Advanced Democracies PDF

94 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES 95 Neutrality of the judiciary and other checks on the abuse of...

94 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES 95 Neutrality of the judiciary and other checks on the abuse of power Open civil society that allows citizens to lead private lives and mass media to operate independently from government Civilian control of the military that restricts the likelihood of the military seizing control of the government Advanced democracies generally have a high degree of legitimacy, partly because their systems have been in place for a long time. An- other source of legitimacy is a large amount of social capital, or reci- During the era of the Cold War, most political science scholars cat- procity and trust that exists among citizens, and between citizens and egorized countries of the world according to the “Three Worlds” ap- the state. All advanced democracies guarantee participation, compe- proach. The First World included the United States and its allies; tition, and liberty, but they differ in the methods that they use. For the Second World included the U.S.S.R. and its allies; and the Third example, some have proportional representation electoral systems; World included all countries that could not be assigned to either camp. others have plurality systems; and still others combine the two sys- Today, with the Cold War over and the world encompassed by forces tems. Participation rates vary considerably, too. The uses of referenda of globalization and fragmentation, we will use these three categories and initiatives differ greatly across these countries; most advanced de- to more effectively compare political systems: advanced democracies, mocracies use them, although the United States, Japan, Canada, and communist and post-communist countries, and developing/less-devel- Germany do not allow such votes on the national level. In most of the oped countries. In this section of the book, we will consider advanced countries, it is the responsibility of the state to ensure that all eligible democracies. voters are automatically registered to vote. However, in the United States and France, the responsibility to register rests with the individ- What do we mean by the term, “advanced democracies”? The term ual. In several Scandinavian countries, citizenship is not required for applies to countries that have a long history of democracy that has voting; anyone who is a permanent resident may vote. In Australia, stabilized as the established form of government. We may consider Argentina, Uruguay, and Belgium, voting is mandatory. these countries according to two dimensions: political type and level of economic development. ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS POLITICAL DIMENSIONS In thinking about the values that form the political culture of advanced democracies, they may be described as reflecting post-modernism. Politically, advanced democracies exemplify many facets of democ- Modernism is a set of values that comes along with industrialization. racy, not just the characteristic of holding regular and fair elections. Values of modernism include secularism (an emphasis on non-reli- Other qualities of advanced democracies are: gious aspects of life), rationalism (reasoning), materialism (valuing concrete objects and possessions), technology, bureaucracy, and an Civil liberties, such as freedom of belief, speech, and assem- emphasis on freedom rather than collective equality. In other words, bly Rule of law that provides for equal treatment of citizens and due process 96 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES 97 The sector percentages for some advanced democracies look some- thing like this: Source: CIA Factbook, 2006-2015 estimates, as percentage of employment by sec- tor We may also refer to advanced democracies as liberal democracies, Parliamentary, Semi-Presidential and Presidential Systems. As the chart demonstrates, most ad- which value individual freedoms in both economic and political vanced democracies have a parliamentary system. Although the United States is the only advanced democracy with a presidential system, other countries – such as Mexico and Nigeria – use it. realms. Many advanced democracies, but not all, established demo- cratic political systems many years ago, and now operate under stable industrialization encouraged making money and gaining econom- governments that have long followed democratic traditions. ic success. Advanced democracies, such as Britain and the United States, experienced this transformation during the 19th century. Oth- Many countries in Europe are among the most stable democracies in ers were later, but all advanced democracies have also experienced the modern world. Although their political systems operate in a va- post-modernism, a set of values that emphasizes quality of life over riety of ways, they share common characteristics that allow effective concern for material gain. Some examples of post-modern values are comparison of both similarities and differences The citizens of each the preservation of the environment and the promotion of health care country are diverse, and they actively participate in political affairs. and education. These values accompany the economic changes of In the AP Comparative Government and Politics course, Britain rep- post-industrialism, in which the majority of people are employed in resents this group. Britain has a well-organized, competitive party the service (tertiary) sector, including such industries as technology, system and interest groups, as well as a representative form of govern- health care, business and legal services, finance, and education. These ment. contrast to the most common type of job created earlier by industrial- ization, the industrial (secondary) sector, which employs people to INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: THE EUROPEAN create tangible goods, such as cars, clothing, or machinery. The agri- UNION AND NAFTA cultural (primary) sector of post modern societies is very small since One of the most important developments of the past few decades in mechanized farming (first developed during the industrial era) allows Europe has been the slow but steady march toward integration of the only a few farmers to produce enough food to feed all the workers in continent’s countries. After World War II the most obvious need was the industry and service sectors. 98 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 99 to rebuild the infrastructures of countries devastated by the conflict. As the Cold War set in, the “Iron Curtain” separated western and east- ern Europe based on economic and political differences, with coun- tries in the east dominated by communism. Still, the urge to integrate, first economically and eventually politically, continued throughout the century. By the early 21st century, the European Union had emerged as a strong supranational organization that encourages coopera- tion among nations and promises to redefine the meaning of national sovereignty. Old nationalist impulses currently threaten to weaken or even dissolve the Union, but so far, the supranational organization has held together. GREAT BRITAIN OR LITTLE ENGLAND? The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is an interna- tional organization that binds the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Britain clearly has had one of the most influential and powerful po- Created in 1995 mainly as a free trade area, NAFTA has much nar- litical systems in world history. It was the first country in Europe rower integration goals than the EU, and its member-states still retain to develop a limited monarchy, which was achieved gradually so as their sovereignty. Unlike the EU, no common currency has been ad- to maintain stability. Modern democratic institutions and modern in- opted for North American countries, and no parliament or court sys- dustrialization have their roots in English soil, and English influence tems have been set up. spread all over the world during the 18th and 19th centuries throughout a far-flung empire. At the beginning of the 20th century, Britain was In the first part of this section, the political system of Britain will be undoubtedly the most powerful country in the world, so truly the name discussed, and students should note that the outline of concepts in “Great Britain” applies to its many accomplishments. Chapter One is followed throughout. The second part of this section is a brief review of the development and current status of international Yet many British subjects refer to their homeland affectionately as organizations, with a focus on the European Union, a major force that “Little England.” Perhaps there is something of the “David and Goli- shapes policymaking in Britain and other European countries. ath” appeal – the little island that miraculously conquered the world. At any rate, the two names aptly define Britain’s dilemma in the early IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS years of the 21st century. As a precursor in the development of modern modernism democracy, industrialization, and imperialism, it is now a model in the post-modernism art of growing old gracefully. Britain has lost much of its empire and post-industrialism has slipped out of the front rank of the economies of western Europe, sectors of the economy (agriculture, industry, service) and yet the country is still a major player in world politics. supranational organization Many other nations watch as Britain helps define the meaning of prog- ress. However, it is not unilateral – onward ever, backward never. Instead, Britain is adjusting to its new reality as one European country among many, and yet the nation’s influence remains strong. Many believe that regeneration is in the making – politically, economically, 100 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 101 and socially – despite the challenges presented by the recent global economic recession. SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER Great Britain has the oldest democratic tradition of any country in the world, and as a result, has many sources of authority and power that provide stability and legitimacy. This section is divided into three parts: Social compacts and constitutionalism Historical evolution of national political traditions Political culture Social Compacts and Constitutionalism The legitimacy of Britain’s government has developed gradually, so that today tradition is a primary source of stability. Like so many other advanced democracies in Europe, traditional legitimacy for many years was based on the belief that an hereditary ruling family had the right to rule. Although the tradition includes a monarchy, the limitation of the king’s power began early, until the power of Parlia- ment gradually eclipsed that of the king by the end of the 17th century. Today most British citizens accept democracy as a basic component of their government. With the notable exception of Protestant/Catholic conflicts in Northern Ireland, most British citizens accept a church/ state relationship in which the church does not challenge the authority of the government. Historical Evolution of National Political Traditions Ironically, the country that influenced the development of so many The British political system is influenced by many traditions from the other modern democracies has never had a written constitution as country’s long history. Britain’s political culture has developed for the such. Instead, the “constitution” has evolved over time, with impor- most part gradually and consensually, although not totally without con- tant documents, common law, and customs combining to form what is flict. However, many current political conflicts result from unresolved often called the “Constitution of the Crown.” issues that rose from the dramatic changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th and 19th centuries. The evolution of British political traditions may be analyzed in these historical categories: 102 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 103 The shaping of the monarchy – The British monarchy has Merchants, businessmen, and workers all demanded that the been in place for many centuries and has survived many trans- political system respond by including them in decision mak- formations. Britain established a limited monarchy as early as ing. The 19th century reforms reflected their successes. the 13th century when nobles forced King John to sign the Magna Carta. During the English Civil War of the 1640s, Colonialism – During the era from about 1750 to 1914, the the monarch, Charles I, was beheaded, but the monarchy was forces of nationalism and industrialization made it possible for brought back later in the 17th century with powers seriously re- European nations to build global empires that stretched across stricted by Parliament. Today, the monarchy has no decision- the continents. The famous statement, “The sun never sets on making power but plays an important symbolic role in British the British Empire”, describes the huge network of control that society. Britain was able to establish during the 19th century, making it among the most powerful empires in all of world history. The ascendancy of Parliament – The English Civil War was Nationalism enabled the government to rally citizens’ support a conflict between the supporters of the king, Charles I, and for overseas expansion. Industrialization allowed the British those of Parliament (the Roundheads). Parliament won, the to produce goods to sell in foreign markets, and it encouraged king was executed, and the Roundhead leader, Oliver Crom- them to look for raw materials not available at home. Claiming well, took over the country. However, the “Protectorate” that lands far away increased the country’s ability to create wealth followed was short-lived, and the monarchy was restored when and assert power. Industrialization also made communications Parliament brought Charles II, the beheaded king’s son, to the and transportation so much more efficient that it became pos- throne. Succeeding kings did not always respect the power of sible to link lands together across the globe under one imperial Parliament, but the balance of power was decided by the Glori- banner. Just as Britain’s democratization was gradual, so too ous Revolution of 1688. This bloodless revolution established was the erosion of the British Empire. It began with the loss of the constitutional monarchy when William and Mary agreed the American colonies in the late 18th century, although Britain to written restrictions on their power by signing the Bill of actually gained in stature and wealth during the 19th century, Rights. Parliament and its ministers continued to gain strength with expansion in Asia and Africa. as the monarchy lost power through succeeding kings. The authority of the king’s prime minister was firmly established Britain in the 20th and early 21st centuries – At the dawn during the 18th century by Robert Walpole, minister to Kings of the 20th century, Britain was the greatest imperialist nation George I and George II. in the world. By the early 21st century, its power had been diminished by two world wars, serious economic problems of Challenges of the Industrial Revolution – During the 18th the 1970s, and the rising power of the United States. After century, two very important economic influences – colonial World War II, Britain developed a strong welfare state, which mercantilism and the Industrial Revolution – established Eng- was curtailed during the 1980s by a wave of “Thatcherism”, land as a major economic power. The results radically changed a conservative, capitalist backlash led by Prime Minister Mar- traditional English society and its economic basis in the feudal garet Thatcher. In more recent years, Labour Prime Minister relationship between lord and peasant. The brisk trade with Tony Blair charted a course toward what he called “A Third colonies all over the world and the manufacture of goods creat- Way”, but Blair’s political fortunes waned when he supported ed unprecedented wealth held by a new class of merchants and the U.S.-led war in Iraq. His successor, Gordon Brown, lost businessmen. The lives of peasants were transformed as they the election of 2010, when no party won a majority in Parlia- left rural areas, moved to cities, and went to work in factories. ment, forcing a coalition government between the Conserva- 104 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 105 tives and Liberal Democrats. Modern Britain, then, is adjust- cluding the National Health Service. The welfare state gained ing to a new level of world power, and is trying to find the right support in many other European nations in the period after balance between the benefits of the welfare state and the trend World War II, with a common acceptance of the government’s toward greater reliance on a market economy. responsibility to provide public benefits, such as education, health care, and transportation. However, during the 1980s, Political Culture Margaret Thatcher’s government brought Britain’s acceptance “This fortress built by Nature for herself, of the welfare state into question by cutting social services sig- Against infection and the hand of war, nificantly. Noblesse oblige also supported the building of Brit- This happy breed of men, this little world, ain’s colonial empire as the country extended its paternalism This precious stone set in the silver sea, to overseas possessions. Which serves it in the office of a wall, Multi-nationalism – Although Britain has a relatively large Or as a moat defensive to a house, amount of cultural homogeneity, its boundaries include Eng- Against the envy of less happier lands; land, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, all of which have This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.” been different nations in the past, but are united under one government today. Although English is a common language, Richard II it is spoken with different dialects, and religious differences William Shakespeare between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland remain This famous quote tells us a great deal about the political culture of Great Britain. It reflects a large amount of nationalism, or pride in being English. It also reflects insularity, or the feeling of separa- tion from the continent of Europe. In modern times, insularity has caused Britain to have a cautious attitude toward participation in the European Union. When most of the EU members accepted the euro as a common currency in January 2002, Britain refused, and instead kept the English pound. However, despite Shakespeare’s joy in this “fortress” state, his country has been far from isolated and has spread its influence around the world. Other characteristics of the political culture include: Noblesse oblige and social class – Although the influence of social class on political attitudes is not as strong as it has been in the past, a very important tradition in British politics is no- blesse oblige, the duty of the upper classes to take responsi- bility for the welfare of the lower classes. The custom dates to feudal times when lords protected their serfs and land in return for labor. Today, noblesse oblige is reflected in the gen- eral willingness of the British to accept a “welfare state,” in- 106 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 107 a major source of conflict today. These national identities are Adjusting to the Industrial Revolution still strong today, and they greatly impact the way that the po- litical system functions. The Industrial Revolution that began in England during the late 18th century created two new social classes that were not accommodated The legitimacy of the British government is evidenced by the will- under the parliamentary system: a business middle class and laborers. ingness of the English people to obey the law. Britain’s police force At first, Parliament resisted including them, thinking that it might lead is smaller than that of most other advanced democracies, and crimes to disaster, perhaps even a revolution like the one that France had in tend to be based on individual violence, and not on strikes against the 1789. However, the tradition of gradualism guided the decision to state, such as assassinations. Until relatively recently, the only notable incorporate the new elements into the political system. The decision exception was Northern Ireland, where many crimes have been carried is a reflection of noblesse oblige, an extension of elite obligations to out with the political objective of overturning an elected government. the rest of the population. Starting in 1832, the franchise gradually In more recent years, Britain has experienced terrorist acts as part of broadened: the larger wave of terrorism that has swept over many advanced de- mocracies in the post-9/11 world. Extension of Voting Rights and Work and Welfare Reforms POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE Great Reform Act of 1832 – About 300,000 more men gained the right to vote, and the House of Commons gained more Political change in Britain has always been characterized by its grad- power in relation to the House of Lords. ual nature. Gradualism in turn established strong traditions. This process helps to explain the transition in policymaking power from the Reform Act of 1867 – The electorate reached 3,000,000, as king to Parliament. That transition may be traced to the days shortly many working-class people were given the right to vote. after William the Conqueror defeated Harold II at the Battle of Hast- ings in 1066. In order to ensure his claims to English lands, William Representation of the People Act of 1884 – The electorate (a Norman) gathered support from the nobility by promising to consult was further expanded so that the majority of the voters were them before he taxed them. This arrangement led to a gradual ac- working class. ceptance of a “House of Lords”, and as commercialism created towns Women’s suffrage – In 1918, another Representation of the and a new middle class, eventually the establishment of a “House of People Act enfranchised all males and women over the age Commons”. Both were created through evolution, not revolution. of 30 who already had the right to vote in local elections. Of course, there are important “marker events” that demonstrate the 8,400,000 women were enfranchised. By 1928, all women 21 growing power of Parliament – the signing of the Magna Carta, the and over were allowed to vote. English Civil War, and the Glorious Revolution – but the process was gradual and set strong traditions as it developed. The gradual inclusion of the people in the political process meant that Despite the overall pattern of gradualism, Britain’s political system Marxism did not take root as it did in many other European countries, has had to adjust to internal economic changes, as well as international where the middle and lower classes had few political rights. crises. Some sources of change have been the Industrial Revolution, imperialistic aspirations, the two world wars of the 20th century, and During the 19th century, labor unions formed to protect workers’ rights the economic crises of the 1970s and 2008. These events have had on the job. By the end of the 19th century, some basic provisions were significant consequences for Britain’s political system. made for social services. For example, in 1870, mandatory elementary 108 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 109 education was put into law. From 1906 until 1914, laws were enacted to Britain. German bombing raids decimated roads, bridges, public providing for old age pensions. buildings, and homes, and Britain had many war debts. Although the economic aid by the United States-sponsored Marshall Plan eventu- Political Effects of the Extension of Rights to the “Common ally aided economic recovery in Britain, an important price that the Man” country paid was the loss of many of its colonies in Africa and Asia. In most cases, Britain helped the colonies to prepare for independence, The balance of power between the House of Commons and the House and as a result retained economic and political bonds to them, which of Lords changed slowly but surely, as the new commercial elites be- contributed to Britain’s eventual economic recovery. However, be- came Members of Parliament. By 1911, the House of Lords was left cause other European powers were also letting their colonies go be- with only one significant power – to delay legislation. The House of cause they could no longer afford to maintain them, World War II Commons was clearly the dominant legislative house by the early 20th marks the collapse of the old imperialist order and the beginning of century. By then political party membership was determined largely the global hegemony of the United States and the Soviet Union. Brit- by class lines. The Labour Party was created in 1906 to represent ain, then, had to adjust to its new place in world politics, and since the rights of the newly-enfranchised working man, and the Conserva- then, has had to balance its relationship with the United States against tive Party drew most of its members from middle-class merchants and a history-ridden relationship with the European continent. This new businessmen. reality has shaped British foreign policy through to the present. With the enfranchisement of the working class, a demand for wel- Collective Consensus fare measures put pressure on the political system to change. Reform measures were passed by Parliament, including legislation for pub- Britain joined the allied forces during World War II under the leader- lic education, housing, jobs, and medical care. These demands sup- ship of Winston Churchill. Churchill emphasized the importance of ported the creation of a new party – Labour. By the end of World War putting class conflicts aside for the duration of the war. Although he I, Labour had pushed the Liberals into third party status where they gained the Prime Minister’s post as leader of the Conservative Party, have remained ever since. Labour was never Marxist, but it combined he headed an all-party coalition government with ministers from both militant trade unionism with intellectual social democracy to create a major parties. The primary objective was to win the war. After the war pragmatic, gradualist ideology that sought to level class differences was over, the spirit of collective consensus continued until well into in Britain. The Trade Union Council emerged as a coalition of trade the 1960s, with both Labour and Conservative Parties supporting the unions that became a major force in British politics. The British labor development of a modern welfare system. Before the war was over, movement has always been tough and especially resentful of being both parties accepted the Beveridge Report, which provided for a treated like inferiors. That militancy carries through to today, although social insurance program that made all citizens eligible for health, un- it was softened in recent years by party leaders Neil Kinnock, John employment, pension, and other benefits. One goal of the Beveridge Smith, Tony Blair, Gordon Brown, and Ed Miliband. Many speculate Report was to guarantee a subsistence income to every British citizen. that the selection of left-leaning Jeremy Corbyn as the Labour Party In 1948, the National Health Service was created under the leader- leader in 2015 indicates a redirection of the party back to its roots. ship of the Labour Party. Even when Conservatives regained control in 1950, the reforms were not repealed. Although the electorate was Reacting to the Loss of Its Status as an Imperialist Power divided largely by social class, with 70% of working class voting La- In contrast to World War I, when physical destruction was limited bour and even larger percentages of middle class voting Conservative, to the front lines around the trenches on the Continent, the nature of both parties shared a broad consensus on the necessity of the welfare warfare during World War II brought much more widespread damage state. As a result, the foundations were laid for a mixed economy, 110 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 111 with the government directing the economy and nationalizing major cies were further influenced by a distinct turn toward leftist politics industries without giving up basic principles of capitalism, such as by the Labour Party that gave a great deal of power to labor unions. private ownership of property. In response, she privatized business and industry, cut back on social welfare programs, strengthened national defense, got tough with labor Challenges to the Collective Consensus since 1970 unions, and returned to market force controls on the economy. Her During the late 20th and early 21st centuries, Britain has experienced policies reflect the influence of neoliberalism, a term that describes considerable economic and political turmoil. The era began with a the revival of classic liberal values (p. 33) that support low levels of serious decline in the economy, followed by a growing divide between government regulation, taxation, and social expenditures as well as the Labour and Conservative Parties. Labour took a sharp turn to the the protection of individual property rights. She was prime minister left, endorsing a socialist economy and serving as a mouthpiece for la- for eleven years. Her supporters believed her to be the capable and bor union demands. The Conservatives answered with a sharp turn to firm “Iron Lady”, but her critics felt that her policies made economic the right, advocating denationalization of industries and support for a problems worse and that her personality further divided the country. pure market economy. During the 1990s, both parties moderated their Thatcher resigned from office in 1990 when other Conservative Party stances, and the economy showed some signs of recovery. leaders challenged her authority. Despite the controversial nature of her leadership, her policies redirected Britain’s path to the welfare Economic Crises of the 1970s state, and although her successors moderated her stances, privatiza- tion and downsizing of government have remained important trends The collective consensus began to break apart with social and econom- in policymaking. ic problems beginning in the late 1960s. Britain’s economic problems included declining industrial production and international influence, The Third Way and the “Big Society” which were exaggerated by the loss of colonies and the shrinking of the old empire. The impact of OPEC (Organization for Petroleum Ex- After the jolts of the economic crisis of the 1970s and Margaret Thatch- porting Countries) was devastating. The quadrupling of oil prices and er’s firm redirection of the political system to the right, moderation the embargo by oil-producing countries caused recession, high unem- again became characteristic of political change in Britain. Thatcher’s ployment rates, a drop in the GNP, and inflation. hand-picked successor, John Major, at first followed her policies, but later abolished the poll tax, reconciled with the European Union, and The economic problems led labor unions to demand higher wages, slowed social cutbacks and privatization. The Conservative Party re- and crippling strikes – such as the coal strike of 1972-73 – plagued the tained the majority in the 1993 parliamentary elections, but only by a nation. The Labour Party lost membership, and many voters turned very slim margin. Then, in 1997, Labour’s gradual return to the center to the Liberals, the Conservatives, or the various nationalist parties. was rewarded with the election of Tony Blair, who promised to create Many middle-class voters reacted against Labour, and the Conserva- a “New Labour” Party and rule in a “third way” – a centrist alterna- tives selected Margaret Thatcher as their leader. Her very conserva- tive to the old Labour Party on the left and the Conservative Party on tive stance on political and economic issues was appealing enough to the right. Tony Blair’s popularity slipped sharply after he supported sweep the Conservatives to power in 1979. the United States in the Iraq War in 2003. By sending troops and pub- licly committing his support to U.S. President George Bush, he not Thatcherism only alienated other European leaders, but much of the British public as well. In 2007, Blair stepped down from his post to be replaced by Margaret Thatcher blamed the weakened economy on the socialist long-time cabinet member Gordon Brown, who despite his attempts policies set in place by the government after World War II. Her poli- to step out from the shadow of his controversial predecessor, had a 112 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 113 great deal of trouble convincing the British public to remain loyal to was added, creating the “United Kingdom.” These old kingdoms still the Labour Party. The economic recession of 2008 hit Britain particu- have strong national identities that greatly impact the British political larly hard, making it even more difficult for Brown to maintain control system. of the government. England – The largest region of Great Britain is England, By the election of 2010, the “third way” was in trouble, and challenges which also contains the majority of the population. Through- to Labour control of government were abundant. Although Labour out most of the history of the British Isles, the English have went down to defeat, the Conservatives could not muster a major- dominated other nationalities, and they still have a dispropor- ity, and so a coalition government was formed between the Conserva- tionate share of political power. Today the challenge is to in- tives and Liberal Democrats. The new prime minister, David Cam- tegrate the nationalities into the country as a whole, but at the eron, initiated his vision of a “Big Society,” one that is energized by same time allow them to keep their old identities. grass-roots volunteers and private organizations, no longer harnessed by “big government.” In 2015, the Conservative Party regained its Wales – west of England – became subject to the English king majority in the House of Commons, as both the Labour Party and the in the 16th century, and has remained so till the present. Mod- Liberal Democratic Party lost a significant number of seats. ern Welsh pride is reflected in the flag – the Plaid Cymru – and in the fact that the language is still alive and currently being CITIZENS, SOCIETY, AND THE STATE taught in some Welsh schools. Even though Wales accepted English authority long ago, some resentment remains, as well In many ways, Britain is a homogeneous culture. English is spoken as some feelings of being exploited by their richer neighbors. by virtually all British citizens, and only about 13% of the United Kingdom’s 64 million people are ethnic minorities. For much of Brit- Scotland – For many years the Scots resisted British rule, and ish history, the major social cleavages that shape the way the political existed as a separate country until the early 1600s. Ironical- system worked were based on multi-national identities, social class ly, Scotland was not joined to England through conquest, but distinctions, and the Protestant/Catholic split in Northern Ireland. In through intermarriage of the royalty. When Queen Elizabeth recent years a major cleavage has developed based on race and eth- I died without an heir in 1603, the English throne went to her nicity, with tensions regarding Muslim minorities increasing, as evi- nephew James I, who also happened to be king of Scotland. A denced in race riots in May 2001 in the northern town of Oldham, century later both countries agreed to a single Parliament in and similar disturbances in Burnley, Leeds, and Bradford a few weeks London. However, Scots still have a strong national identity, later. In more recent years, terrorist activities have deepened the di- and tend to think of themselves as being very different from visions, a situation that many advanced democracies of Europe and the English. The Scots too have their own national flag, and North America now face. the Scottish Parliament has recently been revived. In 2015, a vote for Scottish Independence was narrowly defeated. Multi-National Identities Northern Ireland – England and Ireland have a long histo- The “United Kingdom” evolved from four different nations: England, ry of arguing about religion. After Oliver Cromwell won the Wales, Scotland, and part of Ireland. England consists of the southern English Civil War in the mid 17th century, he tried to impose 2/3 of the island, and until the 16th century, did not rule any of the other Protestantism on staunchly Catholic Ireland to no avail. Eng- lands. By the 18th century, England ruled the entire island, and became lish claims to Irish lands were settled shortly after World War known as “Great Britain.” In the early 20th century, Northern Ireland I ended, when Ireland was granted home rule, with the ex- 114 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 115 ception of its northeast corner, where Protestants outnumbered is that keeping the old job and living in the old neighborhood – the Catholics by about 60% to 40%. Home rule came largely be- sense of family and friends – is more important than individual suc- cause of pressure from the Irish Republican Army (the IRA), cess. who used guerrilla warfare tactics to convince the British to allow Irish independence. Finally, in 1949, the bulk of Ireland British social classes have traditionally been reinforced by the educa- became a totally independent country, and Northern Ireland tion system. “Public schools” were originally intended to train boys has remained under British rule, but not without a great deal of for “public life” in the military, civil service, or politics. They are ex- conflict between Protestants and Catholics. pensive, and they have educated young people to continue after their parents as members of the ruling elite. A large number of Britain’s Social Class Distinctions elite have gone to “public” boarding schools such as Eton, Harrow, Rugby, St. Paul’s, and Winchester. Middle-class students commonly Distinctions between rich and poor have always been important in Brit- attend private grammar schools, where students wear uniforms but ain, with the most important distinction today being between working do not reside. The percentage of British seventeen-year-olds that are and middle-class people. The two classes are not easily divided by in- still in school is lower than in many other industrialized democracies. come, but psychologically and subjectively, the gulf between them is However, the leaving age for compulsory education was raised from still wide. German sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf explains the divide in 16 to 18 by the Education and Skills Act of 2008. The change took ef- terms of solidarity, particularly among the working class. The point fect in 2013 for 16-year-olds and 2015 for 17-year-olds. The most important portal to the elite classes is through Oxford and Cambridge Universities, or Oxbridge. Nearly half of all Conservative Members of Parliament went to Oxbridge, as have about one quarter of all Labour MPs. Percentages in cabinet positions are even higher, and prime ministers almost always graduate from one or the other school. Since World War II, more scholarships have been available to Oxbridge, so that more working and middle-class youths may attend the elite schools. Also, the number of other universities has grown, so that higher education is more widespread than before. However, this trend was recently challenged, since Parliament raised the maximum level of tuition to English universities from $5,400 to $14,500 in 2012, making higher education less accessible to many students. Ethnic Minorities According to the 2011 census, about 13% of the British population is of non-European origins, with most coming from countries that were The British Settlement with Ireland, 1922. In December 1922, after intense guerilla warfare in Ireland, formerly British colonies. However, most members of the minority the Irish parliament sitting in Dublin proclaimed the existence of the Irish Free State, a self-governing ethnic population grew rapidly, increasing from about 7% in the 2001 dominion which included all of Ireland except the six northern counties of Ulster, where Protestants outnumbered Catholics by about 60% to 40%. These counties formed Northern Ireland, which still sends census. The main groups are: representatives to the British Parliament. 116 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 117 black/African/Caribbean/black British 3% incidents. In Canada 17 people were arrested in June 2007 on suspi- cion of scheming to blow up buildings. Asian/Asian British: Indian 2.3%, In recent years, concern about radicalized British Muslims has in- Asian/Asian British: Pakistani 1.9%, creased as some have joined extremist groups, such as the Islamic mixed 2%, State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS). The British government estimates that 500 or more British men and women have gone to fight for militant other 3.7% groups in Iraq and Syria. The 2014 beheading of American journalist James Foley drew renewed attention to the dangers posed by radi- Because of tight immigration restrictions in the past, most ethnic mi- calized young British Muslims, and the government turned to anti- norities are young, with about half of the population under the age of extremist imams for help to prevent their followers from adopting 25. Percentages of minorities have grown despite the restrictions that radical views. were placed on further immigration during the Thatcher administra- tion of the 1980s. The Labour government kept the restrictions in Although many European countries face these problems, Britain’s place, and the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government risk for home-grown terrorist attacks may be greater than many other pledged to halve net immigration, which was about 200,000 people countries. Several problems for Britain are: in 2010. Since it cannot curb arrivals from the European Union, that almost certainly means a cutback on non-Europeans. Distinct minority/majority cleavages – Muslims have an identity of being a minority distinct from a well-established The British have often been accused of adjusting poorly to their ethnic majority, such as the English in Britain, the French in France, population. Reports abound of unequal treatment by the police and and the Germans in Germany. In contrast, many people in the physical and verbal harassment by citizens. The May 2001 race riots United States are immigrants, and the “majority” ethnicity of in several cities increased tensions, and new fears of strife have been white Americans in many U.S. cities has already become a mi- stoked by post 9/11 world politics. Widespread rioting in the sum- nority. With so many different ethnic and racial identities, the mer of 2011 was triggered when a young black man was killed by majority identity in the United States is not as clear-cut as it is the police, leading to accusations of racial bias. Today there is some in most European countries. evidence that whites are leaving London to settle in surrounding sub- urban areas, resulting in a higher percentage of minority population Social class differences of Muslims – In the United States, living in London. Despite this segregation, the mixed-race population many Muslims tend to be relatively well-off, while many Brit- appears to be increasing, with the census of 2001 offering for the first ish Muslims are disaffected and unemployed. Many British time in British history a category for mixed-race people. Muslims are the children of illiterate workers who entered as cheap industrial labor, and their childhood experiences have Muslim Minorities not endeared them to British culture. Terrorist attacks, successful and attempted, have occurred in Britain Pakistani Muslims – Many Muslims in the rest of Europe over the past few years, with a major attack in 2005, schemes foiled came from Turkey and Africa, but the largest group of British by the government in the summer of 2006, and car-bombings in 2007. Muslims comes from Pakistan. Since Osama bin Laden and Other advanced democracies have suffered attacks and plots as well. his companions were found in Pakistan, some scholars think Of course, the United States was attacked on September 11th, 2001, that a higher percentage of British Muslims are linked to al- and the Madrid bombings in 2004 were Europe’s most lethal terrorist Qaeda than are Muslims in other countries. 118 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 119 Lack of integration of minorities – Polls suggest that alien- Political Beliefs and Values ation of minorities in Britain may be higher than it is in other countries because the national culture has not absorbed the In the early 1960s political scientists Gabriel Almond and Sidney groups into mainstream culture. This problem is apparent Verba wrote that the “civic culture” (political culture) in Britain was in France as well, where girls are not permitted to wear head characterized by trust, deference to authority and competence, prag- scarves at school. In Britain they may attend classes in full matism, and harmony. The economic crisis of the 1970s and the con- hijab, but many minorities still feel as if they are treated as tinuing conflicts regarding Northern Ireland challenged this view of second-class citizens. citizenship in Britain, as have fears of terrorism in recent years. How- ever, the overall characteristics seem to still be in place today. Immigrants from Eastern Europe and the Middle East British citizens reflect what Almond and Verba saw as good quali- Another major change in British demographics is an influx of about ties for democratic participation: high percentages of people that vote one million immigrants from the eight central and eastern European in elections, acceptance of authority, tolerance for different points of countries that joined the European Union in 2004. Poles, who have view, and acceptance of the rules of the game. However, social and made up about two-thirds of the newcomers, are now the largest group economic changes during the 1970s altered these characteristics so of foreign nationals in Britain, up from 13th place in 2004. The main that today British citizens are less supportive of the collective consen- draw has been better job opportunities in Britain than in eastern Eu- sus and more inclined to values associated with a free market econ- rope, but the recession in 2008 led many newcomers to return home omy. Many observers believe that the “politics of protest” – or the since the British job market withered. However, since the job market tendency to disagree openly and sometimes violently with the gov- has been even worse in eastern Europe, at least some of the new work- ernment – have become increasingly acceptable. The rioting in 2011 ers stayed in Britain. Many are migrant workers who pick crops in confirmed this analysis, although the reasons for the riots are far from rural areas or fill other low-paying jobs that British workers shun, al- clear. though with unemployment rates going up, the potential for labor con- flict is real. By 2012, more than 130,000 immigrants from Romania Some manifestations of changing political beliefs and values include: and Bulgaria were living in Britain, and the numbers of immigrants Decreasing support for labor unions – British labor unions coming from these two countries is continuing to grow. have strong roots in the Industrial Revolution, and class soli- In 2015, as the civil war in Syria intensified, refugees poured out of darity supports union membership. However, when unions the country and into Europe. The exodus created a crisis in Europe, staged crippling strikes during the 1970s, public opinion turned and the British reaction was criticized by many. Britain did not accept against them, as people began to view unions as “bullies” to quotas set by the European Union, but instead came up with a separate both the government and the general population. Margaret policy. In September 2015, the prime minister announced the govern- Thatcher’s tough stance against the unions intensified strife ment’s decision to accept 20,000 refugees from camps neighboring between unions and the Conservative government. Syria, but none who have already travelled to Europe, sparking intense Increased violence regarding Northern Ireland – The issues debate about the appropriate response to the refugee crisis. According surrounding British claims to Northern Ireland intensified dur- to Prime Minister Cameron, the refugee crisis “complicates” the issue ing the early 1970s after British troops killed thirteen Catho- of whether or not Britain will remain in the European Union. lics in a “bloody Sunday” incident in January 1972. The IRA 120 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 121 and Protestant paramilitaries stepped up their campaigns of Voting Behavior violence. Although in recent years the groups have consented to negotiate with the government, the threat of violent erup- As in most other European countries, a relatively high percentage of tions remains strong today. qualified British voters go to the polls. Although there was a notable decline in recent elections (66% voted in 2015) more than 70% of eli- Thatcherism – The Conservative Party controlled British gible citizens normally vote in parliamentary elections. Today voters government from 1979 until 1997. Although later modified have less party loyalty than they once did, but voting behavior is still by Prime Minister John Major, Margaret Thatcher’s “revolu- clearly tied to social class and region. tion” toward a free market economy certainly affected political attitudes. She rejected collectivism and its emphasis on the Social class – Until World War II, voting in Britain largely redistribution of resources from rich to poor and government followed class lines. The working class supported the Labour responsibility for full employment. Thatcherism fostered en- Party, and the middle class voted Conservative. However, trepreneurial values of individualism and competition over the today the lines of distinction are blurred, partly because the solidarity of social classes and the tradition of noblesse oblige. society and the parties themselves have changed. For exam- ple, some middle-class people who grew up in working-class New Labour – Despite the radical changes of the 1970s and homes still vote the way their parents did. On the other hand, 1980s, Britain has not deserted its traditional political culture. many in the working classes have been attracted to the Con- Tony Blair led a Labour Party that loosened its ties to labor servative platform to cut taxes and keep immigrants out. In re- unions, and a new “Good Friday” Agreement on Northern Ire- cent years, both parties have come back to the center from the land was reached in 1998. Thatcherism has been incorporated extreme views of the 1970s and 1980s, as reflected in Labour into political attitudes, but in the early 21st century, both parties leader Tony Blair’s program to provide a “third way,” or a cen- are more inclined toward a middle path, or “third way.” The trist alternative. However, the Labour victories of 1997, 2001 coalition government formed in 2010, at first criticized as un- and 2005 showed that the party was strongest among people workable, also encouraged compromise, although significant who feel disadvantaged: the Scots, the Welsh, and the poor. differences of opinion existed among cabinet members. The In the post-Blair years, the distinctions between Labour and election of 2015 left the Labour Party much weakened, and the Conservative Parties have continued to blur, leaving room for choice of left-leaning Jeremy Corbyn as the party leader may other parties, particularly the Liberal Democrats, to compete represent a move away from the “third way.” for votes in all social classes. Protests over the Iraq War – Not only did ordinary citizens Regional factors – The Labour Party usually does well in ur- vocally protest Britain’s involvement in the Iraq War, many ban and industrial areas and in Scotland and Wales. However, political leaders openly criticized it as well. In a political sys- in 2015, Labour lost seats to the Scottish National Party, with tem where party loyalty is valued above all, many Labour MPs SNP picking up 56 of the 59 seats in Scotland. The industrial (Members of Parliament) withdrew their support for Blair’s cities of the north – around Liverpool, Manchester, and New- policy in Iraq. Their resistance to the party leadership ex- castle, and in Yorkshire – almost always support the Labour tended to the cabinet, with several party leaders resigning their candidates, as do people that vote in central London. The ar- posts, despite the strong tradition of collective consensus. The eas where Conservatives usually win are mostly in England, ill will spread into domestic affairs as well, so that Blair had especially in rural and suburban areas. These voting patterns little choice but to resign from office in June 2007. 122 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 123 are tied to social class, but they also reflect urban vs. rural election results. For example, in the 1980s, the Liberal Democratic values. Alliance Party garnered as much as 26% of the popular vote, but because of Britain’s single-member plurality election system (one POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS member per district who only has to get more votes than anyone else, not a majority), it never claimed more than 62 seats in the House of Strong political traditions and institutions that have been in place for Commons. The House of Commons is dominated by the two largest hundreds of years guide Britain’s stable democratic regime. The mon- parties, but three or four-way elections for MPs are usual. The 2010 arch still rules as head of state, but the prime minister and the cabinet parliamentary elections resulted in an unusual, but not unprecedented, form the policymaking center. The system is parliamentary, which hung parliament, in which no party gained a majority and a coalition means that the prime minister and cabinet ministers are actually mem- government formed. The Conservative Party recaptured the majority bers of the legislature. In this section, we will explore the parts of the in the 2015 elections, winning 330 seats. British political system and the ways that they interact to make policy. The Labour Party Linkage Institutions The largest party on the left is the Labour Party. It controlled the Linkage institutions play a very important role in British government British government between 1997, when Tony Blair became prime and politics. Political parties, interest groups, and print and electronic minister, and 2010, when Labour ceded power to a coalition govern- media have long connected the government to British citizens. The ment. The party began in 1906 as an alliance of trade unions and so- British government’s policymaking activities are complex, and its cialist groups that were strengthened by the expansion of rights for the linkage institutions are well developed. working class during the 19th century. Traditionally, labor unions have provided most party funds, although Blair loosened the union ties and Political Parties sought to broaden the base of party membership. Britain’s political parties began to form in the 18th century, and their The early history of the party was defined partially by the controver- organization and functions have shaped the development of many oth- sial “Clause 4” that called for nationalization of the “commanding er party systems (including the United States) through the years. At heights” of British industry. The growing moderation of the party was first they were simply caucuses, or meetings of people from the same reflected by the removal of the clause from the Labour Party Consti- area or of like mind. Only in the 19th century did a two-party system tution in the early 1990s. The shift in policies toward the center be- emerge with roots in the electorate. The labels “Whig” and “Tory” came apparent shortly after Neil Kinnock became the party leader in first appeared under Charles II, with the Tories supporting the king and the early 1980s, and has continued under leaders John Smith (1993- the Whigs opposing. Both were derisive names: Whigs were Scottish 1994), Tony Blair (1994-2007), Gordon Brown (2007-2010), and bandits; Tories, Irish bandits. The Whigs eventually became the Lib- Ed Miliband (2010 to 2015). After Labour’s serious losses in 2015, eral Party and the Tories (still a nickname today) the Conservatives. Miliband resigned, and many predict that the new leader, Jeremy Cor- The Labour Party emerged in the early 20th century in response to new by, may reverse the party’s move toward moderation. voter demands created by the Industrial Revolution. Labour’s 1992 loss in an election that they were widely predicted to Today the two major political parties are Labour and Conservative, win almost certainly was a turning point in its development. Its fail- but several other significant parties are represented in Parliament. His- ure to capture the majority led to the resignation of Neil Kinnock as torically, Britain has had strong third parties that significantly affect party leader, and the appointment of John Smith, a moderate Scotsman 124 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 125 who the party hoped would solidify support from Scottish nationalist must submit to annual leadership elections. This new process proved groups. Smith died suddenly in 1994, and was replaced by Tony Blair, to be problematic for Margaret Thatcher in 1990, when she was chal- a young leader who did not come from union ranks. Instead, he was lenged strongly in the election and virtually forced to resign. an Oxford educated barrister-turned-politician who hoped to bring more intellectuals and middle-class people into the party. Labour won After Labour seized control of the government in 1997, the Conserva- the elections of 1997, 2001, and 2005, and tried to redefine itself as tive Party was weakened by deep divisions between two groups: a moderate party with support from many different types of voters. Even though the party won the 2005 election, its margin of victory The traditional wing (one-nation Tories) values noblesse was much smaller than before, contributing to Blair’s resignation as oblige and wants the country ruled by an elite that takes every- party leader in 2007. body’s interests into account before making decisions. This wing generally supports Britain’s membership in the European Labour’s prospects for the future continued to fall after Britons in the Union. local elections across England in June 2009 gave the party only 23% of the vote, its worst showing ever and well behind the opposition The Thatcherite wing of strict conservatives wants to roll Conservatives’ 38%. In the elections for the European Parliament on back government controls and move to a full free market. The the same day, Labour won less than 16% of the vote. Labour lost the members of this wing are often referred to as Euroskeptics election of 2010, and Gordon Brown resigned, leaving the party lead- because they see the EU’s move toward European integration ership to Ed Miliband, whose political preferences were left of center. as a threat to British sovereignty. As the coalition government formed between the Conservatives and The current party leader and prime minister is David Cameron, who Liberal Democrats, the Labour Party was left to struggle to regain won the position in December 2005. Cameron’s youth and debat- voter support. The party’s losses in the election of 2015 reinforced its ing ability, as well as Tony Blair’s vulnerability as Labour leader, waning influence. revived the Conservative Party’s hope of recapturing the majority. The Conservative Party During 2006 and early 2007 the party established a lead in opinion polls, but with Blair’s resignation and the rise of Gordon Brown The Conservative Party dominated British politics between World to the prime minister’s post, Labour regained its lead in major polls War II and 1997, holding the majority in Parliament for all but sixteen during the summer of 2007. However, with Brown’s growing un- years during that period. The Conservative Party is the main party on popularity during 2008, the Conservatives again gained support and the right, but it has prospered partly because it traditionally has been were well positioned for the election in 2010. Cameron has generally a pragmatic, rather than an ideological party. Although the party sup- been more of a “one-nation” Tory, and at first he distanced himself ported a market-controlled economy, privatization, and fewer social from the Thatcherite wing, but by 2009 his words were more con- welfare programs during the 1980s under the leadership of Marga- ciliatory as he hoped to unite his party for victory in the election of ret Thatcher, the Conservatives moved back toward the center under 2010. When his party won a plurality, but not a majority of seats, Prime Minister John Major (1990-1997). Cameron became prime minister of a coalition government formed with the Liberal Democrats, with Nick Clegg – the Liberal Democrat The party is characterized by noblesse oblige, and its power is cen- leader – serving as deputy prime minister. The party regained its ma- tered in London. The organization of the party is usually viewed as jority in 2015, extending Cameron’s leadership for another few years. elitist, with the MPs choosing the party leadership. No formal rules for choosing their leader existed until recently, but now the leadership 126 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 127 the 1992 election the party picked up only about 17% of the total votes cast. The party held on, though, partly due to the popularity of its lead- er, Paddy Ashdown, and to some strong stands on the environment, health, and education. Ashdown retired in 1999, and was replaced by a Scottish MP, Charles Kennedy, and the Liberal Democrats picked up seven seats in the 2001 election. The party also benefited from public disillusionment with the Blair government’s support for the war in Iraq when it picked up 11 more MPs in the election of 2005. In De- cember 2007, party leadership passed to Nick Clegg, who criticized the Labour government for its erosion of individual civil liberties, a stand that the party has long supported. However, the party still re- mains tremendously underrepresented in Parliament, considering their relative popularity at the polls. After the 2005 elections, the Liberal Democrats had 62 MPs (out of 646), even though they won more than 22% of the vote. In 2010, the party won 23% of the vote, but only managed to capture 57 seats in the House of Commons. However, since no party won a majority, the Conservative leader, David Cam- eron, invited the Liberal Democrats to help form a coalition govern- ment, and Nick Clegg became deputy prime minister. The formation of the coalition was controversial among long-time supporters of the party, with some criticizing Clegg for supporting the The Liberal Democrats center-right policies of the Conservative Party. The coalition showed signs of stress, since the two parties took increasingly different posi- Two parties – the Liberals and the Social Democrats – formed an al- tions on issues such as Britain’s role in Europe – with Liberal Demo- liance in the 1983 and 1987 elections, and formally merged in 1989, crats generally being more supportive of the EU – and on reform of establishing the Liberal Democratic Party. The goal was to establish Britain’s unelected upper house of parliament. The Liberal Demo- a strong party in the middle as a compromise to the politics of the crats’ poor showing in the election of 2015 forced Clegg’s resignation, two major parties: Thatcher’s extremely conservative leadership and leaving the party seriously weakened. Labour’s leftist views and strategies. The party won an impressive Other Parties 26% of the votes in 1983, but because of the single member district plurality voting system (see the section on Elections, p. 128) in Brit- Britain has many smaller parties including nationalist groups in Wales, ain, it only won 23 seats (3.5%). Liberal Democrats have campaigned Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Plaid Cymru in Wales and the Scot- for proportional representation, which would give them an equal tish National Party in Scotland both won seats in the House of Com- percentage of the MP seats, and for a Bill of Rights modeled after the mons during the 1970s, and they have managed to virtually shut the first ten amendments of the U.S. Constitution. Conservative Party out in the elections in their regions since the late 1990s. The parties’ fortunes were strengthened after Labour’s return The party’s strength declined in the early 1990s as both the Conserva- to power in 1997, when the Blair leadership created regional assem- tive and Labour Parties moved to the center of political opinion, and in 128 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 129 blies for Scotland and Wales. However, Labour has been strong in the two regions, and the two parties combined won only nine seats in the House of Commons in 2010. The Scottish National Party surged in popularity in 2015, winning 56 of Scotland’s 59 seats in Commons, largely at the expense of the Labour Party. The Plaid Cymru currently has 11 of 60 seats in the Welsh Assembly, and the Scottish National Party has 64 of 129 seats in the Scottish Parliament. Northern Ireland has always been dominated by regional parties, including Sinn Fein (the political arm of the IRA) and the Democratic Unionist Party, led by Protestant clergymen. Together they captured 12 parliamentary seats in 2015. Two parties on the far right benefitted from the growing criticism of the Labour government before the 2010 election: the British National Party, and the UK Independence Party. The British National Party formed in 1982, but has never been represented in Parliament. His- torically the BNP has been overtly anti-Semitic, but in recent years it has focused on ousting Muslims from Britain. During the 2010 General Election, the BNP received 1.9% of the vote and failed to win any seats. All three mainstream political parties in the UK openly condemn the BNP. The UK Independence Party has focused more British Parliamentary Elections. Regional differences are apparent in the chart above. Especially on its opposition to British membership in the European Union. In notable is the jump in support for the Scottish Nationalist Party in the UK House of Commons election the 2009 European elections, the BNP won two seats in the European in 2015. The SNP almost certainly benefited from the strong movement for Scottish independence in 2013-2014. Parliament, representing the first time that the party ever won in a national poll. The UKIP, which had previously held twelve seats in prime minister could call them earlier. Officially, elections occur after the European Parliament, picked up an extra seat, giving it a total of the Crown dissolves Parliament, but that always happens because the 13 (finally settling to 11 due to defections), which tied the number of prime minister requests it. The power to call elections has always seats that the Labour Party won. In the 2010 UK general election, the been very important, because the prime minister – as head of the ma- party polled 3.1% of the vote (up 0.9%). Despite being the fourth larg- jority party – always calls them when (s)he thinks that the majority est party in terms of vote share, UKIP failed to win any seats. In 2015, party has the best chance of winning. the party only won one seat in Parliament, but it picked up 12.6% of the vote, reflecting its growing popularity. The Fixed-term Parliaments Act of 2011 altered these traditions by Elections introducing fixed-term elections to Parliament. Under the provisions of the Act, parliamentary elections must be held every five years, be- The only national officials that British voters select are members of Par- ginning in 2015. Fixed-term Parliaments, where general elections or- liament. The prime minister is not elected as prime minister but as an dinarily take place in accordance with a schedule set far in advance, MP from a single electoral district, averaging about 65,000 registered were part of the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition agreement voters. Elections must be held every five years, but traditionally, the that was produced after the 2010 general election. The act limits the 130 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 131 prime minister’s power to call elections, except in the case of a vote of no confidence. An early election might also be called if 2/3 of the MPs vote to do so. The Plurality Electoral System As in the United States, British parliamentary elections are “winner- take-all,” with no runoff elections. Within this single-member plu- rality system, each party selects a candidate to run for each district post, although minor parties don’t always run candidates in all dis- tricts. The person that wins the most votes gets the position, even if (s)he does not receive the majority of votes in the district. The British nickname for this system is “first-past-the-post” (like a race horse). Since MPs do not have to live in the districts that they represent, each party decides who runs in each district. So party leaders run from safe districts where the party almost always wins. Political neophytes are selected to run in districts that a party knows it will lose. They are usually happy to just make a good showing by receiving more votes than the party usually gets. The “winner-take-all” system often exaggerates the size of the vic- tory of the largest party and reduces the influence of minor parties. This system is the main reason that the Liberal Democrats have not been able to get a good representation in Parliament. Regional parties The Effects of First-past-the-post Voting. Even though the Conservative Party won only 36.9% of the vote, it still won a majority of the seats in the House of Commons. The Liberal Democratic Party won tend to fare better. For example, the Scottish National Party gener- 7.9% of the popular vote, but only won 8 seats, whereas the Scottish Nationalist Party won only 4.7% of ally has a good chance of picking up districts in Scotland, as it did the popular vote but won 56 seats. The SNP vote was concentrated in the districts in Scotland, so they won a disproportionate number of seats, especially as compared to the Liberal Democratic Party, whose in 2015. However, Parliament still remains a two-party show, even supporters were more spread out across the country. though many other parties may get a sizeable number of votes. For example, in the election of 2005, the Labour party received 35.3% of ballot in order of preference. If after a first round no candidate had the vote (not a majority), but they received 356 out of 646 seats (i.e., more than 50% of the votes, cast, the votes of the least popular can- a majority). Likewise, in 2015, UKIP won 12.6% of the vote but only didate would be redistributed, following the second preferences indi- won one seat in Parliament. cated by supporters of that eliminated candidate. Rounds of redistri- bution continue until someone crosses the 50% line. Along with the In 2010, Liberal Democrats garnered 23% of the popular vote, but Liberal Democrats, the Labour leader Ed Miliband supported the AV, only won 57 of 650 seats in the House of Commons. This situation but Conservatives and many Labour MPs opposed it. The referendum inspired Nick Clegg, the Liberal Democrat leader and deputy prime went down to decisive defeat, so national elections in Britain continue minister, to call for a referendum in May 2011, on an alternate vote to follow the first-past-the-post model. (AV), which would have allowed voters to rank candidates on the 132 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 133 The election of 2015 reflected a strong surge in the popularity of the Scottish Nationalist Party, which captured 56 seats in the House of Commons. The feat eclipsed the Liberal Democratic Party’s 8 seats, so that the SNP gained a larger presence in Parliament, especially as articulated by Nicola Sturgeon, the party’s leader. Elections for Regional Governments Some signs of change in the electoral system have emerged in very recent years. For example, in the Good Friday Agreement of April 1998, Britain agreed to give Northern Ireland a regional government in which all parties would be represented on a proportional basis. In other words, the religion-based parties would each have a percentage of representatives that matched the percentage of the total vote each received. According to later agreements with Scotland and Wales, their regional parliaments also are based on proportional representation. As a result, both bodies have often not had a clear majority party. However, the largest party in the Welsh Assembly after the election of 2011 was Labour, with 30 of 60 members. In the Welsh Assembly, the Plaid Cymru won 11 seats, and the Conservatives won 14. After the Scottish election of 2011, the Scottish National Party had 68 of 129 total members, with Labour at 37 and Conservatives at 15. Other changes have occurred on the local level, with the mayor of London now elected directly for the first time ever. European Parliament Elections *Note: The Comparative AP Exam does not require knowledge of U.S. government, but this chart is intended to help students understand British elections. Britain participates in the elections to the European Parliament, which is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union. Campaign Financing The elections are held every five years by people of the EU’s member- states. In 2014, 73 members were elected from Britain using propor- British campaigns for public office are much shorter and less expensive tional representation, with 19 seats going to the Conservatives, 24 to than those in the United States. However, in 2006 both major political the UK Independence Party, and 20 to Labour. Most notable was the parties were under police investigation for campaign financing. The drop in support for Conservative Party candidates, with the UK Inde- two areas of investigation were the use of peerages (seats in the House pendence Party actually garnering more votes than any other party. of Lords) and the disclosure of non-commercial loans. In the first, The Scottish Nationalists won 2 seats, and the Liberal Democrats se- parties were investigated for breaking a parliamentary act of 1925 that cured only 1 seat. prohibited the offering of peerages in return for money. Secondly, par- ties were suspected of breaking a 2000 law, which requires parties to 134 ADVANCED DEMOCRACIES BRITAIN 135 disclose the benefits they derive from personal loans. In question were in 1990, interest groups have regained power, but the government has secret loans from wealthy well-wishers. The investigation increased partnered not only with unions, but with businesses as well. the pressure on Tony Blair to step down as Labour leader. The Role of the Media Interest Groups Not surprisingly, British newspapers reflect social class divisions. Like most other advanced democracies, Britain has well-established They are sharply divided between quality news and comment that ap- interest groups that demonstrate interest group pluralism (pp. 71-72) peals to the middle and upper classes, and mass circulation tabloids with relatively autonomous groups competing with one another for that carry sensational news. Radio and television came to life during influence in policymaking. British politics are also characterized by the collective consensus era, so originally they were monopolized by neocorporatism, in which interest groups take the lead and sometimes the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). The BBC sought to dominate the state. Perhaps the greatest influence of British interest educate citizens, and it was usually respectful of government officials. groups comes through quangos (qu