COGPSY230 Midterm Reviewer Unit 5 & 6 PDF

COGPSY230 KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION UNIT 5: MENTAL REPRESENTATION  The form for what you know in your mind about things, ideas, events, and so on, in the outside...

COGPSY230 KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION UNIT 5: MENTAL REPRESENTATION  The form for what you know in your mind about things, ideas, events, and so on, in the outside world. Table of contents: Mental Representation  Knowledge Representation  Refers to the way in which information,  Mental Representation of Knowledge knowledge, and experiences are stored  Communicating Knowledge and organized in the mind.  Picture in your mind: Mental Imagery  Dual-code Theory: Analog and Knowledge Representation Symbolic codes  Refers to the way knowledge is  Mental Manipulations of images structured, organized, and stored in the  Spatial Cognition and Cognitive Maps mind. It involves how information about the world-such as facts, concepts, rules, and procedures. MENTAL REPRESENTATION OF KNOWLEDGE  Two kinds of knowledge structures: 1. Declarative knowledge  “knowing that”  Refers to the facts that can be stated, such as the date of your birth, the name of your best friend, or the way a rabbit looks. 2. Procedural knowledge  “knowing how”  Refers to knowledge of procedures that can be implemented. Examples are the steps involved in tying  How are you able to imagine and your shoelaces, adding a describe them? column of numbers, or You must have stored in your mind some form driving a car. of mental representation, something that stands for these people-of what you know about them. COMMUNICATING KNOWLEDGE  Knowledge can be represented in different ways in your mind: it can be stored as a mental picture or in words.  Cognitive Psychologists chiefly are interested in our internal, mental  representation of what we know. Two Key Characteristics of Symbolic However, before we turn to our internal Representation: representations, let’s look at external Abstract representation.  The symbol doesn’t physically Internal Representation resemble what it represents  These are mental representations  Example: D O G that exist in the mind. They are Arbitrary internal constructs that allow individuals to think about and  Refers to something that is based on manipulate information without personal choice, random decision, or an relying on the external world. agreement. External Representation  Example: traffic lights (red-stop, yellow-ready, green-go)  These are physical symbols or objects in the environment that represent information and can be PICTURE IN YOUR MIND: MENTAL interacted with directly. IMAGERY Key Difference  Imagery is the mental representation of Aspect Internal External things that are currently seen or sensed Representation Representation by the sense organs. In our minds we often have images for objects, events, Location Inside the mind Outside the and settings. (mental or mind (in the  Mental imagery even can represent cognitive physical representation) environment) things that you have never experienced. Form Abstract Concrete  Mental images even may represent (thoughts, (symbols, things that do not exist at all outside the images, diagrams, text, mind of the person creating the image. concepts, objects)  Imagery may involve mental schemas) representations in any of the sensory manipulation Mentally Physically modalities, such as hearing, smell, or manipulated manipulated or through viewed taste. cognition  Nonetheless, most research on imagery in cognitive psychology has focused on visual imagery, such as representations Symbolic Representation of objects or settings that are not  Refers to the use of symbols-abstract, presently visible to the eye. discrete units of information-to  We use visual images to solve represent objects, concepts, or problems and to answer questions processes. These symbols stand for involving objects. something other than themselves, and they can be manipulated mentally to perform various cognitive tasks, such as reasoning, problem-solving, and communication. DUAL-CODE THEORY: ANALOG AND representation of space-rather than the SYMBOLIC CODE physical environment.  According to dual-code theory, we use both pictorial and verbal codes for SPATIAL COGNITION AND representing information in our minds. COGNITIVE MAP These two codes organize information into knowledge that can be acted on, Spatial cognition stored somehow, and later retrieved for  Refers to the mental processes and subsequent use. abilities involved in acquiring,  According Paivio, mental images are organizing, and utilizing spatial analog codes. Analog codes resemble information. It encompasses a broader the objects they are presenting. range of functions, including  A symbolic code is a form of perception, memory, reasoning, and knowledge representation that has been navigation in both real and imagined chosen arbitrarily to stand for spaces. something that does not perceptually resemble what is being presented. Cognitive map  Is a mental representation of spatial information that helps individuals MENTAL MANIPULATIONS OF visualize and understand the layout of IMAGES their environment. It includes knowledge about locations, distances, and relationships between different Mental Rotations objects or places.  Involves rotationally transforming an  Humans seem to use three types of object’s visual mental image knowledge when forming and using cognitive maps: Mental Scaling 1. Landmark knowledge –  A key cognitive skill that allows people information about particular to manipulate mental images by features at a location and which zooming in and out, facilitating a may be based on both imaginal flexible understanding of both detailed and propositional components and larger contexts within representations. visual-spatial reasoning. 2. Route-road knowledge – involves specific pathways for Image Scanning moving from one location to  Refers to the cognitive process of another. mentally inspecting and moving 3. Survey knowledge- involves through a mental image, much like how estimated distances between you would visually scan an actual landmarks, much as they might picture or scene. appear on survey maps. Representational Neglect  A condition in which individuals neglect one side of mental images or cognitive maps-their internal, mental UNIT 6: UNIT 7: DECISION MAKING AND 1. Decision makers are fully REASONING informed regarding all possible options for their decisions and of all possible outcomes of their Judgment and decision making decision options. 2. They are infinitely sensitive to  In this chapter, we consider many ways the subtle distinctions among in which we make judgments and decision options. decisions and use reasoning to draw 3. They are fully rational in regard conclusions. The first section deals to their choice of options. with how we make choices and  The assumption of infinite sensitivity judgments. means that people can evaluate the  Judgment and decision making are difference between two outcomes, no used to select from among choices or to matter how subtle the distinctions evaluate opportunities. Afterward, we among options may be. The assumption consider various forms of reasoning. of rationality means that people make The goal of reasoning is to draw their choices to maximize something of conclusions, either deductively from value, whatever that something may be. principles or inductively from evidence. Subjective Expected Utility Theory Classical Decision Theory  An alternative model makes greater allowance for the psychological  The earliest models of how people makeup of each individual decision make decisions are referred to as maker. According to subjective classical decision theory. Most of these expected utility theory, the goal of models were devised by economists, human is to seek pleasure and avoid statisticians, and philosophers, not by pain. According to this theory, in psychologists. Hence, they reflect the making decisions, people will seek to strengths of an economic perspective. maximize pleasure (referred to as One such strength is the ease of positive utility) and to minimize pain developing and using mathematical (referred to as negative utility). models for human behavior.  One is subjective utility, which is a The model of calculation based on the individual’s economic man and woman judged weightings of utility (value), rather than on objective criteria. Subjective expected  The second is subjective probability, utility theory which is a calculation based on the individual’s estimates of likelihood, Heuristics and biases rather than on objective statistical computations. Fallacies Heuristics and Biases The Model of Economic Man and Woman  The world is full of information and  Among the early models of decision stimuli of different kinds. In order to making crafted in the 20th century was function properly and not get that of economic man and woman. This overwhelmed, we need to filter out the model assumed three things: information we need among the many  different pieces of information  In satisficing, we consider options one available to us. The same holds true for by one, and then we select an option as decision making. In order to be able to soon as we find one that is satisfactory make a decision within a reasonable or just good enough to meet our time frame, we need to reduce the minimum level of acceptability. When available information to a manageable there are limited working-memory amount. resources available, the use of  Heuristics help us achieve this goal satisficing for making decisions may be and at the same time decrease our increased. Satisficing is also used in efforts by allowing us to examine fewer industrial contexts in which too much cues or deal with fewer pieces of information can impair the quality of information. decisions, as in the selection of  However, sometimes our thinking also suppliers in electronic marketplace. gets biased by our tendencies to make Elimination by Aspects decisions more simply.  We sometimes use a different strategy Heuristics when faced with far more alternatives  In the following sections, we discuss than we feel that we reasonably can several heuristics people use in their consider in the time we have available. daily decision making. Heuristics are In such situations, we do not try to mental shortcuts that lighten the manipulate mentally all the weighted cognitive load of making decisions. attributes of all the available options. Rather, we use a process of Satisficing Availability elimination by aspects, in which we Heuristic eliminate alternatives by focusing on aspects of each alternative, one at a Elimination by time. If you are trying to decide which Aspects Anchoring college to attend, the process of elimination by aspects might look like Representativeness this: Heuristic Framing  Focus on one aspect (attribute) of the Satisficing various options (the cost of going to college);  As early as the 1950s some researchers  Form a minimum criterion for that aspect were beginning to challenge the notion (tuition must be under 20,000 dollars per of unlimited rationality. Not only did year); these researchers recognize that we  Eliminate all options that do not meet that humans do not always make ideal criterion (e.g., Stanford university is more than 30,000 dollars and would be decisions and that we usually include eliminated); subjective considerations in our  For the remaining options, select a second decisions. But they also suggested that aspect for which we set a minimum we humans are not entirely and criterion by which to eliminate additional boundlessly rational in making options (the college must be on the west decisions. In particular, we humans are coast) and;  Continue using a sequential process of not necessarily irrational. Rather, we elimination of options by considering a show bounded rationality – we are series of aspects until a single option rational, but with limits. remains.  Representativeness Heuristic Anchoring  In representativeness, we judge the  Heuristic related to availability is the probability of an uncertain event anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic, according to: by which people adjust their 1. How obviously it is similar to or evaluations of things by means of representative of the population certain reference points called end- from which it is derived; and anchors. Before you read on, quickly 2. The degree to which it reflects (in less than 5 seconds) calculate in the salient features of the your head the answer to the following process by which it is generated problem; 8 x 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1=? (such as randomness).  Now, quickly calculate your answer to the following problem: 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 For example, suppose people are asked x 6 x 7 x 8=? to judge the probability of flips of a coin  The answer for both equations is yielding the sequence H T H H T H (H, 40,320. heads; T, tails). Most people will judge it as higher than they will if asked to Framing judge the sequence H H H H T H. If  Framing effects have public relevance. you expect a sequence to be random, Messages from politicians, political you tend to view as more likely a parties, and other stakeholders can be sequence that “looks random.” Indeed, framed in different ways and therefore people often comment that the numbers take on a different connotation. in a table of random numbers “don’t  Another consideration in decision look random.” theory is the influence of framing effects, in which the way that the Availability Heuristic options are presented influences the  Most of us at least occasionally use the selection of an option. For instance, we availability heuristic, in which we tend to choose options that demonstrate make judgments on the basis of how risk aversion when we are faced with easily we can call to mind what we an option involving potential gains. perceive as relevant instances of a That is, we tend to choose options phenomenon. offering a small but certain gain rather  QUESTION: Are there more words in than a larger but uncertain gain, unless the English language that begin with the uncertain gain is either the letter R or that have R as their third tremendously greater or only modestly letter? less than certain.  Most respondents say that there are  Suppose that you were told that 600 more words beginning with the letter R. people were at risk of dying of a  Why? Because generating words particular disease. Vaccine A could save the lives of 200 of the people at beginning with the letter R is easier risk. With vaccine B, there is a 0.33 than generating words having R as likelihood that all 600 people would be there third letter. In fact, there are more saved, but there is also a 0.66 English-language words with R as their likelihood that all 600 people will die. third letter. Which option would you choose? Explain how you made your decision.  Suppose that for the 600 people at risk instances that contradict our biased of dying of a particular disease, if expectations. In other words, we vaccine C is used, 400 people will die. perceive a correlation between the However, if vaccine D is used, there is political party and the particular a 0.33 likelihood that no one will die characteristics. and a 0.66 likelihood that all 600 Overconfidence people will die. Which option would you choose?  Another common error is  Compare the number of people whose overconfidence – an individual’s lives will be lost or saved by using overvaluation of her or his own skills, vaccines A and C. knowledge, or judgment.  Compare the number of people whose  For example, when people were 100% lives will be lost or saved by using confident in their answers, they were vaccines B and D. right only 80% of the time. In general, people tend to overestimate the Biases accuracy of their judgments. Why are  In the next section, we discuss several people overconfident? One reason is biases that frequently occur when that people may not realize how little people make decisions: they know. Another is that they may not realize that their information comes Illusory Correlation from unreliable sources.  People sometimes make poor decisions Overconfidence as a result of overconfidence. These decisions are based on inadequate Hindsight Bias information and ineffective decision- making strategies. Why we tend to be overconfident in our judgments is not Illusory Correlation clear. One simple explanation is that we prefer not to think about being  We are predisposed to see particular wrong. events or attributes and categories as going together, even when they do not. Hindsight Bias This phenomenon is called illusory  Finally, a bias that can affect all of us is correlation. In the case of events, we hindsight bias – when we look at a may see spurious cause-effect situation retrospectively, we believe we relationships. In the case of attributes easily can see all the signs and events we may use personal prejudices to form leading up to a particular outcome. and use stereotypes (perhaps as a result  For example, suppose people are asked of using the representativeness to predict the outcomes of heuristic). psychological experiments in advance  For example, suppose we expect people of the experiments. People rarely are of a given political party to show able to predict the outcomes at better- particular intellectual or moral than-chance levels. characteristics. The instances in which  However, when people are told of the people show those characteristics are outcomes of psychological more likely to be available in memory experiments, they frequently comment and recalled more easily than are that these outcomes were obvious and  could easily have been predicted in Conjunction Fallacy advance.  Do you remember the experiment Fallacies described in the section on the availability heuristic where people were  Heuristics and fallacies are often asked if there are more words in the studied together because they go hand English language that begin with the and hand. The application of a heuristic letter R or that have R as their third to make a decision may lead to fallacies letter? in thinking. Therefore, when we discuss some fallacies, we refer back to  The availability heuristic might lead to some of the heuristics in association the conjunction fallacy. In the with which they often occur. conjunction fallacy, an individual gives a higher estimate for a subset of events Gambler’s Fallacy and (English language that begins with R is the Hot Hand easier to retrieve in memory) than for the larger set of events containing the Conjunction Fallacy given subset (e.g., words that have R as their third letter) Sunk-Cost Fallacy  The representativeness heuristic may also induce individuals to engage in the Gambler’s fallacy and the hot hand conjunction fallacy during probabilistic reasoning. Tversky and  A tendency opposite to that of Kahneman asked college students: gambler’s fallacy is called the “hot  Please give your estimate of the hand” effect. It refers to a belief that a following values: certain course of events will continue.  What percentage of the men surveyed  Gambler’s fallacy is a mistaken belief (in a health survey) have had one or that the probability of a given random more heart attacks? event, such as winning or losing at a  What percentage of the men surveyed game of chance, is influenced by both are over 55 years old and have had previous random events. For example, one or more heart attacks? a gambler who loses five successive bets may believe that a win is therefore Sunk-Cost Fallacy more likely the sixth time. He feels that  An error in judgment that is quite he is “due” to win. In truth, of course, common in people’s thinking is the each bet (or coin toss) is an sunk-cost fallacy. This fallacy independent event that has an equal represents the decision to continue to probability of winning or losing. The invest in something simply because one gambler is no more likely to win on the has invested in it before and one hopes 6th bet than on the 1st – or on the 1001st. to recover one’s investment. Gambler’s fallacy is an example of the  For example, supposed you go on a representative heuristic gone awry: one two-week vacation. You are having a believes that the pattern representative miserable time. Should you go home a of past events is now likely to change. week early? You decide not to, thereby attempting to justify the investment you have already made in the vacation. By doing so, you have committed the sunk-cost fallacy. Instead of viewing the money simple as lost on an unfortunate decision, you have decided to throw more money away. But you do so without any hope that the vacation will get any better.