COMM 101 Communication Theory PDF

COMM 101 \| **COMMUNICATION THEORY** **UNIT 1** **INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION MODELS AND COMMUNICATION AS A FIELD OF STUDY** **LESSON 1 \| DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION** **COMMUNICATION** is a **systematic process** in which individuals interact with and through **symbols** to create and interp...

COMM 101 \| **COMMUNICATION THEORY** **UNIT 1** **INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION MODELS AND COMMUNICATION AS A FIELD OF STUDY** **LESSON 1 \| DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION** **COMMUNICATION** is a **systematic process** in which individuals interact with and through **symbols** to create and interpret **meanings**. A. **Process** - first important idea in this definition is that communication is a process, which means it is ongoing and always in motion. B. **Systemic** - which means it involves a group of interrelated parts that affect one another. The physical environment, time of the day, and history of the system are also some of the factors that affect the communication system. C. **Symbols** - these are abstract, arbitrary, and ambiguous representations of other things. Symbols include all of the language and many non-verbal behaviors, as well as art and music. Anything that abstractly signifies something else can be a symbol. D. **Meaning** - it is the heart of communication. We talk with others to clarify our own thoughts, decide how to interpret non-verbal behaviors, and put labels on feelings and hopes to give them reality. In all of these ways, we actively construct meaning by working with symbols. **LESSON 2 \| VALUES OF COMMUNICATION** **Personal Impact** According to George Herbert Mead (1934) we gain personal identity through communicating with others. Mead theorized that we first see ourselves through the eyes of others, so their messages are extremely important in forming the foundation of self-concept. **Relationship Impact** Communication also critically affects our relationships. We build connections with others by revealing our private identities, remembering shared history, planning a future, and working out problems and tensions. **Professional Impact** Communication skills affect professional success. The importance of communication is obvious in professions such as teaching, business, law, broadcasting, sales, and counseling, in which talking and listening are central. In other fields, the importance of communication is less obvious, but nonetheless present. Success in most professions requires communication skills. **Cultural Impact** Communication skills are also important for the health of our society. Good communication skills are the essence of social life. Particularly, as our culture becomes increasingly pluralistic, we must all learn to interact with people who differ from us to learn from them in the process. **LESSON 3 \| BREADTH OF THE COMMUNICATION FIELD** **1. Intrapersonal Communication** It is communication with ourselves or self-talk. Intrapersonal communication involves thinking since it is a cognitive process that goes on inside us. Yet, because the process relies on language, it is also a kind of communication. Intrapersonal communication involves dialogues we have with ourselves - those conversations that continuously go on in our heads. **2. Interpersonal Communication** It deals with communication between people. There is a growing consensus that interpersonal communication is not a single thing, but rather exists in a continuum from highly impersonal to highly interpersonal (Wood, 1995b). The more personally we interact with one another as a distinct individual, the more interpersonal the communication is. **3. Group and Team Communication** This communication involves a wide range of topics, such as leadership, member roles, group structures, task agenda, and conflict. It is group interaction that results in decision-making, problem-solving, and discussion within an organization. **4. Public Communication** It is also referred as formal speaking. Scholars of public communication focus on the related subjects of critical evaluation of speeches and principles of speaking effectively. **5. Media and New Technologies of Communication** For some time, communication scholars have studies mediated communication such as film, radio, and television. From substantial research, we understand a great deal about how different media work and how they represent and reproduce cultural values. To the extent, media shape our understanding of ourselves and society. The key is that you are reaching a large amount of people without it being face to face. Feedback is generally delayed with mass communication. **6. Organizational Communication** It refers to the understanding of identity and codes of thought and action that are shared by members of an organization. **7. Intercultural Communication** It refers to communication between people from different cultures, including distinct cultures within a single country. Scholars of intercultural communication increase awareness of different groups' communication goals, styles, and meanings. **References:** Bowers, J. W., & Bradac, J.J., (1992) \"Issues in Communication Theory: A Metatheoretical Analysis," in Communication Yearbooks, ed. Michael Burgeon New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. Griffin, E. A. (2006). A First Look at Communication Theory. Boston: McGraw-Hill Heidegger, M., (2008) Ontology: The Hermeneutics of Facticity, Indiana University Press. Infante, D., Rancer, A., & Womack, D. (2003). Building communication theory (4th ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, pg. 356. Littlejohn, S. W., & Kaen A. F., (2009) eds., Encyclopedia of Communication Theory, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Littlejohn, S. W., & Foss, K.A., (2008) Theories Of Human Communication, Tenth Edition, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, Waveland Press Inc. Long Grove, Illinois. Lund, M. (1985) The Development of Investment and Commitment Scales for Predicting Continuity of Personal Relationships, https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407585021001 Ratcliffe, J. W. (1983). Notions of Validity in Qualitative Research Methodology. Science Communication, 5(2), 147-167 **UNIT 2** **THE ROLE OF THEORY IN THE PROCESS OF INQUIRY** **LESSON 4 \| DEFINITION OF THEORY AND PROCESS OF INQUIRY IN COMMUNICATION** **Theory** comes from the Greek word "theoria" which means to speculate or contemplate. According to Infante 2003 "a group of related propositions designed to explain why events take place in a certain way". **Proposition**- a statement assertion that expresses a judgment or opinion offer, suggestions, ideas, opinion, something offered for consideration or acceptance or proposal. **Stephen Littlejohn** defined **theory** as "unified", or coherent body of propositions that provide a philosophically consistent picture of a subject. This only means that theory offers an account of what something is, how it works, what it produces or causes to happen, and what should be the case. **Phenomena**- something that exists, can be seen, felt, taste etc. It is a fact occurrence or circumstance observed or observable. A theory can focus the minds of people in a certain pattern, variables, and concepts. Therefore, a theory can also be an abstraction. A theory is also developed by any person who is an authority in a certain field which means it is not ordained by any person. In addition, a proponent of a theory can decide what he wants to study, what will be the focus, and the concepts of his study. **a. Paradigm** Thomas Kuhn defined a paradigm as a \"universally recognized scientific achievement that, for a time, provides model problems and solutions for a community of researchers". It can be viewed in this definition that a paradigm can be a comprehensive understanding in the form of a framework that gives fundamental assumptions about a certain object or phenomenon, the universe, the individual, and society. It can also be viewed that a paradigm determines what a person has to include in his observation and questions in his research, identifies problems or areas of investigation, and describes a scientific interpretation of the result. **b. Models** Models are similarly symbolic representations of a system that deals with certain investigations, assumptions, and predictions of future outcomes. Models assess changes in key system variables. **c. Concepts** Concepts are briefly stated clear ideas on what something is, how it works, what it produces or causes to happen, and what should be the case. It is believed that one of the primary goals of a theory is to create and articulate a set of concepts. Therefore, each theory has essential concepts which differ from other theories. To come up with a particular concept for a theory, the proponent needs to look into the different variables related to human interaction and classify and label them according to perceived patterns. Best theories do not just define and present certain set concepts but instead show how concepts arc connected or how the variables relate to one another. Presenting how one concept is related to or causes others in a theory is important. **d. Variables** Variables can be defined as any characteristics, features, and aspects of a theory that can vary or change. Variables can also be considered as something that has a relation, effect, or factor in changing the conclusions or findings of a study. **LESSON 5 \| PROCESS OF INQUIRY IN COMMUNICATION** **A Basic Model of Inquiry** **Inquiry** is the systematic study of experience that leads to understanding, knowledge, and theory. **The process of systematic inquiry involves three stages:** **1. Asking Questions** Gerald Miller and Henry Nicholson stated that inquiry is "nothing more\... than the process of asking interesting, significant questions\...and providing disciplined, systematic answers to them." **Types of Questions** **2. Observation** It deals with answering questions by observing the phenomenon under investigation. **3. Constructing Answers** This stage deals with defining, describing, and explaining---making judgments and interpretations about what was observed. This stage is usually referred to as ***theory.*** **LESSON 6 \| THE HEART OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH** **Symbolic Activities** Symbols are the basis of language, thinking, and much of our non-verbal behavior. Symbols are arbitrary conventions that allow us to agree on what things mean. Symbols allow us to name experiences, which is a primary way we give meaning to our lives. Because we humans are symbol users, we are not confined to the concrete world of the here and now. Symbols make it possible to call up memories and to dream of the future. Finally, symbols allow us to share ideas and feelings with others. Because symbols provide names for things, we can share things with others that they have not directly experienced. **Meaning** **Meaning** is significance that is conferred on experiences and phenomena. The human world is one of the meanings. We don't simply exist, eat, drink, sleep, and go through the motions. Instead, we imbue every aspect of our lives with significance or meaning. **Some Definitions of Theory** - Theory is a model or framework for observation and understanding, which shapes both what we see and how we see it. Theory allows the researcher to make links between the abstract and the concrete; the theoretical and the empirical; thought statements and observational statements, etc. - Theory is a generalized statement that asserts a connection between two or more types of phenomena---any generalized explanatory principle. - Theory is a system of interconnected abstractions or ideas that condenses and organizes knowledge about the world. - Theory explains and predicts the relationship between variables. **Some Characteristics of Theory** - Theory guides research and organizes its ideas. The analogy of bricks lying around haphazardly in the brickyard: 'facts' of different shapes and sizes have no meaning unless they are drawn together in a theoretical or conceptual framework. - Theory becomes stronger as more supporting evidence is gathered; and it provides a context for predictions. - Theory has the capacity to generate new research. - Theory is empirically relevant and always tentative. **Theories vs. hypotheses** Hypotheses usually predict the relationship between two or more variables. Hypotheses are more specific than theories. Multiple hypotheses may relate to one theory. The theories that you use in your research operate at different levels: - **Micro-level theory** seeks to explain behavior at the level of the individual or family environment (e.g. psychology, frustration, aggression hypothesis, etc.). - **Meso-level theory** seeks to explain the interactions of micro-level organizations (e.g., social institutions, communities, etc.). - **Macro-level theory** seeks to explain behavior at the level of large groups of people (e.g. ethnicity, class, gender, etc.). **The dynamic relationship between theory and research** [Theory and research are interrelated in the following ways:] - Theory frames what we look at, how we think and look at it. - It provides basic concepts and directs us to the important questions. - It suggests ways for us to make sense of research data. - Theory enables us to connect a single study to the immense base of knowledge to which other researchers contribute. - It helps a researcher see the forest instead of just a single tree. - Theory increases a researcher's awareness of interconnections and of the broader significance of data. - Theories are, by their nature, abstract and provide a selective and one-sided account of the many-sided concrete social world. - Theory allows the researcher to make links between the abstract and the concrete, the theoretical and the empirical, thought statements and observational statements, etc. - There is a two-way relationship between theory and research. Social theory informs our understanding of issues, which, in turn, assists us in making research decisions and making sense of the world. - Theory is not fixed; it is provisional, open to revision, and grows into more accurate and comprehensive explanations about the make-up and operation of the social world. Theory makes the most significant progress by interacting with research findings (empirical data). In adopting a theory-based approach to research, the researcher must adopt the following assumptions: - Research problems must fit within a larger, logically consistent conceptual framework which incorporates research done to date. - Variables useful in the explanation and prediction of phenomena become the 'significant' facts. - To work towards objectivity, empirical testing and replication by others is essential. - Research findings must be situated within the theoretical framework in order to identify further research which can continue the process of theory confirmation. **The Role of Theory in Research** **LESSON 7 \| CAREERS IN COMMUNICATION** Studying communication is a good preparation for a wide array of careers. As we've seen, most professions require an understanding of communication and good communication skills. In addition, there are a number of careers for people whose primary backgrounds and interests are in communication. **Research** Communication research is a vital and growing field of work. A great deal of study is conducted by academics and good communication skills. **Public Relations and Advertising** Communication specialists are also in demand for careers in advertising and corporate public relations. Professionals who understand how communication works can use their knowledge to help companies develop effective strategies for media advertising. **Education** Teaching others about communication is another existing career path for individuals with extensive backgrounds in the field. **Consulting** Consulting is another field that increasingly welcomes individuals with a background in communication. Business wants to train employees in effective group communication skills, interview techniques, and interpersonal interactions. **Human Relations and Management** Because communication is the foundation of human relations, it's no surprise that many communication specialists build careers in human development or human relations departments of corporations. Individuals with a solid understanding of communications and good personal communication skills are effective in careers such as personnel, grievance management, customer relations, and development and fundraising. **References:** *Bowers, J. W., & Bradac, J.J., (1992) \"Issues in Communication Theory: A Metatheoretical Analysis," in Communication Yearbooks, ed. Michael Burgeon New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.* *Griffin, E. A. (2006). A First Look at Communication Theory. Boston: McGraw-Hill* *Heidegger, M., (2008) Ontology: The Hermeneutics of Facticity, Indiana University Press.* *Infante, D., Rancer, A., & Womack, D. (2003). Building communication theory (4th ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, pg. 356.* *Littlejohn, S. W., & Kaen A. F., (2009) eds., Encyclopedia of Communication Theory, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.* *Littlejohn, S. W., & Foss, K.A., (2008) Theories Of Human Communication, Tenth Edition, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, Waveland Press Inc. Long Grove, Illinois.* *Lund, M. (1985) The Development of Investment and Commitment Scales for Predicting Continuity of Personal Relationships, https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407585021001* *Ratcliffe, J. W. (1983). Notions of Validity in Qualitative Research Methodology. Science Communication, 5(2), 147-167* Neuman, WL 1997. Social Research methods. Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Boston, London, Toronto: Allyn & Bacon *The role of theory in research. (2016). SlideShare; Slideshare. https://www.slideshare.net/Jaseme\_Otoyo/the-role-of-theory-in-research\#21* **UNIT 3** **HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION THEORY** **LESSON 8 \| DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION THEORY AND BASIC GOALS OF THEORY** **COMMUNICATION THEORY AND ITS IMPORTANCE** Karen Foss stated in her book entitled Theories of Human Communication in 2011 that the term **Communication Theory** can refer to a single theory, or it can be used to designate the collective wisdom found in the entire body of theories related to communication. Communication theories are directly pertinent to real life for they describe and explain what happens when people interact and how it affects one another. Communication theories enlarge our understanding of experiences in our personal lives and patterns in the larger social world. These theories help every individual to learn which to study and improve in communication skills and those of others. Communication theories offer us valuable tools for understanding our lives, our relationships with others, and the ways in which communication shapes or reflects cultural values. Communication Theories are deemed important to learn for many fields that require an understanding of human interaction and behavior. Theories pursue one or more of four basic goals: description, explanation, prediction or understanding, and reform. **BASIC GOALS OF THEORY** **1. Description: What Is It?** The foundation of a theory is description, which is a process of using symbols to represent phenomena. Before we can figure out how something works, we must first describe what it is. Thus, the first task in building a theory is to identify features of some phenomenon and describe any variations in them. **2. Explanation** The second objective of theory is explanation, which is an effort to clarify how and why something works. After describing what makes up communication, a theorist turns to the question of how the parts interact and work together. *Mary Lund (1985) wanted to explain what caused commitment between romantic partners. Previous research had focused on love as the basis of enduring relationships, and love was viewed as the result of receiving rewards in a relationship. Thus, the common belief was that we love and stay with people who reward us with positive experiences, support, and other things we value. Lund, however, thought that love might not be the real glue of romantic relationships. In a sophisticated study, Lund discovered that commitment, which she defined as the intention to continue in a relationship, was a better predictor of whether a relationship lasts than love. Lund also found that commitment is heightened by investments in a relationship, whereas simply receiving positive outcomes may not enhance commitment. To explain why relationships endure or fail to endure, Lund said that personal choices to invest time, energy, material resources, and feelings heighten commitment, and commitment, in turn, predicts relational continuity. Although love often accompanies commitment, it is not the basic glue of lasting intimacy.* Lund's theory offers a convincing explanation of why some relationships endure and others wither. In addition, Lund's work provides a good example of the practical value of theory. We can use her theory to analyze our own relationships: - What have you invested? - What has your partner invested in? - Have the two of you invested equally? **3. Understanding, Prediction, and Control** A third objective of theories is to allow us to understand and/or predict and control what will happen. Prediction involves projecting what will happen to a phenomenon under specified conditions or when exposed to a particular stimulus. Control is the use of explanations and predictions to govern what a phenomenon actually does. For some theorists, prediction and control are primary objectives. Scholars who adopt this position believe that a good theory is one that allows us to forecast what will happen under certain conditions and/or if certain other actions are taken. Prediction is related to control since we can control outcomes if we can predict what causes them. **4. Reform** A fourth goal of some theorizing is reform or active pursuit of positive social change. At the outset of discussing this goal, we need to recognize that not all theorists and not all theories are interested in reform. Many theorists see description, explanation, prediction, and control as the proper goals of theorizing. These scholars believe theorists have no responsibility and possibly no right to try to change social behavior. Emphasis on reform is a relatively new trend in theoretical scholarship. Traditionally, description, explanation, and prediction were the focus of theory. **LESSON 9 \| STANDARDS FOR EVALUATING THEORIES** **Five Criteria for Evaluating Theories** A. **SCOPE**: **How Much Does the Theory Describe and Explain** Scope refers to the range of phenomena a theory describes and explains. Theories vary in their scope with some focusing on very narrow realms of communication and others advancing grand perspectives on all human communication. A good theory is one that provides a good description and explanation of events, processes, or behaviors. Although descriptions and explanations don\'t offer completely objective representations of phenomena, we can still assess the value of the representation of communication a theory offers. To do so, we ask how well a theory answers the question (What is it?) and or why question (How does it operate? Why does this happen?). Theorists use two broad types of explanations. One relies on **universal laws** to explain why things happen. **Laws-based explanations** argue that anytime x happens, y will follow, or x and y are always related. This form of explanation seeks to discover universal laws that explain human communication in a wide range of situations. For example, one communication theory claims that uncertainty (not knowing what is happening in a relationship) fosters increased communication (efforts to figure out what is happening). This is a law about communication. Laws-based explanations may be either **causal** or **correlational**. A causal law states that causes y or y to happen because of x. For example, we might say uncertainty causes communication. A correlational claim, on the other hand, says only that two things go together but does not assert that one causes the other. A second form of explanation identifies rules that explain why people in particular circumstances communicate as they do and why certain consequences follow. **Rules-based explanations** do not claim to offer any universal laws about human communication. Instead, they aim to articulate the patterns that describe and explain what happens in a specific type of communication situation or relationship. Thus, rules have a more restricted scope than laws. For example, there are rules (or regularities) that friends follow in their communication, but these rules may not surface in communication between members of work teams. B. **TESTABILITY: Is It Testable?** A second important criterion for evaluating theories is testability, which asks whether the claims advanced by a theory can be investigated to determine whether they are accurate or not. If a theoretical claim or prediction is faulty, we should have a way to detect this. We should also be able to verify theoretical predictions that are correct. If we can\'t test a theory, we can rely only on faith, guesswork, or personal experience to evaluate its accuracy. C. **PARSIMONY: Is it appropriately simple?** When it comes to theory, complexity is not necessarily desirable. The term parsimony refers to appropriate simplicity. Among these, it is widely believed that the best theory is the simplest one that is capable of describing, explaining, understanding, and perhaps predicting future events on instigating change. This doesn\'t mean that theories should be simplistic or omit important ideas. What it does mean, however, is that a theory should be as simple as possible without sacrificing completeness. Thus, if we have several theories that provide equally useful explanations, the most parsimonious one is the best. D. **UTILITY: Is it Useful?** Theories are also measured by their utility or practical value. How we evaluate the practical utility of a theory should be based on the goals of that particular theory. A theory that seeks to predict and control communication is measured by how well applying it achieves the desired results. A theory that seeks to understand the subject of five aspects of communication, however, is not appropriately measured by whether it allows prediction and control. Instead, a theory that aims to enhance understanding is gauged by whether it achieves that. The practical value of critical theories rests on their ability to motivate or actually direct positive social change. E. **HEURISM: Does it Generate New Thought or Insights?** The final criterion for evaluating a theory is heurism, which refers to the degree to which a theory provokes new ideas, insights, thinking, and research. A theory is judged to be heuristic if it sparks new thinking. **LESSON 10 \| GENRES OF COMMUNICATION THEORY AND TRADITIONS IN THE FIELD OF COMMUNICATION** The genres of communication theories are: 1. Philosophical Assumptions, or basic beliefs that underlie the theory; 2. Concepts, or building blocks; 3. Explanations, or dynamic connections made by the theory; and 4. Principles, or guidelines for action. **Philosophical Assumptions** refer to theorists determine how a particular theory will work. Philosophical assumptions often are divided into three major types: assumptions about epistemology, or questions of knowledge; assumptions about ontology, or questions of existence; and assumptions about axiology, or questions of value. **Concepts** are also essential in any theory. A theory must show how one concept is related to or causes others. An **explanation** identifies a "logical force" among variables that connect them in some way. There are many types of explanations, but two of the most common are causal and practical. In causal explanation, events are connected as causal relationships, with one variable seen as an outcome or result of the other. Practical explanation, on the other hand, explains actions as goal-related, with the action designed to achieve a future state. In causal explanation, the consequent event is determined by some antecedent event. In practical explanation, outcomes are made to happen by actions that are chosen. A **principle** is a guideline that enables you to interpret an event, make judgments about what is happening, and then decide how to act in the situation. A principle has three parts: 1. It identifies a situation or event; 2. it includes a set of norms or values; and 3. it asserts a connection between a range of actions and possible consequences **Seven Traditions in the Field of Communication** **1. Semiotic Tradition** Objects are symbols. Whether words, objects, or actions, the symbols of a person's life have meaning because of how he relates to other symbols and how he organizes these symbols together into larger patterns that help him understand himself as a human being, what is important to him, and how to act in his life. Semiotics, or the study of signs, forms an important tradition of thought in communication theory. The semiotic tradition includes a host of theories about how signs come to represent objects, ideas, states, situations, feelings, and conditions outside of themselves. **2. Phenomenological Tradition** Theories in the phenomenological tradition assume that people actively interpret what happens around them and come to understand the world through personal experience with it. This tradition concentrates on the conscious experience of the person. Phenomenology is the way in which human beings come to understand the world through direct experience---the perception of a phenomenon, whether an object, event, or condition. We come to know something by consciously examining it and testing our feelings and perceptions about it. **3. Cybernetic Tradition** A cybernetic perspective is necessary to understand the depth and complexity of certain dynamics. Cybernetics is the tradition of complex systems in which interacting elements influence one another. Theories in the cybernetic tradition explain how physical, biological, social, and behavioral processes work. Within cybernetics, communication is understood as a system of parts, or variables, that influence one another, shape and control the character of the overall system, and, like any organism, achieve both balance and change. Systems are sets of interacting components that together form something more than the sum of the parts. **4. Socio-Psychological Tradition** The study of the individual as a social being is the thrust of the socio-psychological tradition. Originating in the field of social psychology, this tradition has been a powerful tradition within communication. The theories of this tradition focus on individual social behavior, psychological variables, individual effects, personalities and traits, perception, and cognition. The individualistic approach that characterizes the socio-psychological tradition is common in the study of communication as well as in the behavioral and social sciences. The psychological perspective sees persons as entities with characteristics that lead them to behave in independent ways. It views the single human mind as the locus for processing and understanding information and generating messages, and it acknowledges the power that individuals can have over other individuals and the effects of information on the human mind. **5. Socio-Cultural Tradition** Socio-cultural approaches to communication theory address the ways our understandings, meanings, norms, roles, and rules are worked out interactively in communication. Such theories explore the interactional worlds in which people live, positing that reality is not an objective set of arrangements outside us but constructed through a process of interaction in groups, communities, and cultures. This tradition focuses on patterns of interaction between people rather than on individual characteristics or mental models. Interaction is the process and site in which meanings, roles, rules, and cultural values are worked out. Although individuals do process information cognitively, this tradition is much less interested in the individual level of communication. Instead, researchers in this tradition want to understand ways in which people together create the realities of their social groups, organizations, and cultures. **6. Critical Tradition** Critical scholars investigate how power, oppression, and privilege are the products of certain forms of communication throughout society. Critical tradition seeks to understand the taken-for-granted systems, power structures, and beliefs---or ideologies---that dominate society, with a particular eye to whose interests are served by those power structures. Second, critical tradition is about uncovering oppressive social conditions and power arrangements in order to promote emancipation or a freer and more fulfilling society. Third, it deals with the fuse theory and action. Critical theorists frequently ally themselves with the interests of marginalized groups. In the field of communication, critical scholars are particularly interested in how messages reinforce oppression in society. Although critical scholars are interested in social action, they also focus on discourse and the texts that promote particular ideologies, establish and maintain power, and subvert the interests of certain groups and classes. Critical discourse analysis looks at actual features of texts that manifest these oppressive arrangements, without separating communication from other factors in the overall system of oppressive forces. **7. Rhetorical Tradition** The word rhetoric often has a pejorative meaning today---empty or ornamental words in contrast to action. The study of rhetoric is really where the communication discipline began because rhetoric, broadly defined, is human symbol use. Originally concerned with persuasion, rhetoric was the art of constructing arguments and speechmaking. It then evolved to include the process of "adjusting ideas to people and people to ideas" in messages of all kinds. The focus of rhetoric has broadened even more to encompass all of the ways humans use symbols to affect those around them and to construct the words in which they live. **LESSON 11 \| BUILDING BLOCKS OF THEORY** **VIEWS OF HUMAN NATURE** One of the continuing controversies in philosophy concerns **ontology**, or views of human nature. The crux of the controversy is whether or not humans have free will and, if so, how great the latitude of free will is. Theorists are divided in terms of whether they assume individuals react to external stimuli or act from free will and, thus, exercise intentional choices. **Determinism.** Those who believe that our behavior is caused by external stimuli subscribe to a deterministic view of human nature. Determinism assumes that human behavior is governed by forces beyond individual control, usually the twin forces of biology and environment. Whatever we do is the inevitable result of genetic inheritance, environmental influences, or a combination of the two. **Free Will**. At the other end of the ontological spectrum is the belief that humans have free will and that they make choices about how to act. Theorists who believe in free will assume individuals interpret experiences and create meanings that then guide what they think, believe, say, feel, and do. These theorists reject the idea that human behavior is an unthinking, automatic response to conditions and stimuli around us. Many years before Graham Allan\'s time, the philosopher Martin Heidegger (1927/1962) advanced the idea that individual freedom is constrained by what he called **\"thrownness.\"** For Heidegger, thrownness refers to the fact that we are thrown into a multitude of arbitrary conditions that influence our lives and our opportunities. For example, a Caucasian woman born in the United States in 1812 would not have been allowed to pursue professional training, own property, or vote. **WAYS OF KNOWING** *If a tree falls and nobody hears it, does it make a sound?* **Epistemology** is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge, or how people know what they claim to know. Epistemologists ask whether knowledge is based on the existence of phenomena (the falling tree) or on human perceptions (hearing it fall). As you might suspect, there are different opinions about what counts as knowledge and how we come to know what we think we know. **Discovering Truth**. Some people, both scholars and individuals removed from academia, believe that there is a singular truth. This viewpoint is called **objectivism**, which is the belief that reality is material and external to the human mind. For objectivists, truth or reality is material, external, independent of feelings and the same for everyone. **Creating Meaning.** At the other end of the epistemological spectrum are people, again both scholars and non-academic individuals, who do not believe in an objective truth. Instead, they assume that there are multiple views of reality, no one of which is intrinsically truer than any other. They believe that what we call reality is a subjective interpretation, rather than an objective truth. Because individuals have different experiences, values, perceptions, and life situations, their realities and their meanings vary widely. Further, even with great effort, we may not be able to uncover all of the meanings people have since some of them are less than conscious, and others may be ones they conceal to avoid embarrassment. **PURPOSES OF THEORY** **Ontology** is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of being. In the **social sciences**, ontology deals largely with the nature of human existence; in **communication,** ontology centers on the nature of human social interaction because the way a theorist conceptualizes interaction depends in large measure on how the communicator is viewed. At least three issues are important. The **first issue** on this is to what extent do humans make real choices? A **second ontological issue** is whether human behaviour is best understood in terms of states or traits. This question deals with whether there are fairly stable dimensions---traits---or more temporary conditions affecting people, called **states**. The **last one** is, to what extent is communication contextual? Whether behaviour is governed by universal principles or whether it depends on situational factors. **FOCUS OF THEORIZING** **Axiology** is the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of values. What values guide research, and what are the implications of those values for the outcome of the research process? Can a theory be value free? Theories and research are believed to be value free, scholarship is neutral, and scholars attempt to uncover the facts as they are. According to this view, when a researcher's values intrude, the result is bad science. But there is another position on this issue: science is not value free because the researcher's work is always guided by preferences about what to study and how to conduct inquiry. Scientists' choices, then, are affected by personal as well as institutional values. The final building block of theory that we will consider is the focus, or content that theories address. This explains the label **behaviorism**, which refers to a form of science that focuses on observable behaviors and that assumes meanings, motives, and other subjective phenomena either don\'t exist or are irrelevant. Behaviorists believe that scientists can study only concrete behaviors such as what people do or say. Human motives, meanings, and intentions are beyond the realm of behavioristic investigation. In fact, behaviorists would consider such explanations idle speculation, rather than scientific activity. Theorists who reject behavioral views of science believe that the crux of human activity is meaning, not behaviors themselves. Because this group of scholars claims to be interested in what is distinctively human\--namely free will, ability to make choices, and capacity to create meanings-they are often called humanists, and the form of science they pursue is called **humanism**. Humanists see external behaviors as the outward signs of mental and psychological processes. For them, what we perceive, think, and feel directly affects what we do and what we assume it means. Thus, the reasons for human behavior lie in what happens inside of us. **References:** Bowers, J. 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