exploitation emerged, reflected in cuisine, festivals, and seen in the encomienda system shares similarities the arts. with the economic systems during the Meiji Japan era, where modernisation and exploitation occurred Beginnings of Nationalism side by side. Rise of the Ilustrado Class: Educated Filipinos, known as ‘ilustrados’, began advocating for reforms Economic Effects and representation, becoming the intellectual force behind the nascent nationalist movement. The Galleon Trade: For over two centuries, the Manila- emergence of the ilustrados can be compared to the Acapulco galleon trade was the cornerstone of the unification of Italy, where intellectuals played key colonial economy, creating a trade link between Asia roles in national unification efforts. and the Americas. This system of trade underscores the global impact of exploration in the 15th century, Secularization Controversy: Tensions where sea voyages drastically changed the course of between secular Filipino priests and world economies. Spanish friars over church positions fostered discontent and nationalist sentiments.  economic structures that benefited the colonial Propaganda Movement: Led by ilustrados, rulers at the expense of local populations. This this movement used literature and art to legacy is crucial for understanding the foundations push for social reforms, playing a crucial of modern Filipino identity and the nation’s struggle role in awakening national consciousness. for sovereignty. Cultural Renaissance: The late 19th century saw a renaissance in Filipino culture, with a The Structure of the Spanish Colonial focus on national identity and heritage, Government Economic Policies: The Galleon Trade which contributed to the growing and Tribute System nationalist sentiment. Spanish colonial economic policies in the Philippines were characterized by the encomienda and later, Philippine Revolution (1896) the hacienda system, where land was granted to colonists for cultivation and resource extraction. Bandolerismo: Spanish authorities branded local dissent as banditry, which led to The economy was geared towards serving Spanish widespread resentment and contributed to interests, with the Manila galleon trade monopolising the revolutionary fervour. commerce The Spanish colonial rule in the La Liga Filipina: Founded by José Rizal, Philippines lasted for over 300 years, creating a this civic organization sought to unite profound cultural exchange and leaving a Filipinos and foster civic consciousness. significant imprint on the country’s traditions and heritage. Katipunan: Established by Andres The Spanish arrived in the Philippines in the 16th Bonifacio, this secret society aimed to century, establishing their influence through the overthrow Spanish rule through armed Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade, which connected insurrection. Asia, the Americas, and Europe. This trade route facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and Cry of Pugad Lawin: Historically marked as cultures between the East and the West. During this the beginning of the Philippine Revolution, period, Spanish colonialism brought about changes in where members of the Katipunan tore their many aspects of Filipino life. cedulas (residence certificates) as a sign of their commitment to the revolutionary The Spanish introduced Catholicism, converting cause. the majority of the population and making it the dominant religion in the Philippines. The influence The Spanish colonial period ingrained deep socio- of Catholicism can be seen in the numerous cultural influences in the Philippines, many of which churches, cathedrals, and religious festivals that persist to this day. still exist today. The Spanish also imposed their The imposition of Catholicism, the introduction of language, resulting in a significant linguistic impact the Spanish legal and educational system, and the on Filipino dialects. Spanish words and phrases transformation of the economic landscape have had were integrated into local languages, with Tagalog, lasting effects on Filipino society. the national language, adopting approximately 20% of its vocabulary from Spanish. Spanish numbers and To fully grasp the extent of colonial legacies, one the monetary system were also widely adopted in the must also consider the effects of absolutism under Philippines. Furthermore, Spanish colonialism monarchs like Louis XIV of France and Peter the influenced the naming conventions in the Philippines. Great of Russia, which similarly left indelible marks on their respective societies. Spanish surnames were imposed on Filipino families, although some native last names The legacy of Spanish colonialism is complex. While continued to exist. Manila, the capital city, was it introduced systems of governance, law, and named by the Spanish and the islands were called education that have continued to influence the Philippines, it also imposed a social hierarchy and “Filipinas” after Prince Philip of Asturias, later 3. The third aim of colonization arose out of known as King Philip II of Spain. Spain’s ambition to be the greatest empire in the world. By acquiring so many colonies (in- cluding the SPANISH COLONIAL SYSTEM Philippines), Spain realized her imperialist ambition. Spain was the first European country to rise as a great colonizing power in modern times. At the zenith of her glory and grandeur during the 16th The Encomienda System and Land Tenure century, her siglo de oro (golden century), she had During Spanish colonization in the Philippines (1565- far-flung colonies in Africa, the New World (Latin 1898), the encomienda system was implemented America and Asia) – the first global colonial empire similarly to other Spanish colonies. Spanish in history – so that King Philip II was the first encomenderos were granted control over land and monarch to justly boast that the sun never set on local labor in exchange for the promise of protection his realm. and conversion to Christianity. Indigenous Filipinos To rule such extensive possessions, Spain compiled were required to provide tribute and labor, which the first code of colonial laws, called Leyes de often led to abuses and exploitation. Indias, which modern authorities on colonialism Land tenure in the Philippines during this period was acclaim as “one of the most humane and one of heavily influenced by the Spanish system. The the most comprehensive codes published for any Spanish Crown distributed land to Spanish settlers, colonial empire”. However, because of the distance religious orders, and influential local allies. Over of the Philippines from Spain and the corruption and time, this led to a concentration of land in the hands decadence of Spanish officials and friars, especially of a few, with local chieftains and clergy gaining in the 19th century, these colonial laws were unevenly substantial estates. The hacienda system also applied or failed to benefit the colonies. emerged, where large agricultural estates were managed by Spanish or mestizo landlords. Aims of Spanish Colonization. Spain’s aims in colonizing over- seas lands The Role of the Catholic Church and Religious (including the Philippines) may be keynoted by Orders three C’s – God, Gold and Glory. During Spanish colonization in the Philippines, the 1.The first and chief aim of her colonization was Catholic Church played a pivotal role in both spiritual the propagation of Catholic Christianity, and societal matters. Religious orders such as the Augustinians, Franciscans, Jesuits, and Dominicans which is attested by the Testament of Queen Isabel were crucial in converting the local population to the Catholic (1479-1504) and the Christian spirit of Christianity, establishing missions, and educating the Leyes de Indias. This is the reason why every the people. They also influenced local governance expedition of discovery, exploration and conquest and social structures, often becoming was accompanied by Christian missionaries. As Dr. intermediaries between the Spanish authorities and Wilhelm Roscher, noted German authority on the indigenous communities. Their work extended to Spanish colonization, affirmed: “The principal aim of setting up schools, hospitals, and churches, shaping Spanish coloni- zation was the conversion of the the cultural and social fabric of the Philippines heathen peoples to Christianity.” 2.The second aim of Spanish colonization was the desire for gold or economic wealth. Cultural Changes During the Spanish Colonial Period: Education, Language, and Religion This aim sprang from the struggle among European powers to monopolize the spice trade of the Orient The Spanish colonial period in the Philippines, which and to acquire riches. At that time (as it is today), began in 1565 and lasted for more than three material wealth was a measure of greatness among centuries, brought significant cultural nations. transformations that continue to shape Filipino society today. The Spanish administration introduced new institutions, religious practices, and Spanish as the Language of Power: languages that fundamentally altered the social Spanish became the official language of fabric of the Philippines. Among these changes, the government, education, and religion during most influential were in the areas of education, the colonial period. Legal documents, laws, language, and religion. and religious texts were written in Spanish, and proficiency in the language became a marker of social status. However, Spanish Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, education in never became the dominant language of the the Philippines was informal and based on masses, as only a small percentage of the apprenticeship, oral tradition, and cultural customs. population learned to speak it fluently. The arrival of the Spanish transformed the educational system, with a focus on spreading Introduction of New Words: While Catholicism and creating a more formal education Spanish did not become the primary spoken structure. language of most Filipinos, it left a lasting influence on local languages. Many Filipino Religious and Colonial Agenda: Education languages, including Tagalog, Visayan, and under Spanish rule was heavily intertwined others, incorporated numerous Spanish with religion. The primary purpose of loanwords. These borrowed words related education was to convert the native to religion, government, technology, and population to Christianity and instill loyalty daily life. to Spain. Religious orders, particularly the Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits, were Development of Filipino Languages: responsible for setting up schools and Despite the imposition of Spanish, the universities. Spanish colonial government allowed local languages to flourish to some extent, Formal Institutions: One of the most particularly for spreading Catholic significant contributions of the Spanish teachings. Missionaries often learned local period to Filipino education was the languages to better communicate with the establishment of formal institutions. The indigenous people. This allowed languages first schools were church-run, such as like Tagalog and Cebuano to evolve, while parish schools for boys and girls, with also absorbing Spanish vocabulary and instruction primarily focused on religious concepts. doctrine, reading, writing, and basic arithmetic. In 1611, the University of Santo Tomas was founded, the oldest existing Perhaps the most profound and long-lasting cultural university in Asia. change brought by the Spanish colonization was the introduction and widespread adoption of Limited Access: While formal education Christianity, particularly Roman Catholicism. expanded under Spanish rule, it was largely limited to the elite or the children of Conversion to Catholicism: One of the Spanish settlers, Mestizos, and local primary objectives of Spanish colonization leaders. Common Filipinos had little access was to to higher education, which was reserved for Christianize the indigenous population. Spanish the Ilustrados or educated elites who would missionaries, particularly the Augustinians, later play a significant role in the Philippine Franciscans, and Jesuits, played a central role in the Revolution. mass conversion of Filipinos to Catholicism. By the end of the Spanish period, the majority of Filipinos Language played a crucial role in the colonization had embraced Christianity, which continues to be process, and the introduction of Spanish had a the dominant religion in the country. lasting impact on communication and culture in the Philippines.  Religious Syncretism: While Catholicism colonization, during which Filipinos were subjected became the dominant religion, many to political, economic, cultural, and religious indigenous religious beliefs and practices domination. Despite the immense power of the persisted. The blending of pre-colonial and Spanish colonial government and the Catholic Catholic traditions led to a form of religious Church, the Filipino people did not passively accept syncretism, where local rituals, festivals, colonial rule. Numerous revolts and resistance and customs were incorporated into movements erupted throughout the archipelago, Catholic practices. This fusion can be seen driven by various grievances, including economic in the celebration of fiestas, which often exploitation, religious persecution, and the desire honor Catholic saints while incorporating for self-governance. These uprisings, though often indigenous elements. unsuccessful in the short term, laid the groundwork for the eventual Philippine Revolution of 1896. Church as a Political Power: The Catholic Church became one of the most powerful institutions in the Philippines during the Early Resistance and Revolts (1565-1640) Spanish colonial period. Beyond its religious The earliest period of Spanish colonization was role, the Church held significant economic marked by sporadic and localized revolts, primarily and political influence. It owned large driven by abuses related to the encomienda system, tracts of land, controlled education, and forced labor, and tribute collection. These uprisings had a say in colonial policies. This dominance reflected the resentment of local communities often led to tensions between the Church toward the imposition of foreign rule and the and both local leaders and colonial exploitative colonial system. authorities. One of the earliest recorded uprisings was Religious Festivals and Celebrations: The led by Lakan Dula of Tondo and Rajah introduction of Catholicism also brought Soliman of Manila (1574). These leaders with it religious festivals that remain an initially welcomed the Spanish and essential part of Filipino culture. Major cooperated with them, but when the Christian holidays like Christmas, Easter, Spanish imposed tributes and attempted to and the Feast of the Immaculate exploit their lands, the two leaders led a Conception became widely observed, revolt against Spanish authority. Although alongside local fiestas dedicated to patron the rebellion was quelled, it demonstrated saints. These celebrations are a testament early dissatisfaction with Spanish rule. to the lasting impact of Catholicism on The people of Pampanga (1585) revolted due Filipino cultural identity to abuses by Spanish encomenderos who overtaxed and oppressed the native The cultural changes brought by Spanish population. The revolt was suppressed, but colonization had deep and lasting impacts on Filipino it was an early indicator of widespread society. The introduction of formal education, the discontent. integration of Spanish into local languages, and the The indigenous Igorot people in the widespread conversion to Christianity were key Cordillera region resisted Spanish attempts factors in reshaping Filipino identity. While Spanish to subjugate them and convert them to rule imposed new systems and beliefs, Filipino Christianity. The mountainous terrain culture demonstrated resilience, blending foreign provided the Igorots with a natural influences with indigenous practices to create a defense, and they successfully repelled unique cultural landscape that endures to this day. multiple Spanish attempts at conquest, maintaining their independence throughout the colonial period. Filipinos’ Response to Spanish Rule: Revolts and Resistance The Spanish colonial period in the Philippines (1565- Revolts Motivated by Religious Persecution and 1898) was marked by over three centuries of Cultural Resistance (1640-1745) As Catholicism spread, many revolts were driven by Led by Andres Malong, a former Cabeza de religious and cultural grievances. Indigenous people Barangay (local leader), the people of often resisted the forced conversion to Christianity Pangasinan revolted due to the heavy and the suppression of their traditional beliefs and burden of taxes and forced labor imposed practices. by the Spanish. Malong declared himself king and attempted to spread his rebellion The Tamblot Revolt (1621-1622): across northern Luzon. However, the Tamblot, a babaylan (native priest) from Spanish forces swiftly crushed the revolt. Bohol, led a revolt against the Spanish and the spread of Christianity. The uprising was The Dagohoy Revolt (1744-1829) motivated by the people’s desire to return The longest-lasting revolt in Philippine to their pre-colonial animist beliefs. history, the Dagohoy Revolt, was led by Tamblot gathered thousands of followers Francisco Dagohoy in Bohol. The immediate who opposed the conversion efforts of cause was a personal grievance— Dagohoy’s Spanish friars. However, the revolt was brother had died, and a Spanish priest eventually suppressed by Spanish forces, refused to give him a proper Christian aided by local collaborators. burial. Dagohoy rallied thousands of followers, and they established an The Bankaw Revolt (1621): Led by Bankaw, independent community in the mountains of the former datu of Leyte, this revolt was Bohol that lasted for more than 80 years also motivated by religious reasons. Bankaw before being subdued by Spanish forces. had initially accepted Christianity but later returned to his indigenous beliefs and led a The Silang Revolt (1762-1763) rebellion against Spanish missionaries. He During the British occupation of Manila, was defeated and executed, but the revolt Diego Silang led a rebellion in Ilocos against was significant in showing the persistent Spanish abuses and the imposition of attachment to pre-colonial religious excessive taxes. Initially, he sought traditions. support from the British, who had temporarily occupied Manila, but he was The Sumuroy Revolt (1649-1650): betrayed and killed by his own men. His Francisco Sumuroy, a Waray leader from wife, Gabriela Silang, continued the Samar, spearheaded a revolt against the resistance but was eventually captured and Polo y Servicio (forced labor) system. The executed by Spanish forces. Spanish required men from Samar to work in shipyards in Cavite, which was a hardship for those forced to leave their homes. The The Rise of the Filipino Consciousness and the revolt spread across Visayas and Mindanao, Philippine Revolution (1823-1896) but it was eventually suppressed after By the 19th century, economic and political changes Sumuroy was killed. in the Philippines, combined with the rise of the Economic Exploitation and Peasant Uprisings Ilustrados (educated elites), fostered a growing (1745-1823) sense of Filipino nationalism. While earlier revolts were localized and often focused on specific Economic exploitation, particularly through the grievances, the resistance movements in the late tribute system and land abuses by the Spanish, led 19th century took on a broader nationalistic to various peasant uprisings during the 18th century. character. These revolts were often centered in areas where landowners or encomenderos abused their powers, resulting in widespread suffering among the Filipino The Basi Revolt (1807) population. In Ilocos, a revolt erupted over the Spanish monopoly on the production and sale of basi, a locally brewed sugarcane wine. The revolt The Ilocos Revolt (1660-1661) was a reaction to the economic oppression  experienced by the people, who were dissatisfaction with the oppressive systems imposed forced to buy government-sanctioned basi by the Spanish colonial government. These acts of instead of making their own. resistance ultimately laid the foundation for the broader nationalist movement that culminated in the The Novales Mutiny (1823) Philippine Revolution and the eventual end of Spanish This uprising was led by Captain Andres rule. The legacy of these revolts continues to inspire Novales and other discontented Filipino Filipinos in their ongoing pursuit of freedom and soldiers, who were inspired by the justice. revolutions in Latin America. They resented the preferential treatment given to Spanish-born officers over Filipino The Propaganda Movement and the Path to officers. Although the mutiny was Revolution crusphed, it reflected growing discontent The late 19th century in the Philippines saw the rise within the Filipino military ranks. of the Ilustrado class, a group of educated Filipinos who became increasingly disillusioned with the The Cavite Mutiny (1872) abuses of the Spanish colonial government and the One of the key events that ignited the dominance of the friars. flame of Philippine nationalism was the This period witnessed the emergence of the Cavite Mutiny. Filipino soldiers and workers Propaganda Movement, a peaceful campaign led by at the Cavite arsenal revolted due to Filipino reformists seeking political, social, and economic grievances, such as the imposition economic reforms. Although it failed to achieve its of taxes on their wages. Although the immediate goals, the movement laid the intellectual mutiny was quickly put down, the Spanish and ideological groundwork for the eventual government used it as an excuse to execute Philippine Revolution of 1896. three Filipino priests—Father Mariano Gómez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora— known as Gomburza. Their execution galvanized the nationalist movement. The Propaganda Movement emerged in response to the worsening conditions in the Philippines, particularly the abuses committed by the Spanish friars and the lack of representation for Filipinos in The Philippine Revolution (1896-1898) the Spanish government. The Ilustrados were a The culmination of centuries of discontent class of educated Filipinos who had studied in Europe and sporadic revolts, the Philippine or Manila. They were exposed to liberal ideas, such Revolution was a full-scale struggle for as the principles of the French Revolution (liberty, independence. It was led by the Katipunan, equality, and fraternity), and sought reforms within a secret revolutionary society founded by the framework of Spanish colonial rule rather than Andrés Bonifacio, which sought to independence. They believed that by obtaining overthrow Spanish rule. After the Cry of reforms and greater rights, the Philippines could Pugad Lawin, where revolutionaries tore prosper under Spain’s leadership. their cedulas (tax certificates), open hostilities broke out. The revolution was Grievances Against Spanish Rule: marked by significant battles, the rise of Emilio Aguinaldo as a revolutionary leader, Filipinos were excluded from meaningful and the eventual declaration of Philippine participation in the Spanish colonial government. independence in 1898. Although some Ilustrados held minor local positions, the higher offices were reserved for Spaniards. The revolts and resistance movements against Spanish rule were an integral part of Filipino history, The Spanish friars (Dominicans, Augustinians, demonstrating the persistent desire for self- Franciscans, and Jesuits) wielded enormous power. determination, justice, and freedom. While many of They controlled vast estates, schools, and the the earlier uprisings were localized and often religious life of the colony. Their abuse of power, unsuccessful, they reflected the deep-seated including forced labor and land grabbing, was a major source of resentment. Heavy taxes, forced labor (Polo y Servicio), and land Through La Solidaridad, del Pilar advocated for abuses created widespread economic hardship reforms, including the removal of friar control over among Filipinos. The elites and commoners alike were the parishes and the need for representation in the burdened by the tribute system and monopolistic Spanish Cortes. policies that favored Spanish interests. Graciano López Jaena: A journalist and orator, López Jaena was the founder of La Solidaridad and was known for his eloquent speeches and writings The Goals of the Propaganda Movement that criticized the abuses of the friars. The reformists sought to address the following Mariano Ponce: was a historian and writer who objectives through peaceful means, often appealing contributed to the intellectual backbone of the directly to the Spanish Crown: Propaganda Movement. He focused on reawakening Representation in the Spanish Cortes: The national pride and bringing attention to Filipino Propagandists called for the Philippines to be culture and history. represented in the Spanish Cortes (parliament) to La Solidaridad (The Solidarity) Founded in 1889, give Filipinos a voice in decisions affecting the La Solidaridad was the most important publication colony. of the Propaganda Movement. It was a newspaper published in Spain, primarily to voice Filipino Secularization of the Clergy: The movement grievances and push for reforms in the Philippines. advocated for Filipino priests to replace Spanish Key contributors included Rizal, del Pilar, and López friars in parishes, which would lessen the power of Jaena, and they published articles about the abuses the friars and give Filipinos more control over of friars, the need for political reform, and the religious matters. plight of the Filipino people. Equality Before the Law: The reformists demanded equal rights for Filipinos and Spaniards, including Despite their efforts, the Propaganda Movement freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and failed to achieve its immediate goals for several freedom from arbitrary imprisonment. reasons: Abolition of Forced Labor: One of the central Lack of Support from Spain: The Spanish demands was the abolition of the Polo y Servicio and government, embroiled in its own domestic other exploitative colonial practices that burdened issues, paid little attention to the reformist ordinary Filipinos. demands of the Filipino Ilustrados. The Spanish monarchy was resistant to making any significant changes to its colonial The Propaganda Movement flourished in the 1880s policies. and 1890s, primarily led by expatriates based in Spain. These Filipino reformists used writings, Internal Divisions: The Propagandists were speeches, and publications to push for reform. often divided on strategies and goals. While some wanted peaceful reform and gradual change, others began to see the need for Perhaps the most famous figure of the Propaganda more radical action. Movement, Rizal was a writer, doctor, and nationalist who sought peaceful reform. His two Lack of Mass Support: The Propaganda novels, Noli Me Tangere (1887) and El Movement was primarily an intellectual and Filibusterismo (1891), exposed the abuses of the elitist campaign, led by the educated class Spanish clergy and the colonial government, and and far removed from the masses. Its goals awakened nationalist sentiments among Filipinos. did not directly address the immediate economic hardships of ordinary Filipinos, leading to limited grassroots support. A lawyer and journalist, del Pilar became the editor of La Solidaridad, the mouthpiece of the Propaganda Movement.  especially with Aguinaldo’s leadership, which eventually led to the declaration of Philippine The Path to Revolution: The Shift from Reform to independence on June 12, 1898. Revolution. The Propaganda Movement, while a failed attempt Although the Propaganda Movement failed to bring at peaceful reform, was a critical precursor to the about the reforms it sought, it played a crucial Philippine Revolution. It exposed the injustices of role in laying the ideological groundwork for a Spanish rule and awakened a sense of national more radical, revolutionary movement. The identity among Filipinos, particularly the Ilustrado movement inspired a generation of Filipinos who class. While the reformist approach did not yield the saw that peaceful reform was no longer desired results, it inspired the next generation of sufficient. Filipinos to take a more radical path, leading to the By the early 1890s, many Filipinos, especially the Philippine Revolution of 1896 and, ultimately, the younger generation, became disillusioned with the nation’s struggle for independence. The legacy of idea of peaceful reform. They began to believe that the Propaganda Movement lives on as a symbol of the independence from Spain, rather than mere reform, intellectual and nationalist awakening that preceded was the only solution to their problems. the revolutionary period. Rizal’s execution in 1896 by Spanish authorities was a turning point in Filipino resistance. Though The Philippine Revolution and The Fall of Spanish Rizal himself was a reformist who did not advocate Rule for violent revolution, his death became a rallying cry for Filipinos who saw it as a symbol of Spanish On July 7, 1892, Andres Bonifacio founded the oppression. Katipunan, or the “Highest and Most Respected Society of the Sons of the People” (KKK), in Tondo, The Katipunan Founded in 1892 by Andrés Manila. The Katipunan aimed to liberate the Bonifacio, the Katipunan was a secret revolutionary Philippines from the colonial government of Spain. society that sought independence from Spain The members of the Katipunan pledged their loyalty through armed struggle. While the Propaganda through the “sanduguan” ritual, where they used Movement aimed at reforms, the Katipunan their own blood to sign their names. represented the shift towards open revolution. Bonifacio and other leaders believed that armed In August 1896, the Spaniards discovered the resistance was the only way to overthrow Spanish Katipunan, prompting Bonifacio to declare a rule. revolution. Battles began in various parts of the country, including Balintawak and San Juan del Monte. Despite Bonifacio’s death in 1897, Emilio Cry of Pugad Lawin (1896): Aguinaldo continued the fight and became the primary leader of the revolution. This event marked the start of the Philippine Revolution, as members of the Katipunan, led by In December 1897, Bonifacio, tore up their cedulas (residence the Pact of Biak-na-Bato was signed, where certificates), symbolizing their defiance of Spanish Aguinaldo and his men agreed to go to Hong Kong in rule. The revolution rapidly spread across the exchange for 800,000 pesos from the Spanish country, leading to major battles and the rise of government. However, the agreement did not last other revolutionary leaders like Emilio Aguinaldo. long, and the revolution resumed. In April 1898, the Spanish-American War broke The Philippine Revolution (1896-1898): out. With the help of the Americans, the Filipinos defeated the Spaniards in the Battle of Manila The Philippine Revolution was the culmination of Bay on May 1, 1898. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo decades of resentment, unrest, and resistance to declared Philippine independence in Kawit, Cavite. Spanish colonial rule. It was driven by the broader Filipino masses, led by figures like Bonifacio and Aguinaldo. Although the Spanish initially suppressed the revolution, it continued to gather momentum, On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was Geographical and Cultural Context: signed, in which Spain ceded the Philippines to the The Philippines, an archipelago in Southeast Asia, United States for 20 million dollars. Although had a diverse population with various ethnic groups Spanish rule ended, a new struggle began for the and languages.Spanish colonization began in 1565 Filipinos against the Americans, known as the with Miguel López de Legazpi establishing the first Philippine-American War. permanent settlement in Cebu. The Philippine Revolution led to the establishment of The Spanish heavily promoted Roman Catholicism, the First Philippine Republic on January 23, 1899, in which became deeply ingrained in Filipino culture. Malolos, Bulacan. However, the war against the Today, the Philippines is predominantly Catholic Americans continued until 1902, when the Filipinos were ultimately defeated. 2. Economic System: The encomienda system was implemented, where Spanish encomenderos were granted control over Legacy of Spanish Colonialism: Law, Religion and local communities and could extract tribute and Culture labor. The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade connected The Spanish introduced a centralized government the Philippines to Mexico, facilitating economic and legal system based on Spanish laws. Many exchanges between Asia and the Americas aspects of the current Philippine legal system, The Spanish established a centralized colonial including civil law traditions, can be traced back to government in Manila, which became the political and Spanish colonial rule economic One of the most enduring legacies is the widespread practice of Roman Catholicism. The Spanish missionaries converted the majority of the Latin America population, and Catholicism remains the dominant 1.. Geographical and Cultural Context: religion in the Philippines today. Many Filipino festivals, such as Sinulog and Ati-Atihan, have roots Latin America, including regions like Mexico, Peru, in Catholic traditions introduced by the Spanish and the Caribbean, had advanced civilizations such as the Aztecs and Incas before Spanish arrival. The Spanish language has significantly influenced Filipino languages, with many Spanish loanwords Spanish colonization began with Christopher integrated into Tagalog and other local dialects. Columbus in 1492 and expanded rapidly across the Additionally, Spanish surnames were adopted by continent many Filipino families. 2.. Religion: Spanish colonial Today architecture is evident in many historical buildings, churches, and fortresses Similar to the Philippines, the Spanish imposed across the Philippines. The baroque style of many Catholicism, leading to the widespread conversion of churches, such as San Agustin Church in Manila, indigenous populations reflects this influence. 3..Economic System: The Spanish established the first schools and The encomienda and hacienda systems were also universities in the Philippines, including the prevalent, with large estates producing cash crops University of Santo Tomas, which is one of the like sugar and coffee oldest universities in Asia. Latin America was a significant source of precious Filipino cuisine has been heavily influenced by metals, particularly silver from mines in Mexico and Spanish cooking, with dishes like adobo, lechon, and Peru, which fueled the Spanish economy. paella showing clear Spanish roots. 4..Political Structure: Comparing Spanish Colonialism in the Philippines with other Colonies Spanish colonies in Latin America were divided into viceroyalties, such as New Spain (Mexico) and Peru, each governed by a viceroy appointed by the Spanish educate their sons in Europe, where they absorbed crown new intellectual ideas that eled the rise of Filipino nationalism. Commonalities and Differences Commonalities: The 19th century Philippines experienced many Both regions experienced significant cultural and social, economic, and political changes, including: religious transformation due to Spanish influence. 1.. Changing economy - The Philippines' economy shi The encomienda system was a common method of ed, leading to the emergence of new upper and control and exploitation in both regions middle classes, as well as poverty. Differences: 2.. Education - Education reforms in the 1860s The Philippines had a more fragmented pre-colonial increased access to higher education society compared to the centralized empires in Latin 3.. Social classes - Spaniards who were born in America. Spain or the 'peninsulares' were considered at the Compared to the centralized empires in Latilinerica. top of the class system, followed by the 'insulares' or Spaniards born in the Philippines, then the The economic focus in the Philippines was more on 'mestizos' or those with mixed Filipino and Spanish trade (Manila Galleon) rather than mining, which was ancestry, and lastly, the 'indios' or the native predominant in Latin America. Filipinos at the b tom of the social.. These comparisons highlight how Spanish colonial 4.. Nationalist sentiments - Nationalist sentiments policies adapted to different regional contexts, awakened, and a propaganda movement began. leaving lasting legacies in both the Philippines and Latin America. 5. Anti-colonial movement - A national anti-colonial movement and revolution began. 6. Freemasonry - Freemasonry played a role in the nationalist movement Introduction to the Illustrados Enlightenment Ideals and the Illustrados Mostly composed of the wealthy and educated ENLIGHTENMENT- Crossroads of European filipinos who had the opportunity to study in Europe. history. A crisis in a philosopher's view of the European conscience. It denied the past and searched for the new. Socio- Political Conte of 19th Century Philippines Reason was key to knowledge and the solution of human problems. HOW DID THIS AFFECT THE The social structure in 19th century Philippines was FILIPINOS? The idea of justice, equality, good highly stratified, with Spaniards and clergy at the government was n new to them. But, top ruling over native Filipinos. Politically, the INDEPENDENCE became an alternative for Filipino Spaniards exploited the Filipinos by imposing high propagandists of the last quarter of the 19th taxes and forcing them into slave labor. century it was clear that Spain was reluctant to There was widespread corruption within the Spanish grant the reforms. administrative system due to appointment of unqualified officials, complicated union of church and state affairs, and officials prioritizing personal Period of Enlightenment: 1872- 1898 interests over public welfare. A er 300 years of passivity under Spanish rule, Economic development from foreign trade in the the Filipino spirit awakened when 3 priests GOMEZ, late 18th century stimulated agriculture and JOSE BURGOS, ZAMORA were guill ined exports, allowing some prosperous families to without sufficient evidence of guilt. This buttressed Rizal advocated a totl moral regeneration of his with the spirit of the Philippines. countrymen without which they did n deserve self-rule. That is why, to the end he re sed to They were greatly influenced by the Enlightenment think of violent revolution against Spain. Ideals: LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY The Filipinos needed two basic social virtues: Jose Rizal: National Hero and Revolutionary Thinker & the Political Ideology of Dr. Jose Rizal 1. ECONOMIA- Making the best use of existing resources, for no nation has all Rizal is without a doubt the greatest pr agonist the resources it needs. for recognition of Filipino rights and Equality before the law. A product of the best school in his country. 2. TRANISGENCIA- Mutual give and His contact with Liberal Nationalism in Spain Share. For if the people wanted a reoriented his life. Befriended by the leading anti- democratic state they should be ready for clericals, he gave up the e ernal practices of it. the religion of his youth. One of the writers he most admired was Voltaire, who served b h as his Democracy is intelligent cooperation. one's opinion is ideological and artistic inspiration. The chief to prevail over the rest. contours et Philosophe of Enlightenment. By his time, Rizal, about relations between The Propaganda Movement: La Solidaridad Spaniards and Filipinos. The question was whether Spain would be willing to direct his change, or, by La Solidaridad (lit. The Solidarity) was an neglect, leave the initiative to Filipinos and risk organization created in Spain on December 13, violent revolution. 1888. In Rizal’s words only were the Filipinos despised, but they were insulted, denied the basic human capacity Reforms Desired by the Propaganda Movement to reason. 1.. Equality of the Filipinos and Spaniards before the They were described as brutes, merely muscles laws without brains. Discrimination against native Filipinos was official policy. This gave birth to their 2.. Assimilation of the Philippines as a regular sense of being different, at the same time gave province of Spain them the sense of oneness among themselves. 3.. Restoration of the Philippine representative in Rizal stands head and shoulders above all the her the Spanish Cortes propagandas for while hers were negative, he 4.. Filipinization of the Philippine parishes and approached the matter positively and wr e that b expulsion of the friars h Filipinos and Spaniards needed to reform conditions are: - Human rights for Filipinos and freedom of speech, freedom to meet and petition for redress of grievances Spaniards, first, by granting freedom of speech and Lopez Jaena & Del Pilar representation in the Cortes. The first editor of La Solidaridad was Graciano Lopez Jaena, but it was t Cortes- Congress and Senate ally under Marcelo del Pilar from its earliest inauguration to its ignominious But to arrive in consensus for common good, this was death. easy. Filipinos are merely sensitive, people must learn hard by discipline and cooperative to one an It's because Del Pilar and his Comite de her Propaganda in Manila worked for the entire project and financing (real moving force,  the conduit of nds, and the organizer of He won again on the second day, but then again, the the newspaper). ves counted for him did n reach the needed fraction. Lopez Jaena was chosen as editor because he already had reputation as a fiery political orator and On the third day, since Mariano Ponce appealed to had influential contacts among the anticlerical some Pilaristas to surrender their will to what the republicans and masons of Barcelona, where the majority wanted, the election resulted in Rizal's newspaper made its debut, but then he realized that becoming the 'legal' Responsable. Rizal, however, his editorship was only nominal (La Solidaridad vol. 1, courteously declined the position. He knew that 1996) there were 'Pilaristas' who did like either his views or personality. Jose Rizal, a man of delicadeza, thus decided to Rizal and Del Pilar's Differences abdicate his leadership and leave Madrid, lest his -Rizal & Del Pilar When the year 1890 was about to presence results in more serious faction among end, an unwanted rivalry between Rizal and Del Pilar Filipinos in Madrid. nonetheless arose. By the time, Del Pilar had become the owner of La The La Liga Filipina and its Impact Solidaridad and had taken the place of Graciano Lopez Jaena as its editor. La Liga Filipina (lit. 'The Philippine League') was a secret society. It was founded by José Rizal in the Del Pilar's management and editorial policy were house of Doreo Ongjunco at Ilaya Street, Tondo, occasionally dissimilar to Rizal's political vision. The Manila on July 3, 1892. Purpose to build a new group editorial policy of La Solidaridad under Del Pilar's that sought to involve the people directly in the management exacerbated the ri between Rizal reform movement. and Del Pilar. Aims: -Rizal and his close friends objected to the periodical's editorial policy which was occasionally 1..To unite the whole archipelago into one vigorous contrary to Rizal's political views. and homogeneous organization 2.. Mutual prection in every want and necessity Rizal Gave Way to Del Pilar 3.. Defense against all violence and injustice - Ideally to fix differences and solidify the 4.. Encouragement of instruction, agriculture, and unity among them, about 90 Filipinos in Madrid met commerce on the New Year's Day of 1891. 5.. Study the application of reforms It was agreed upon in the gathering that a leader called Responsable, be elected to administer the campaigns for reform of the Filipinos.The v ing happened during the first week of The Role of Women Illustrados and the Rise of February that year. It was decided that the Katipunan 'Responsable' must be elected by a two-thirds v e of the participants. Gregoria Alvarez de Jesus The supposedly healthy election for a leader also known as Ka Oriang, (May 9, 1875-March produced divisive unpleasant split among the 15,1943) was the founder and vice president of the Filipinos, the Rizalistas and the Pilaristas, as b Katipunan's Women's chapter. h camps zealously campaigned for their respective choice. She also served as the custodian of the Katipunan as almost all belongings of the Katipunan-seal, revolver, Rizal won the election but his v es fell short of documents —were under her care. As such, when the the required two-thirds v e to be declared Guardia Sibil would conduct search operations within Responsable. their vicinity, she would gather all Katipunan-related items and documents and drive away, even all night, as a national hero, with some questioning his as needed, to ensure that the Katipunan would n steadfastness in the face of adversity be discovered. She also joined the war; she News reports that day covered n only his execution too took arms and fought. but also what happened in his prison cell on the eve of his death. A number of them reported that he had denounced his Masonic beliefs and re-professed Melchora Aquino his Catholic faith. popularly known as Tandang Sora (January 6, 1812— The local newspapers that reported the retraction March 2, 1919), was known as the "M her of were La Voz pañola, El pañol, El Comercio, and La the Revolution." During her time as a supporter of Oceania pañola. The news correspondents of La Voz the revolution, she would feed the Katipuneros, pañola even claimed to “have seen and read his own provide them shelter and her necessary provisions, handwritten retraction” and tend to their wounds. When she was arrested and jailed by the Spaniards, she re sed to They based their narrative on the testimonies of the reveal her knowledge of the Katipunan despite the Jesuits and her colonial officials who visited and interrogations. She was deported and exiled to talked to Rizal the day before he was executed. Guam, and was only brought back to the Philippines when she was repatriated by the US government. Teresa Magbanua The Illustrado Legacy in Contemporary Philippine Society or Nanay Isa, (October 13, 1868-August 1947) was known as the " Visayan Joan of Arc." She was a The ilustrados played a crucial role in Filipino Filipino school teacher and military leader. When the nationalism by advocating for reforms and Philippine revolution began, she did n hesitate independence from Spanish in joining the Katipunan despite the opposition of her colonial rule. husband. She was known to have joined and led numerous battles against the Spaniards and the The ilustrados, or the educated class of Filipinos Americans. She was arguably the bravest llonggo during the Spanish colonial period, were woman in her time as she had been known as the only instrumental in the rise of Filipino nationalism. They woman to have ever led troops in the Visayan region were the first to articulate the need for national during the revolution. identity and independence, using their education and exposure to liberal ideas from Europe to challenge the oppressive Spanish rule. They were the ones who Agueda Kahabagan initiated the Propaganda Movement, a period of peace l campaign for reforms, which marked the also known as Henerala Agueda, was the only known beginning of the Filipino struggle for freedom. female general of the Army of the Filipino Republic. She was known as fierce combatant in the The ilustrados were mostly composed of the wealthy battlefields of Laguna as she rode a white horse and and educated Filipinos who had the opportunity to used rifles in battle. study in Europe, where they were exposed to liberal and democratic ideas. They were greatly influenced by the Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, and Revisiting Rizal’s Retraction and Legacy fraternity. They used these ideas to critique the Spanish colonial government and the Catholic Rizal's retraction had significant long-term Church, which they saw as the two main pillars of consequences on Philippine history and society. His Spanish colonial rule. retraction, which occurred before his execution, sparked debates about his true beliefs and loyalty. The ilustrados used their education and skills to This event led to the polarization of opinions among articulate the grievances of the Filipino people. They Filipinos, affecting the unity of the nationalist wr e essays, novels, and articles that exposed the movement and shaping differing interpretations of abuses of the Spanish colonial government and the Rizal's legacy. The controversy surrounding his Catholic Church. They also used their influence on retraction also influenced how Rizal was perceived lobby for reforms in the Spanish Cortes, the Spanish parliament. Their writings and activities Was formed on July 7, 1892 helped to awaken the political consciousness of the Continued as a faction which was led by Andres Filipino people and inspired them to fight for their Bonifacio. rights and freedom. They implemented a radical way of liberalizing the One of the most famous ilustrados was Jose Rizal, Philippines under the oppression of Spanish rule. who is considered the national hero of the Philippines. His novels, Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, exposed the abuses of the Spanish Initiation Ceremonies colonial government and the Catholic Church, and inspired the Filipino people to fight for their rights Signing their names using their own fresh blood. and freedom. His execution by the Spanish colonial government in 1896 sparked the Philippine Wearing of hoods. Revolution, which eventually led to the declaration of Philippine independence in 1898 Cartilla ng Katipunan Code of morality. Was written by Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Jacinto. THE REVOLUTION AND IDEOLOGY OF KATIPUNAN All the members of the Katipunan must abide the content of the Cartilla. 1. 1 The Founding of the Katipunan K.K.K (Kataastaasang Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan) Recruitment of members The formulation of the Katipunan was shaped by Initially, the way of recruiting the members is the organization that was formed by Jose Rizal called” The Triangle system” wherein the individual which called the La Liga Filipina. will recruit two members that are stranger to each other. In the long run, this method of recruitment was no La Liga Filipina longer practiced and they instead recruit members The function of the organization is to guide people as much as possible. to build cooperatives that will promote capitals for scholarships of the Filipinos and their civic engagement and development. Membership fees Apparently, the Spaniards took the organization as Each member pays 25 centavos. a threat to the government and deliberate the abolition of the La Liga Filipina by intercepting the members including capturing the founder, Jose Riza. Hierarchy of the Katipunan: Katipon Cuerto de Compromisarios Kawal Was led by Domingo Franco who continued the Bayani operation of La Liga Filipina as a faction named Organizational structure of the Katipunan cuerto de compromisarios. Sangguniang Balangay. They continued operating the La Solidaridad (propaganda movement) Sangguniang Bayan. Kataastaasang Sanggunian. K.K.K Sangguniang hukuman Gregoria De Jesús Legislative body. Wife of Andres Bonifacio The Katipunan underwent factionalism; The She aided the Katipunan by recruiting “Magdalo” and The “Magdiwang” Filipina members and safeguarding weapons and documents. 1. 2 Katipunan Ideology: Equality, Liberty, and Nationalism Emilio Aguinaldo The Katipunan as an organization was not all He was a significant military leader in the about the imposition of overthrowing the revolution and later became the first president of government and sacrificing many lives for liberation the Republic of the Philippines. but rather adhering to moral and civic code. The Katipunan was inspired by the teachings of Jose Rizal. DR. Pío Valenzuela They considered Rizal as their honorary leader of the Katipunan. Andres Bonifacio’s right hand During the undercover visits of Dr. Pio Valenzuela Aided the organization by helping to recruit with Jose Rizal, the latter did not agree with the members and spread revolutionary ideals. revolutionary ideals as Filipinos according to Rizal was not quite ready for the revolution (they lacked resources and powers). 1. 4 The Cry of Pugad Lawin and the Start of the Revolution 1. 3 Key Figures: Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, and Others The Cry of Pugadlawin Andres Bonifacio is one of the most historical events in the history of the Philippine Revolution against Spanish rule, Was born in Tondo on November 30, 1863 signifying the formal declaration of armed A man of scanty education but nevertheless highly resistance by the Katipunan. It took place in August intelligent 1896, in the area of Pugadlawin, a sitio in Balintawak. Was admired by Jose Rizal The Katipunan, a well-hidden revolutionary society founded by Andres Bonifacio in 1982, grew its Also known as the “Father of the Philippine numbers and influence by the time of 1986. Its revolution” primary goal was the complete independence of the Philippines from the Spanish Colonizers. Despite carefully keeping the secrecy of the organization, Deodato Arellano the Spanish authorities eventually discovered its He was the first president of the Katipunan, existence in August 1986, and began to take actions serving before Andres Bonifacio took leadership. to mitigate the revolt. At the face of imminent danger and threat of mass arrests, Bonifacio, along with other key leaders, Emilio Jacinto decided that it was the appropriate time to formally Also known as the “brain of the katipunan” start a revolution. They gathered all their followers in a single place in Balintawak, to discuss their plans ecretary of the state and strategies for the revolt against the Spanish colonizers. On August 23, 1896, Bonifacio called for an · Propaganda played a key role in enlarging its assembly of Katipunan members at Pugadlawin, in influence, with publications like Kalayaan fueling the house of Juan Ramos, the son of a Katipunan nationalist views by exposing Spanish abuses and supporter, Melchora Aquino (known as "Tandang rallying Filipinos to fight for their freedom. Sora"). At this meeting, Bonifacio passionately · The Katipunan mainly relied on guerilla tactics such advised the assembled revolutionaries to take up as the element of surprise to make up for the arms and fight for their independence. The question shortage of military resources. Groups of before them was whether to fight now or wait for a Katipuneros often attacked isolated Spanish better opportunity, despite the fact that Spanish outposts, sabotaging supply lines, and ambushing forces had already begun rounding up Katipunan enemy troops in a hit-and-run tactic (Battle of members and sympathizers. Manila, 2024) To symbolize their commitment to the revolution, Bonifacio and his men performed an iconic act tearing up their "cedulas". These cedulas were 1. 6 Challenges and Divisions: The Tejeros proof of their identity and citizenship under Spanish Convention rule and represented their subjugation to the The Tejeros Convention, held on March 22, 1897, colonial government. By tearing these documents was a historic turning point in the Philippine apart, the revolutionaries symbolically renounced Revolution, establishing the formal revolutionary their allegiance to Spain and declared their government as well as the mark of an internal defiance. conflict between factions of the Katipunan. The As they tore their cedulas, the men reportedly convention took place in Tejero, Cavite, during a time shouted, "Long live the Philippines!" (Mabuhay ang of tension between the two factions in the Pilipinas!), signaling their unified decision to start revolutionary movement. the revolution. This act of defiance is now regarded By 1896, the Philippine Revolution had obtained a as the "Cry of Pugadlawin" and is considered the significant influence, particularly in the province of spark that ignited the full-scale Philippine Cavite, where two factions of the Katipunan had Revolution (Jundis et al., 2019). arisen. The two factions were the Magdiwang and the Magdalo factions. The Magdiwang faction was led by Mariano Álvarez and was aligned with the 1. 5 Strategies and Tactics of the Katipunan Katipunan’s founder, Andrés Bonifacio. Meanwhile, The Katipunan, founded in 1892 by Andrés Bonifacio, the Magdalo faction was led by Emilio Aguinaldo and began as a secret revolutionary society aimed at his cousin Baldomero Aguinaldo which advocated for freeing the Philippines from Spanish colonial rule. more centralized leadership and reforms. The organization had a variety of Tactics and The Tejeros Convention was called with the primary Strategies in the pursuit to obtain their goal. goal of addressing the internal issues of the · The Katipunan operated under a veil of secrecy, the organization and forming a unified revolutionary group employed a unique cell structure, where government to replace the Katipunan’s existing members knew only their direct recruits and structure. A lot of the members believed that a leaders, preventing Spanish spies from infiltrating formal government was necessary to gain the entire organization. international recognition in the fight for independence from Spanish rule. · To maintain confidentiality, Katipuneros used pseudonyms and secret codes written in a modified However, tensions escalated quickly in the version of the old Tagalog script, ensuring their Convention. During the meeting, it was proposed that communications were indecipherable to outsiders. a revolutionary government should replace the Katipunan, and elections were held to choose its · There was a systematic recruitment process leaders. Tensions flared as Caviteño leaders, heavily relying on a triangle system. This was a particularly from the Magdalo faction, had the upper system wherein each member was responsible for hand in the election by having the most of the recruiting two others, spreading the movement elected officials. The result of the election is the swiftly but quietly. following: Emilio Aguinaldo was elected President, despite being absent from the convention due to his both sides were willing to consider a truce. involvement in battlefield operations. Mariano Trías Aguinaldo’s resources were running low on resources, was elected Vice President. Andrés Bonifacio was while the Spanish were under pressure to end the elected Director of the Interior, a lower position costly and unpopular war. compared to his previous role as the leader of the The Pact of Biak-na-Bato was supervised by Pedro Katipunan. Artemio Ricarte was elected as Captain- Paterno, a Filipino lawyer and diplomat, who acted as General. Emiliano Riego de Dios was elected as a mediator between the Spanish government and the Director of War. revolutionaries. The agreement was signed on The outcome of the elections made a significant December 14-15, 1897, and included the following shift of leadership. Emilio Aguinaldo was elected key terms: President, despite being absent from the convention Exile of Revolutionary Leaders: Aguinaldo and his as he was on the battlefield. Bonifacio, on other key officers were to be exiled to Hong Kong, hand, was elected as Director of the Interior, a effectively removing the revolutionary leadership relatively lower position than his previous status as from the Philippines. This would help pacify the the leader of the Katipunan. rebellion. Conflict arose when Bonifacio’s election was Monetary Compensation: The Spanish government questioned by Daniel Tirona, a member of the agreed to pay a sum of 800,000 pesos to the Magdalo faction, who contended that Bonifacio was revolutionary leaders as a form of indemnity. The unqualified for the position because he was mone