CogPsy Finals Reviewer PDF

HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FINALS REVIEWER | FIRST SEMESTER Note: The reviewers created by the HAU - Basis for family resemblance may shift from Psychology Society ensure consistency and quality...

HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FINALS REVIEWER | FIRST SEMESTER Note: The reviewers created by the HAU - Basis for family resemblance may shift from Psychology Society ensure consistency and quality one subset of the category to another. during your review process. Be reminded that the - Example: A student is asked to think of content of the reviewers is based ONLY ON THE different types of dogs—Labradors, Poodles, GIVEN MODULES by the subject’s instructor. and Bulldogs. Each dog shares some Thank you and Goodluck on your Exam! features (like having four legs and fur), but not all dogs share the exact same Laus Deo Semper! appearance (e.g., Poodles have curly fur, Lesson 1: Knowledge while Bulldogs have wrinkled skin). o Despite these differences, the dogs CONCEPTS AND GENERIC KNOWLEDGE resemble each other enough in Concepts various ways to be grouped into the same category. The idea of family - Building blocks out of which all knowledge resemblance allows flexibility in is created categorizing members, as the basis - You need concepts in order to have for resemblance can shift knowledge, you need knowledge in order to depending on the subset of dogs. function PROTOTYPES AND TYPICALITY EFFECTS Prototype Theory - The BEST way to identify a category is to specify the “CENTER” of the category, rather than the boundaries. - Category → Prototype → Item - Example: “A dog is a creature that has fur and four legs and barks.” - “Dogs usually are creatures that have fur, four legs, and bark, and a creature without these features is unlikely to be a dog.” Family Resemblance - The idea that members of a category (e.g., - Example: A student is asked to think of a all dogs, all games) resemble one another. "bird." The student immediately imagines a - Relies on some number of features being robin, which is their prototype for the bird shared by any group of category members, category. The robin is considered the even though these features may not be shared "center" of the bird category, and the by all members of the category. student uses it to identify whether other animals, such as penguins or ostriches, This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FINALS REVIEWER | FIRST SEMESTER belong in the bird category based on their - Some members of the categories are resemblance to the robin. “BETTER” than others, and the better members are recognized more readily - Example: A student is asked whether a new dog Graded Membership they’ve encountered is friendly. Instead of - Membership in a category depends on thinking about dogs in general, the student recalls resemblance to the prototype, and a specific friendly dog they know, such as their resemblance is a matter of degree. neighbor’s Golden Retriever, and uses this specific example (exemplar) to reason that this - Membership in the category is a matter of new dog may also be friendly. “MORE” or “LESS.” o This reasoning is based on a specific - Example: When thinking about the category category member rather than a broad "furniture," a chair may be seen as a prototype of all dogs. better example of furniture compared to a bean bag. Both are in the furniture category, but the chair more closely resembles the prototype of furniture, leading to a graded membership where the chair is “more” Combi: Exemplars and Prototypes representative of the category than the - Prototypes provide an economical bean bag. representation of what’s typical for a category, and there are many circumstances in which this quick summary is useful. Basic-Level Categories - Exemplars, for their part, provide - A level of categorization hypothesized as the information that’s lost from the prototype — “natural” and most informative level, including information about the neither too specific nor too general. variability within the category. - People tend to use basic level terms (such as - Example: A student uses the prototype of a “chair,” rather than the more general dog (e.g., a Labrador) to quickly identify “furniture” or the more specific “armchair”) most dogs they see. However, when they in their ordinary conversation and in their encounter an unusual dog breed, like a reasoning. Basenji, they recall specific exemplars they've seen before, allowing them to recognize the variability within the dog Exemplar-Based Reasoning category while still relying on the prototype for quicker identification. - Reasoning that draws on knowledge about SPECIFIC category members, or EXEMPLARS, rather than drawing on CONCEPTS AS THEORIES more general information about the overall category. For deeper understanding of concepts. we need a more HOLISTIC approach, one in which we put This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FINALS REVIEWER | FIRST SEMESTER more emphasis on the INTERRELATIONSHIPS THE KNOWLEDGE NETWORK among concepts. Concepts are, are all shaped by a web of beliefs and background knowledge. But what does this “web of beliefs” involve? Explanatory Theories - Theory o guiding your decisions about which Traveling through the network to retrieve features matter in judging knowledge resemblance and which ones do not. - Information in long-term memory is o thinking about new possibilities for a represented by means of a network, with category. associative links connecting nodes to one o affect how quickly you learn new another. concepts. - Example: A student uses their theory that birds can fly to judge that a sparrow is a bird. Sentence Verification Task (Collins and Quillian, However, when they encounter a penguin, 1969) they adjust their theory to allow for exceptions, realizing that not all birds fly, - Distance: primary factor for speed of and this new understanding helps them retrieval learn about other flightless birds more - Example: “Does cats have a heart?” quickly. - Example: A student is quicker to verify that “A robin is a bird” compared to “A penguin is a bird,” because the mental Inferences Based Theories distance between “robin” and “bird” is - Categorization Enables Knowledge shorter than between “penguin” and “bird” in Application the student’s knowledge network. - Inferences are Guided by Typicality - Beliefs and Mechanisms Influence Inferences - Example: Xyreene knows that cats tend to climb and scratch. When they see a new type of pet in their friend’s house, they infer that it might also be inclined to climb and scratch if it has cat-like features, basing their inference on the resemblance to typical cats. Propositional Networks This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FINALS REVIEWER | FIRST SEMESTER - Smallest units of knowledge that can be - The same nodes will also participate in other either true or false patterns, so those nodes will also be part of - Example: P1: "It's raining." other distributed representations. o P2: "I will take an umbrella." - The dissemination of information across o P3: "I will wear a raincoat." multiple brain regions, allowing for the o P4: "I will stay dry." Each of these extraction of information by considering the propositions connects logically, and signals across these regions together. the student forms a knowledge - Example: When a person thinks of a "dog," network, understanding that if P1 is this concept is not stored in a single part of true, P2 and P3 will likely follow, leading to the conclusion P4. the brain. Instead, it is represented by a pattern of activity across many nodes related to the animal’s appearance, DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING behavior, and other characteristics. Some of these same nodes might also help the brain recognize other animals like "cat" or "wolf," Connectionist Networks as those animals share similar features like four legs or fur, showing overlapping patterns - Proposed systems of knowledge in the brain’s network. representation that rely on distributed representations, and that therefore require parallel distributed processing to operate Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) on the elements of a representation. - Example: Imagine a student's brain - A system of handling information in which recognizing the word "dog." In a many steps happen at once (i.e., in parallel) connectionist network, different features of and in which various aspects of the problem the word (the letters "d," "o," "g") activate or task are represented only in a distributed various nodes in the brain, which work way. together to form the representation of the - Example: When a student reads a sentence, word. The same nodes that recognize "d" their brain processes multiple aspects at will also participate in recognizing other once, such as identifying words, words like "dot" or "dig," demonstrating understanding grammar, and interpreting how knowledge is distributed across the meaning. This processing happens in network. parallel, with different parts of the brain simultaneously working on recognizing words, visual input, and contextual meaning. Distributed Representations - The brain uses distributed representations - The content is represented via a pattern of across various nodes to handle all these simultaneous activity across many nodes tasks at the same time. within a network. This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FINALS REVIEWER | FIRST SEMESTER Lesson 2: Judgement and Reasoning Availability Heuristic Judgement - Availability as a substitute for frequency - The person needs to judge the frequency of - The process through which people draw a certain type of object or the likelihood of conclusions from the evidence they a certain type of event. encounter, often evidence provided by life - For this purpose, the person is likely to experiences. assess the ease with which examples of the object or event come to mind. - A type of cognitive bias that helps us make EXPERIENCE fast, but sometimes incorrect, assessments. WHY DO PEOPLE SOMETIMES DRAW It involves relying on information that ACCURATE CONCLUSIONS FROM THEIR comes to mind quickly or is most available EXPERIENCE, AND SOMETIMES NOT? to us. - Example: A person is deciding whether to take a flight or drive for a trip. They recently ATTRIBUTE SUBSTITUTION saw news stories about airplane crashes, so flying seems dangerous to them. Because - A commonly used strategy in which a person examples of plane crashes are more readily needs one type of information but relies available in their mind, they overestimate the instead on a more accessible form of likelihood of a crash happening, even though information. flying is statistically safer than driving. - HEURISTICS - A strategy that is reasonably efficient and works most of the time. In using a heuristic, one is choosing to accept some Representativeness Heuristic risk of error in order to gain efficiency. - Resemblance as a substitute for probability - A strategy that is often used in making judgments about categories. This strategy Frequency Estimate is broadly equivalent to making the - An assessment of how often various events assumption that, in general, the instances of a have the past category will resemble the prototype for - Example: A student is preparing for an exam that category and, likewise, that the prototype and is trying to assess how often certain types resembles each instance of questions appeared in past exams. The - Example: Thinking that because someone is student remembers that questions about a wearing a suit and tie and carrying a specific theory (e.g., Piaget’s cognitive briefcase, that they must be a lawyer, because development theory) appeared frequently in they look like the stereotype of a lawyer. the last two tests and concludes that these The availability heuristic makes assumptions based questions will likely appear in the upcoming on recent information or events because it makes a exam as well. fresh or lasting impression on the mind. Representative heuristic makes assumptions based This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FINALS REVIEWER | FIRST SEMESTER on superficial similarities or patterns in events, than the fast, automatic decisions of Type 1 whether recent or dated. thinking. DUAL-PROCESS MODELS CONFIRMATION AND DISCONFIRMATION Any model of thinking that claims people have two distinct means of making judgments—one of Belief Perseverance which is fast, efficient, but prone to error, and one that is slower, more effortful, but also more - A tendency to continue endorsing some accurate. assertion or claim, even when the clearly available evidence completely undermines that claim. Type 1 Thinking - Example: A student strongly believes that studying late at night is the best way to retain - A commonly used name for judgment and information, even though multiple studies reasoning strategies that are fast and show that sleep deprivation harms effortless, but prone to error. memory retention. Despite this evidence, - Example: A student is rushing to finish their the student continues to hold onto the belief homework and comes across a multiple- that staying up late helps them do better on choice question asking, "Who wrote Romeo exams. and Juliet?" Without much thought, they quickly select "Shakespeare" because the name immediately comes to mind. LOGIC - This quick, instinctive decision is fast and effortless, but in more complex situations, such thinking could lead to errors. Categorical Syllogisms - A logical argument containing two premises and a conclusion, and concerned with the Type 2 Thinking properties of, and relations between, categories. - A commonly used name for judgment and reasoning strategies that are slower and require more effort than Type 1 thinking. - Example: While deciding which university program to choose, a student takes their time to compare different schools, assess the curriculum, consider future career options, and weigh personal interests. - Example: Premise 1: All psychology - This involves deliberate and careful students are required to take research reasoning, requiring more effort and time methods. This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FINALS REVIEWER | FIRST SEMESTER o Premise 2: Ana is a psychology DECISION MAKING student. o Conclusion: Therefore, Ana is required to take research methods. Cost and Benefits - UTILITY MAXIMATION - The proposal that people make decisions by selecting the Belief Bias option that has the greatest utility. - A tendency, within logical reasoning, to - Example: A college student is deciding endorse a conclusion if the conclusion between two internship offers. One internship happens to be something one believes is offers a higher salary, but the other provides true anyhow. better career growth opportunities. After - In displaying this tendency, people seem to considering both options, the student ignore both the premises of the logical chooses the internship with better career argument and logic itself, and they rely prospects, because they believe it offers the instead on their broader pattern of beliefs greatest long-term benefit (utility), even about what is true and what is not. though the salary is lower in the short - Example: Premise 1: All animals with fur term. are mammals. o Premise 2: Rabbits are mammals. Framing of Outcomes o Conclusion: Therefore, rabbits have fur. - FRAMING - In the context of decision o The person might immediately making, a term referring to how the options accept this conclusion because they for a decision (or, in some cases, the already believe that rabbits have decision itself) are described. fur, even though the premises are - Often, the framing determines whether the logically flawed (since not all decision is cast in terms of gains or positive mammals have fur, such as dolphins). attributes (e.g., what you might gain from Their acceptance comes from their this or that option), or whether the decision belief bias, not from evaluating the is cast in terms of losses or negative premises logically. attributes. - Example: A professor gives two options for grading: o Option 1: You have a 70% chance of passing the course. o Option 2: You have a 30% chance of failing the course. o Both options reflect the same probability, but students are more likely to choose Option 1 because it is framed in a positive light (pass), while Option 2 is framed negatively This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY FINALS REVIEWER | FIRST SEMESTER (fail). The way the outcome is framed Term influences their decision-making. - Definitions - Other notes - Examples (if any) Reminders (For Apprentices): Font style: Times New Roman Font size: 12 Spacing: 1.15 Alignment: Justify - Follow the template in making the assigned reviewer to you. Just change the subject name. - You can copy-and-paste the information provided by your instructor’s PowerPoints or Modules. - You can bold the important/key words need to be remembered in the definition part, including the terms. Underline the words or phrases that you think can be part of an enumeration item. - You can add additional notes as long as what you add is relevant to the term or definition. Irrelevant information must be prohibited to avoid confusion. - Avoid using other font colors. - At the end of every lesson, insert the heading “Lesson 2: Insert Topic Title” the text inside the green box to emphasize the beginning and end of each lesson. - Use hyphen for definitions, other notes, and examples. Bullet points may be used for enumeration items if you’re uncomfortable in using underline. Term - You can insert diagrams or illustrations. - Definitions - DO NOT SEND THE REVIEWERS YET TO YOUR BLOCKMATES. Practice confidentiality and wait for the go - Other notes signal coming from the HAU Psychology Society. - Examples (if any) - Delete this textbox once you have read all the instructions. -Submit in PDF Format. Term - Filename Format: Ex. INTROPSY_MIDTERMS - Definitions Happy making in reviewers! Don’t pressure yourself and just - Other notes enjoy the process! - Examples (if any) Love, Scholastic Director