COMM-THEORY-MIDTERM-REVIEWER.pdf

COMM 101 | COMMUNICATION such as teaching, business, law, broadcasting, sales, and counseling, in which talking and listening are central. THEORY...

COMM 101 | COMMUNICATION such as teaching, business, law, broadcasting, sales, and counseling, in which talking and listening are central. THEORY In other fields, the importance of communication is less UNIT 1 obvious, but nonetheless present. Success in most professions requires communication skills. INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION MODELS AND COMMUNICATION AS A FIELD OF STUDY Cultural Impact Communication skills are also important for the health of our society. Good communication skills are the essence LESSON 1 | DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION of social life. Particularly, as our culture becomes COMMUNICATION is a systematic process in which increasingly pluralistic, we must all learn to interact with individuals interact with and through symbols to create people who differ from us to learn from them in the and interpret meanings. process. A. Process - first important idea in this definition is that communication is a process, which means it LESSON 3 | BREADTH OF THE COMMUNICATION FIELD is ongoing and always in motion. B. Systemic - which means it involves a group of 1. Intrapersonal Communication interrelated parts that affect one another. The It is communication with ourselves or self-talk. physical environment, time of the day, and Intrapersonal communication involves thinking since it is history of the system are also some of the factors a cognitive process that goes on inside us. Yet, because that affect the communication system. the process relies on language, it is also a kind of communication. Intrapersonal communication involves C. Symbols - these are abstract, arbitrary, and dialogues we have with ourselves - those conversations ambiguous representations of other things. that continuously go on in our heads. Symbols include all of the language and many 2. Interpersonal Communication non-verbal behaviors, as well as art and music. Anything that abstractly signifies something else It deals with communication between people. There is a can be a symbol. growing consensus that interpersonal communication is D. Meaning - it is the heart of communication. We not a single thing, but rather exists in a continuum from talk with others to clarify our own thoughts, highly impersonal to highly interpersonal (Wood, 1995b). decide how to interpret non-verbal behaviors, The more personally we interact with one another as a distinct individual, the more interpersonal the and put labels on feelings and hopes to give them communication is. reality. In all of these ways, we actively construct meaning by working with symbols. 3. Group and Team Communication This communication involves a wide range of topics, such as leadership, member roles, group structures, task LESSON 2 | VALUES OF COMMUNICATION agenda, and conflict. It is group interaction that results in decision-making, problem-solving, and discussion within Personal Impact an organization. According to George Herbert Mead (1934) we gain 4. Public Communication personal identity through communicating with others. Mead theorized that we first see ourselves through the It is also referred as formal speaking. Scholars of public eyes of others, so their messages are extremely important communication focus on the related subjects of critical in forming the foundation of self-concept. evaluation of speeches and principles of speaking effectively. Relationship Impact 5. Media and New Technologies of Communication Communication also critically affects our relationships. We build connections with others by revealing our private For some time, communication scholars have studies identities, remembering shared history, planning a future, mediated communication such as film, radio, and and working out problems and tensions. television. From substantial research, we understand a great deal about how different media work and how they Professional Impact represent and reproduce cultural values. To the extent, media shape our understanding of ourselves and society. Communication skills affect professional success. The The key is that you are reaching a large amount of people importance of communication is obvious in professions without it being face to face. Feedback is generally provides model problems and solutions for a community delayed with mass communication. of researchers”. It can be viewed in this definition that a paradigm can be a comprehensive understanding in the 6. Organizational Communication form of a framework that gives fundamental assumptions It refers to the understanding of identity and codes of about a certain object or phenomenon, the universe, the thought and action that are shared by members of an individual, and society. organization. It can also be viewed that a paradigm determines 7. Intercultural Communication what a person has to include in his observation and questions in his research, identifies problems or areas of It refers to communication between people from different investigation, and describes a scientific interpretation of cultures, including distinct cultures within a single the result. country. Scholars of intercultural communication increase awareness of different groups’ communication b. Models goals, styles, and meanings. Models are similarly symbolic representations of a system that deals with certain investigations, assumptions, and predictions of future outcomes. UNIT 2 Models assess changes in key system variables. THE ROLE OF THEORY IN THE PROCESS OF c. Concepts INQUIRY Concepts are briefly stated clear ideas on what something is, how it works, what it produces or causes to happen, and what should be the case. It is believed that LESSON 4 | DEFINITION OF THEORY AND PROCESS OF one of the primary goals of a theory is to create and INQUIRY IN COMMUNICATION articulate a set of concepts. Therefore, each theory has essential concepts which differ from other theories. To Theory comes from the Greek word “Theoria” which come up with a particular concept for a theory, the means to speculate or contemplate. proponent needs to look into the different variables According to Infante 2003 “a group of related propositions related to human interaction and classify and label them designed to explain why events take place in a certain according to perceived patterns. Best theories do not just way”. define and present certain set concepts but instead show how concepts arc connected or how the variables relate Proposition- a statement assertion that expresses a to one another. Presenting how one concept is related to judgment or opinion offer, suggestions, ideas, opinion, or causes others in a theory is important. something offered for consideration or acceptance or proposal. d. Variables Stephen Littlejohn defined theory as “unified”, or Variables can be defined as any characteristics, coherent body of propositions that provide a features, and aspects of a theory that can vary or change. philosophically consistent picture of a subject. This only Variables can also be considered as something that has a means that theory offers an account of what something relation, effect, or factor in changing the conclusions or is, how it works, what it produces or causes to happen, findings of a study. and what should be the case. Phenomena- something that exists, can be seen, felt, LESSON 5 | PROCESS OF INQUIRY IN taste etc. It is a fact occurrence or circumstance COMMUNICATION observed or observable. A Basic Model of Inquiry A theory can focus the minds of people in a certain pattern, variables, and concepts. Therefore, a theory can Inquiry is the systematic study of experience that leads to also be an abstraction. A theory is also developed by any understanding, knowledge, and theory. person who is an authority in a certain field which means it is not ordained by any person. In addition, a proponent The process of systematic inquiry involves three of a theory can decides what he wants to study, what will stages: be the focus, and the concepts of his study. 1. Asking Questions a. Paradigm Gerald Miller and Henry Nicholson stated that inquiry is Thomas Kuhn defined a paradigm as a "universally “nothing more... than the process of asking interesting, recognized scientific achievement that, for a time, significant questions...and providing disciplined, systematic answers to them.”  Types of Questions researcher to make links between the abstract and the concrete; the theoretical and the a. Questions of definition seek to clarify what is empirical; thought statements and observed or inferred: What is it? What will we call observational statements, etc. it? Theory is a generalized statement that asserts a b. Questions of fact ask about properties and connection between two or more types of relationships in what is observed: What does it phenomena—any generalized explanatory consist of? How does it relate to other things? principle. Theory is a system of interconnected c. Questions of value probe aesthetic, abstractions or ideas that condenses and pragmatic, and ethical qualities of the observed: organizes knowledge about the world. Is it beautiful? Is it effective? Is it good? Theory explains and predicts the relationship 2. Observation between variables. It deals with answering questions by observing the Some Characteristics of Theory phenomenon under investigation. Theory guides research and organizes its ideas. 3. Constructing Answers The analogy of bricks lying around haphazardly in the brickyard: ‘facts’ of different shapes and This stage deals with defining, describing, and sizes have no meaning unless they are drawn explaining—making judgments and interpretations about together in a theoretical or conceptual what was observed. framework. Theory becomes stronger as more supporting This stage is usually referred to as theory. evidence is gathered; and it provides a context for predictions. Theory has the capacity to generate new LESSON 6 | THE HEART OF COMMUNICATION research. RESEARCH Theory is empirically relevant and always Symbolic Activities tentative. Symbols are the basis of language, thinking, and much of Theories vs. hypotheses our non-verbal behavior. Hypotheses usually predict the relationship between two Symbols are arbitrary conventions that allow us to agree or more variables. Hypotheses are more specific than on what things mean. Symbols allow us to name theories. Multiple hypotheses may relate to one theory. experiences, which is a primary way we give meaning to The theories that you use in your research operate at our lives. different levels: Because we humans are symbol users, we are not Micro-level theory seeks to explain behavior at confined to the concrete world of the here and now. the level of the individual or family environment Symbols make it possible to call up memories and to (e.g. psychology, frustration, aggression dream of the future. hypothesis, etc.). Finally, symbols allow us to share ideas and feelings with Meso-level theory seeks to explain the others. Because symbols provide names for things, we interactions of micro-level organizations (e.g., can share things with others that they have not directly social institutions, communities, etc.). experienced. Macro-level theory seeks to explain behavior at Meaning the level of large groups of people (e.g. ethnicity, class, gender, etc.). Meaning is significance that is conferred on experiences and phenomena. The human world is one of the The dynamic relationship between theory and meanings. We don’t simply exist, eat, drink, sleep, and go research through the motions. Instead, we imbue every aspect of our lives with significance or meaning. Theory and research are interrelated in the following ways: Some Definitions of Theory Theory frames what we look at, how we think and Theory is a model or framework for observation look at it. and understanding, which shapes both what we see and how we see it. Theory allows the It provides basic concepts and directs us to the important questions.  It suggests ways for us to make sense of research Research problems must fit within a larger, logically consistent conceptual framework which incorporates research done to date. Variables useful in the explanation and prediction of phenomena become the ‘significant’ facts. To work towards objectivity, empirical testing and replication by others is essential. Research findings must be situated within the theoretical framework in order to identify further research which can continue the process of theory confirmation. The Role of Theory in Research LESSON 7 | CAREERS IN COMMUNICATION Studying communication is a good preparation for a wide array of careers. As we’ve seen, most professions require an understanding of communication and good communication skills. In addition, there are a number of data. careers for people whose primary backgrounds and interests are in communication. Theory enables us to connect a single study to the immense base of knowledge to which other researchers contribute. It helps a researcher see the forest instead of just a single tree. Research Communication research is a vital and growing field of Theory increases a researcher’s awareness of work. A great deal of study is conducted by academics interconnections and of the broader significance and good communication skills. of data. Public Relations and Advertising Theories are, by their nature, abstract and provide a selective and one-sided account of the Communication specialists are also in demand for many-sided concrete social world. careers in advertising and corporate public relations. Professionals who understand how communication Theory allows the researcher to make links works can use their knowledge to help companies between the abstract and the concrete, the develop effective strategies for media advertising. theoretical and the empirical, thought statements and observational statements, etc. Education There is a two-way relationship between theory Teaching others about communication is another existing and research. Social theory informs our career path for individuals with extensive backgrounds in understanding of issues, which, in turn, assists the field. us in making research decisions and making sense of the world. Consulting Theory is not fixed; it is provisional, open to Consulting is another field that increasingly welcomes revision, and grows into more accurate and individuals with a background in communication. comprehensive explanations about the make-up Business wants to train employees in effective group and operation of the social world. communication skills, interview techniques, and interpersonal interactions. Theory makes the most significant progress by interacting with research findings (empirical data). In adopting a Human Relations and Management theory-based approach to research, the researcher must Because communication is the foundation of human adopt the following assumptions: relations, it’s no surprise that many communication specialists build careers in human development or turns to the question of how the parts interact and work human relations departments of corporations. together. Individuals with a solid understanding of Mary Lund (1985) wanted to explain what caused communications and good personal communication skills are effective in careers such as personnel, commitment between romantic partners. Previous research had focused on love as the basis of enduring grievance management, customer relations, and relationships, and love was viewed as the result of development and fundraising. receiving rewards in a relationship. Thus, the common belief was that we love and stay with people who reward us with positive experiences, support, and other things we UNIT 3 value. Lund, however, thought that love might not be the real glue of romantic relationships. In a sophisticated HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION THEORY study, Lund discovered that commitment, which she LESSON 8 | DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION defined as the intention to continue in a relationship, was THEORY AND BASIC GOALS OF THEORY a better predictor of whether a relationship lasts than love. Lund also found that commitment is heightened by COMMUNICATION THEORY AND ITS IMPORTANCE investments in a relationship, whereas simply receiving positive outcomes may not enhance commitment. To Karen Foss stated in her book entitled Theories of Human explain why relationships, endure or fail to endure, Lund Communication in 2011 that the term Communication said that personal choices to invest time, energy, material Theory can refer to a single theory, or it can be used to resources, and feelings heighten commitment, and designate the collective wisdom found in the entire body commitment, in turn, predicts relational continuity. of theories related to communication. Although love often accompanies commitment, it is not Communication theories are directly pertinent to real life the basic glue of lasting intimacy. for they describe and explain what happens when people Lund’s theory offers a convincing explanation of why interact and how it affects one another. some relationships endure and others wither. In addition, Communication theories enlarge our understanding of Lund’s work provides a good example of the practical experiences in our personal lives and patterns in the value of theory. larger social world. These theories help every individual to We can use her theory to analyze our own relationships: learn which to study and improve in communication skills and those of others. What have you invested? Communication theories offer us valuable tools for What has your partner invested in? understanding our lives, our relationships with others, Have the two of you invested equally? and the ways in which communication shapes or reflects 3. Understanding, Prediction, and Control cultural values. A third objective of theories is to allow us to understand Communication Theories are deemed important to learn and/or predict and control what will happen. for many fields that require an understanding of human interaction and behavior. Prediction involves projecting what will happen to a phenomenon under specified conditions or when Theories pursue one or more of four basic goals: exposed to a particular stimulus. description, explanation, prediction or understanding, and reform. Control is the use of explanations and predictions to govern what a phenomenon actually does. BASIC GOALS OF THEORY For some theorists, prediction and control are primary 1. Description: What Is It? objectives. Scholars who adopt this position believe that The foundation of a theory is description, which is a a good theory is one that allows us to forecast what will process of using symbols to represent phenomena. happen under certain conditions and/or if certain other Before we can figure out how something works, we must actions are taken. first describe what it is. Thus, the first task in building a Prediction is related to control since we can control theory is to identify features of some phenomenon and outcomes if we can predict what causes them. describe any variations in them. 4. Reform 2. Explanation A fourth goal of some theorizing is reform or active pursuit The second objective of theory is explanation, which is an of positive social change. At the outset of discussing this effort to clarify how and why something works. After goal, we need to recognize that not all theorists and not describing what makes up communication, a theorist all theories are interested in reform. Many theorists see description, explanation, prediction, and control as the rules may not surface in communication between proper goals of theorizing. These scholars believe members of work teams. theorists have no responsibility and possibly no right to try B. TESTABILITY: Is It Testable? to change social behavior. Emphasis on reform is a relatively new trend in theoretical A second important criterion for evaluating theories is scholarship. Traditionally, description, explanation, and testability, which asks whether the claims advanced by a prediction were the focus of theory. theory can be investigated to determine whether they are accurate or not. If a theoretical claim or prediction is faulty, we should have a way to detect this. We should also be able to verify theoretical predictions that are LESSON 9 | STANDARDS FOR EVALUATING THEORIES correct. If we can't test a theory, we can rely only on faith, Five Criteria for Evaluating Theories guesswork, or personal experience to evaluate its accuracy. A. SCOPE: How Much Does the Theory Describe and Explain C. PARSIMONY: Is it appropriately simple? Scope refers to the range of phenomena a theory When it comes to theory, complexity is not necessarily describes and explains. Theories vary in their scope with desirable. The term parsimony refers to appropriate some focusing on very narrow realms of communication simplicity. Among these, it is widely believed that the best and others advancing grand perspectives on all human theory is the simplest one that is capable of describing, communication. explaining, understanding, and perhaps predicting future events on instigating change. This doesn't mean that A good theory is one that provides a good description and theories should be simplistic or omit important ideas. explanation of events, processes, or behaviors. What it does mean, however, is that a theory should be as Although descriptions and explanations don't offer simple as possible without sacrificing completeness. completely objective representations of phenomena, we Thus, if we have several theories that provide equally can still assess the value of the representation of useful explanations, the most parsimonious one is the communication a theory offers. To do so, we ask how well best. a theory answers the question (What is it?) and or why question (How does it operate? Why does this happen?). D. UTILITY: Is it Useful? Theorists use two broad types of explanations. One relies Theories are also measured by their utility or practical on universal laws to explain why things happen. Laws- value. How we evaluate the practical utility of a theory based explanations argue that anytime x happens, y will should be based on the goals of that particular theory. A follow, or x and y are always related. This form of theory that seeks to predict and control communication explanation seeks to discover universal laws that explain is measured by how well applying it achieves the desired human communication in a wide range of situations. For results. A theory that seeks to understand the subject of example, one communication theory claims that five aspects of communication, however, is not uncertainty (not knowing what is happening in a appropriately measured by whether it allows prediction relationship) fosters increased communication (efforts to and control. Instead, a theory that aims to enhance figure out what is happening). This is a law about understanding is gauged by whether it achieves that. The communication. practical value of critical theories rests on their ability to motivate or actually direct positive social change. Laws-based explanations may be either causal or correlational. A causal law states that causes y or y to E. HEURISM: Does it Generate New Thought or happen because of x. For example, we might say Insights? uncertainty causes communication. A correlational claim, on the other hand, says only that two things go The final criterion for evaluating a theory is heurism, together but does not assert that one causes the other. which refers to the degree to which a theory provokes new ideas, insights, thinking, and research. A theory is judged A second form of explanation identifies rules that explain to be heuristic if it sparks new thinking. why people in particular circumstances communicate as they do and why certain consequences follow. Rules- LESSON 10 | GENRES OF COMMUNICATION THEORY based explanations do not claim to offer any universal AND TRADITIONS IN THE FIELD OF COMMUNICATION laws about human communication. Instead, they aim to articulate the patterns that describe and explain what The genres of communication theories are: happens in a specific type of communication situation or (1) Philosophical Assumptions, or basic beliefs that relationship. Thus, rules have a more restricted scope underlie the theory; than laws. For example, there are rules (or regularities) (2) Concepts, or building blocks; that friends follow in their communication, but these  (3) Explanations, or dynamic connections made by experience with it. This tradition concentrates on the the theory; and conscious experience of the person. (4) Principles, or guidelines for action. Phenomenology is the way in which human beings come Philosophical Assumptions refer to theorists determine to understand the world through direct experience—the how a particular theory will work. Philosophical perception of a phenomenon, whether an object, event, assumptions often are divided into three major types: or condition. assumptions about epistemology, or questions of We come to know something by consciously examining it knowledge; assumptions about ontology, or questions of and testing our feelings and perceptions about it. existence; and assumptions about axiology, or questions of value. 3. Cybernetic Tradition Concepts are also essential in any theory. A theory must A cybernetic perspective is necessary to understand the show how one concept is related to or causes others. depth and complexity of certain dynamics. An explanation identifies a “logical force” among Cybernetics is the tradition of complex systems in which variables that connect them in some way. There are many interacting elements influence one another. types of explanations, but two of the most common are causal and practical. In causal explanation, events are Theories in the cybernetic tradition explain how physical, connected as causal relationships, with one variable biological, social, and behavioral processes work. Within seen as an outcome or result of the other. Practical cybernetics, communication is understood as a system explanation, on the other hand, explains actions as goal- of parts, or variables, that influence one another, shape related, with the action designed to achieve a future state. and control the character of the overall system, and, like In causal explanation, the consequent event is any organism, achieve both balance and change. determined by some antecedent event. In practical Systems are sets of interacting components that together explanation, outcomes are made to happen by actions form something more than the sum of the parts. that are chosen. 4. Socio-Psychological Tradition A principle is a guideline that enables you to interpret an The study of the individual as a social being is the thrust event, make judgments about what is happening, and of the socio-psychological tradition. Originating in the then decide how to act in the situation. field of social psychology, this tradition has been a A principle has three parts: powerful tradition within communication. (1) It identifies a situation or event; The theories of this tradition focus on individual social (2) it includes a set of norms or values; and behavior, psychological variables, individual effects, (3) it asserts a connection between a range of personalities and traits, perception, and cognition. The actions and possible consequences individualistic approach that characterizes the socio- psychological tradition is common in the study of Seven Traditions in the Field of Communication communication as well as in the behavioral and social sciences. The psychological perspective sees persons as 1. Semiotic Tradition entities with characteristics that lead them to behave in Objects are symbols. Whether words, objects, or actions, independent ways. It views the single human mind as the the symbols of a person’s life have meaning because of locus for processing and understanding information and how he relates to other symbols and how he organizes generating messages, and it acknowledges the power that these symbols together into larger patterns that help him individuals can have over other individuals and the effects understand himself as a human being, what is important of information on the human mind. to him, and how to act in his life. Semiotics, or the study of signs, forms an important 5. Socio-Cultural Tradition tradition of thought in communication theory. Socio-cultural approaches to communication theory The semiotic tradition includes a host of theories about address the ways our understandings, meanings, norms, how signs come to represent objects, ideas, states, roles, and rules are worked out interactively in situations, feelings, and conditions outside of communication. themselves. Such theories explore the interactional worlds in which 2. Phenomenological Tradition people live, positing that reality is not an objective set of Theories in the phenomenological tradition assume that arrangements outside us but constructed through a people actively interpret what happens around them and process of interaction in groups, communities, and come to understand the world through personal cultures. This tradition focuses on patterns of interaction between LESSON 11 | BUILDING BLOCKS OF THEORY people rather than on individual characteristics or mental VIEWS OF HUMAN NATURE models. Interaction is the process and site in which meanings, roles, rules, and cultural values are worked One of the continuing controversies in philosophy out. Although individuals do process information concerns ontology, or views of human nature. The crux of cognitively, this tradition is much less interested in the the controversy is whether or not humans have free will individual level of communication. Instead, researchers and, if so, how great the latitude of free will is. in this tradition want to understand ways in which people together create the realities of their social groups, Theorists are divided in terms of whether they assume organizations, and cultures. individuals react to external stimuli or act from free will and, thus, exercise intentional choices. 6. Critical Tradition Determinism. Those who believe that our behavior is Critical scholars investigate how power, oppression, and caused by external stimuli subscribe to a deterministic privilege are the products of certain forms of view of human nature. Determinism assumes that human communication throughout society. behavior is governed by forces beyond individual control, usually the twin forces of biology and environment. Critical tradition seeks to understand the taken-for- Whatever we do is the inevitable result of genetic granted systems, power structures, and beliefs—or inheritance, environmental influences, or a combination ideologies—that dominate society, with a particular eye of the two. to whose interests are served by those power structures. Free Will. At the other end of the ontological spectrum is Second, critical tradition is about uncovering oppressive the belief that humans have free will and that they make social conditions and power arrangements in order to choices about how to act. Theorists who believe in free promote emancipation or a freer and more fulfilling will assume individuals interpret experiences and create society. meanings that then guide what they think, believe, say, Third, it deals with the fuse theory and action. Critical feel, and do. These theorists reject the idea that human theorists frequently ally themselves with the interests of behavior is an unthinking, automatic response to marginalized groups. In the field of communication, conditions and stimuli around us. critical scholars are particularly interested in how Many years before Graham Allan's time, the philosopher messages reinforce oppression in society. Although Martin Heidegger (1927/1962) advanced the idea that critical scholars are interested in social action, they also individual freedom is constrained by what he called focus on discourse and the texts that promote particular "thrownness." ideologies, establish and maintain power, and subvert the interests of certain groups and classes. For Heidegger, thrownness refers to the fact that we are thrown into a multitude of arbitrary conditions that Critical discourse analysis looks at actual features of influence our lives and our opportunities. texts that manifest these oppressive arrangements, without separating communication from other factors in For example, a Caucasian woman born in the United the overall system of oppressive forces. States in 1812 would not have been allowed to pursue professional training, own property, or vote. 7. Rhetorical Tradition WAYS OF KNOWING The word rhetoric often has a pejorative meaning today—empty or ornamental words in contrast to action. If a tree falls and nobody hears it, does it make a sound? The study of rhetoric is really where the communication discipline began because rhetoric, broadly defined, is Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies human symbol use. knowledge, or how people know what they claim to know. Originally concerned with persuasion, rhetoric was the Epistemologists ask whether knowledge is based on the art of constructing arguments and speechmaking. It then existence of phenomena (the falling tree) or on human evolved to include the process of “adjusting ideas to perceptions (hearing it fall). As you might suspect, there people and people to ideas” in messages of all kinds. are different opinions about what counts as knowledge and how we come to know what we think we know. The focus of rhetoric has broadened even more to encompass all of the ways humans use symbols to affect Discovering Truth. Some people, both scholars and those around them and to construct the words in which individuals removed from academia, believe that there is they live. a singular truth. This viewpoint is called objectivism, which is the belief that reality is material and external to the human mind. For objectivists, truth or reality is material, external, position on this issue: science is not value free because independent of feelings and the same for everyone. the researcher’s work is always guided by preferences about what to study and how to conduct inquiry. Creating Meaning. At the other end of the epistemological spectrum are people, again both Scientists’ choices, then, are affected by personal as well scholars and non-academic individuals, who do not as institutional values. believe in an objective truth. The final building block of theory that we will consider is Instead, they assume that there are multiple views of the focus, or content that theories address. reality, no one of which is intrinsically truer than any other. This explains the label behaviorism, which refers to a They believe that what we call reality is a subjective form of science that focuses on observable behaviors and interpretation, rather than an objective truth. that assumes meanings, motives, and other subjective Because individuals have different experiences, values, phenomena either don't exist or are irrelevant. perceptions, and life situations, their realities and their Behaviorists believe that scientists can study only meanings vary widely. concrete behaviors such as what people do or say. Further, even with great effort, we may not be able to Human motives, meanings, and intentions are beyond the uncover all of the meanings people have since some of realm of behavioristic investigation. them are less than conscious, and others may be ones In fact, behaviorists would consider such explanations they conceal to avoid embarrassment. idle speculation, rather than scientific activity. PURPOSES OF THEORY Theorists who reject behavioral views of science believe Ontology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the that the crux of human activity is meaning, not behaviors nature of being. themselves. Because this group of scholars claims to be interested in what is distinctively human--namely free In the social sciences, ontology deals largely with the will, ability to make choices, and capacity to create nature of human existence; in communication, ontology meanings-they are often called humanists, and the form centers on the nature of human social interaction of science they pursue is called humanism. because the way a theorist conceptualizes interaction depends in large measure on how the communicator is Humanists see external behaviors as the outward signs of viewed. mental and psychological processes. For them, what we perceive, think, and feel directly affects what we do and At least three issues are important. what we assume it means. Thus, the reasons for human The first issue on this is to what extent do humans make behavior lie in what happens inside of us. real choices? A second ontological issue is whether human behavior is best understood in terms of states or traits. This question deals with whether there are fairly stable dimensions—traits—or more temporary conditions affecting people, called states. The last one is, to what extent is communication contextual? Whether behavior is governed by universal principles or whether it depends on situational factors. FOCUS OF THEORIZING Axiology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of values. What values guide research, and what are the implications of those values for the outcome of the research process? Can a theory be value free? Theories Whoever may read this, good luck to your midterm and research are believed to be value free, scholarship is exam!! neutral, and scholars attempt to uncover the facts as they are. According to this view, when a researcher’s values intrude, the result is bad science. But there is another